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Organizational PsychologyProf. Dr. Elçin KürşatGönenç DALGIÇYaşar UniversityPhD in Business AdministrationMay 7, 2013 1

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OUTLINE Introduction Topics relevant to occupational stress History Approaches Terminology Occupational Stress Models Workplace Stressors Reducing The Impact of Workplace Stressors Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research Generalizability Stressors Experienced Coping With StressMay 7, 2013 2

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Introduction• Health of employees• Physical• MentalResearches• Media attention• EverydayconversationPopularity• OCCUPATIONALSTRESSScientific StudyMay 7, 2013 3

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IntroductionDoes occupational stress really have an aversiveaffect on individuals and organizations???Are those who are studying occupational stress“making mountains out of molehills”???May 7, 2013 4

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Negative Outcomes of StressIncreased healthcare costsMore on-job-accidentsHigher rates ofabsenteeism &turnoverIncreasedcompensationclaimsReducedproductivityMay 7, 2013 6

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History of Occupational StressMilestones: 1914: Walter Cannon 1956: Hans Selye 1960s: University of Michigan Institute for Social Research 1978: Terry Beehr & John NewmanMay 7, 2013 7

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History of Occupational StressWalter Cannon Well-known physiologist Relationship between emotions & physiological responses It is considered the earliest work in the field ofpsychosomatic medicine. Coined the term: Homeostasis Meaning: Body’s effort to restore normal physiologicalfunctioning when some deviation is required. It is a processin which the body’s internal environment is kept stable orconstant. Stressful work conditions are perceived as aversive eventsthat require adaptive response to restore normal functioning.May 7, 2013 8

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History of Occupational StressHans Selye He is the first on scientific investigations of stressand considered as “Father of Stress”. He is an endocrinologist. His research:May 7, 2013 9Research• Aversive stimuli exposed to animals E.g.: TemperatureextremesFinding• Animals effort to adapt the aversive stimuli.Result• People do much the same to cope with challenges in everdaylife GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

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History of Occupational StressUniversity of Michigan Institute for Social Research The first large-scale program focusing specifically onstress in the workplace. The research focuses on psychosocial factors in theworkplace that may be stressful to employees. Psychosocial factors represent the aspects of the workenvironment having to do with interactions with otherpeople. Focus on role stressors.May 7, 2013 11

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History of Occupational StressTerry Beehr & John Newman 1978: large review and analysis on occupational stresspublished in the journal of Personnel Psychology Important and frequently cited work Alert people in the field of organizational psychologythat occupational stress is a worth of attention. Volume of occupational stress research has increasedafter the publication of this review.May 7, 2013 12

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ApproachesOccupationalStressMedicalClinical /CounselingEngineeringpsychologyOrganizationalpsychologyMay 7, 2013 13

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Terminology of StressMay 7, 2013 14Stimulus• Stress = some type of force acting upon the individual.• (Stress is used for negative aspects of the work environment)Response• Stress = a way in which employees react to stressful job conditions.• (Stress is used for response of employee)Stimulus-response• Stress = overall process by which the work environment maynegatively impact employees.• Stressor: It represents anything in the job or organizationalenvironment that requires some adaptive response on the part ofemployees.• Strain: It refers to a multitude of maladaptive ways of employeesmay react to stressors.

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Categories of StrainMay 7, 2013 15Psychological• Emotionalresponses tostressors• Depression,anxiety, frustration,hostilityPhysical• Responses relatedwith employees’physical health andwell-being• Blood pressure,heart rateBehavioral• Responses associatedwith behaviors• Job performance,substance abuse,absenteeism,turnover

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Occupational Stress Models Institute for Social Research Model (ISR) Beehr and Newman’s Facet Model Demands- Control Model Person – Environment Fit Model Effort – Reward ImbalanceMay 7, 2013 16

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Occupational Stress ModelsInstitute for Social Research Model (ISR) 1- Objective Environment = anything in the employee’swork environment 2- Psychological Environment = employee’s perception ofthe objective environment; appraisal process 3- Response = Immediate physical, behavioral andemotional responses of an employee after appraisal 4- Mental & Physical Health and Disease= Depends on theduration and severity of the immediate responseIndividual differences have impact on the 2, 3, 4. steps. 5- Enduring Properties of the Person 6- Interpersonal RelationsMay 7, 2013 17

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Occupational Stress ModelsBeehr and Newman’s Facet Model Occupational stress process can be examined in a numberof “facet”s. Facets represent categories of variables to bestudied. Personal facet: Stable characteristics that employees bringthem to the workplace. (e.g: age, gender; personality) Environmental facet : Those stimuli in the workenvironment that employees must confront. (e.g.: workcharacteristics, level of comlexity, nature of job-relatedinterpersonal relations) Process facet: Employees appraise the work environmentand decide whether it is harmful.May 7, 2013 18

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Occupational Stress ModelsBeehr and Newman’s Facet Model If the employee perceives stressors after appraisal, theremay be several consequences: Human consequences facet: Ways in which employeesmay respond to stressors (e.g.: health problems, substanceabuse) Organizational consequences facet : Employeeresponses that have implications primarily fororganizational functioning. (e.g.: absenteeism, turnover) Adaptive responses facet: Efforts on the part ofindividuals and organizations to respond adaptively tostressors. Time facet: has an impact on all other facetsMay 7, 2013 19

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Occupational Stress ModelsDemands - Control ModelMay 7, 2013 20The most stressful situations in the workplace are those in whichemployees face heavy job demands, but at the same timeare given little control over their work.

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Occupational Stress ModelsPerson – Environment Fit ModelMay 7, 2013 21An employee perceives the work environment as stressfulwhen there is a lack of fit.

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Occupational Stress ModelsEffort – Reward ImbalanceMay 7, 2013 22It is stressful in the workplace when employee’s efforts are out ofproportion with the rewards that the job provides.

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Workplace Stressors Commonly studiedstressors Role stressors Workload Interpersonal conflict Organizationalconstraints Perceived control Contemporaryorganizational stressors Work-family conflict Mergers & Acquisitions Layoffs & Job insecurity Emotional LaborMay 7, 2013 23

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Workplace StressorsCommonly studied stressorsRole stressors Role: a set of behaviors that are expected of a person. Role related information is both formal and informal. Uncertainty of role related information leads to: Role Ambiguity Lack of consistency in the role related information leads to: Role Conflict Too many demands that an employee can accomplish leads to:Role Overload24

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May 7, 2013 25Workload Definition: Amount of work an employee has to do in agiven period of time. Perceptional / Objective Cyclical Qualitative (Difficulty) Quantitative (Performing) Studies generally focus on physical outcomes of workload.E.g.: Relation between work hours and physiological effectsWorkplace StressorsCommonly studied stressors

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Workplace StressorsCommonly studied stressorsInterpersonal conflict Most jobs require interaction with coworkers, customers, contractors… Such social interactions are often a source of satisfaction and personalfulfillment. Negatively charged interactions may make work stressful. Several potential causes of conflict: Competition among people Rude / contentious behavior Unintentional behavior (e.g.: free-riding) Interpersonal conflict is correlated with physical, psychological,behavioral strains; most notably feeling anxiety at workMay 7, 2013 26

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Workplace StressorsCommonly studied stressorsMay 7, 2013 27Organizational constraints The more effective employees, the more effective the organization will. Organizational conditions may constrain employee performance(e.g:unnecessary rules, procedures, a lack of resources…) Organizational constraints (Peters & O’Connor – 1980) Job-related information Budgetary support Required support Time and materials Required services and help from others Task preparation Time availability Work environment Scheduling of activities Transportation Job-related authority

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Spector’s research (1986)Perceived control Much more general Related with human desire tocontrol over the environmenteven if this control is illusory Perceived control is manifestedin organizations in two ways : Job autonomy: Employee has thediscretion over tasks performed,starting & ending time. Participative decision making:employees who implementdecisions, also participate informulation of decisions. E.g.:Labor management committeesOutcomeJobAutonomyParticipationJobsatisfaction.37 .44Emotionaldistress- .37 - .18Physicalsymptoms- .33 - .34Turnoverintent- .26 - .20Turnover - .25 - .38Performance .26 .23May 7, 2013 28Workplace StressorsCommonly studied stressors

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Workplace StressorsContemporary organizational stressorsWork-Family Conflict Demands from work and familyare competing more. Demands of work interfere withfamily responsibilities. Demands of family interfere withwork responsibilities. Sources of support to helpbalance those are increasinglyunavailable. Work-family conflict literature: Time-based conflict Strain-based conflict Behavior-based conflictMergers & Acquisitions Merger: Two separateorganizations combine toform a new one. Acquisition: One companyobtains a controllingfinancial interest in anothercompany. Employees’ feelings ofanxiety, uncertainty, and jobinsecurity. Recommendation:communicate to employees asmuch information aspossible.May 7, 2013 29

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Layoffs & Job Insecurity 66% of US firms with more than5.000 employees reportedreducing their workforcethrough layoffs in the late 1980s. Layoffs’ impacts: Employees who survive layoffsmay have feelings of vulnerabilityand even guilt. Job loss has bad outcomes onmental and physical health (tillreemployment). Job insecurity has a negativeimpact on employee emotionsand well-being.May 7, 2013 30Workplace StressorsContemporary organizational stressorsEmotional Labor There is a shift from heavymanufacturing to servicesector. This changed thecontent of jobs. An employee is forced toconfront negative emotions. An employee is forced tosuppress his/her emotionsfor organizational goals= surface acting

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Reducing The Impact of Stressors Stress management training Reduction of Stressors Alternative Work Schedules and Telecommuting Family – Friendly Benefits Health & Fitness ProgramsMay 7, 2013 31

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Reducing The Impact of StressorsStress management training Purpose: to help provide employees with the necessaryresources to cope with stressors when they faced.It is not eliminating or minimizing the stressors; their existenceis basically taken for granted. Education Programs Relaxation Training Biofeedback Training Teaching techniques Stress-Inoculation Training Gathering information about stress Self-statements to cope with stress Application training: application of self-statements in everyday situations. Health CirclesMay 7, 2013 32

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Reducing The Impact of StressorsReduction of Stressors Less popular than stress management Purpose: to reduce the levels of stressors E.g.: redesigning a job to increase autonomy, providinggreater participation to employees, training managers tocommunicate more effectively with subordinates These interventions are usually offered as trainingprograms or as a part of organizational developmentstrategy. Result: decrease in stressors & increase in employees’well-being.May 7, 2013 33

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Reducing The Impact of StressorsAlternative Work Schedules and TelecommutingMay 7, 2013 34AlternativeworkschedulesCompressedwork weekFlextimeYes, that is what I’ve said!My idea has beenscientifically proved! 

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•These benefits are designed to helpemployees balance the demands ofwork and family.•Flexible spending accounts, childcare, elder care referrals, part-timework options…•More salient to women.•Related with job satisfaction, lowerlevels of depression and somaticcomplaints, lower cholesterol•Reduce feelings of work-familyconflictMay 7, 2013 35Reducing The Impact of StressorsFamily – Friendly Benefits

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Reducing The Impact of StressorsHealth & Fitness ProgramsMay 7, 2013 36Healthy & physically fit employees are lesslikely to be absent due to illnessReduce employees’ health care costs.Improve employees’ physical health andfitness

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Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research Can occupational stress models be generalized? Do cultural factors impact the work stressors? Do cultural factors impact the ways ofemployees to cope with work stressors?May 7, 2013 37

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Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research- Generalizability38

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Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research- GeneralizabilityXie(1996): Testing Karasek’s Demand-Control Model in China Have had greater exposure toWestern values Personal control is one of thesevalues. Benefited recent economicchanges Generally less educated, lessexposed to Western influences More likely to maintaintraditional values Traditional values impede thedesire personal control.39

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Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research- Stressors Experienced Peterson et al. (1995): Are there cultural differences in the perceptionof stressors? Perception of role stressors vary across nations. Levels of role stressors could be predicted from characteristics ofdifferent national cultures. Perception of role stressors differ with respect to Hofstede’s culturaldimensions. Van De Vliert & Van Yperen (1996): Research on cross-nationaldifferences in role overload Cross-national differences in ambient temperature led to differences inrole overload. Liu (2003): Stressors btw. American – Chinese employees differ.May 7, 2013 40

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Cross-Cultural Occupational Stress Research- Coping With Stress Coping represents the manner in which employeesattempt to adapt to the stressors they experience. Employees in the US. confront conflict more directlythan Taiwanese and Arab Middle Eastern employees. Americans reported more direct (being rude to others),Chinese reported more indirect conflict (doing thingsbehind people’s backs)May 7, 2013 41

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Thank youforyour attentionI wish you a goodand stress-free day.May 7, 2013 42