My topic ideas is North Korea with human rights, you need find 10 sources, read introduce. Bibliography Word-processed double spaced. Keep a backup computer copy and hard copy. Employ a standard format. Recommend the Chicago/Turabian style. See Gamer’s Bibliography. Check Miami University Library Online Reference Shelf for bibliographic citations, style manuals. Your bibliography of 10 items should include items related to 1) issue, 2) the thematic element (geography, economic, politics, anthropology, or history) and 3) the country of your research. Info on the recipient of your policy is useful also. Use at least one foreign language source. Use international (non US) as well as US sources. At least one source from your country. Provide one paragraph on how you will use all of these materials, include the databases you are using. Include books, academic articles, newspaper, web materials. Check PAIS, Scopus, Academic Search Complete, Social Science Citation Index, Lexis/Nexis Strive for quality (utility) and quantity (10). CHICAGO/TURABIAN STYLE Bibliographic entry for a book: Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations, 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2016. Bibliographic entry for a journal article: Jackson, Richard. "Running down the Up-escalator: Regional Inequality in Papua New Guinea," Australian Geographer 14 (May 2015): 175-84. Journal article (on the Internet): Browning, Tonya. "Embedded Visuals: Student Design in Web Spaces." Kairos: A Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed Environments 3, no. 1 (2007); available from http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/2.1/features/browning/index.html; Internet; accessed 21 August 2010. Website: 
National Consumers League. Helping Seniors Targeted for Telemarketing Fraud. 2010; Retrieved February 2, 2015 from
http://www. fraud.org/elderfraud/helpsen.htm. WHITE COLLAR CRIME IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY 4TH ED. CHAPTER 8 EXPLAINING WHITE COLLAR CRIME THEORIES AND ACCOUNTS Trusted Criminals Designed by: Jordan Land, M.S. IntroductionA Theory is a formal version of an explanation, although it is not necessarily a comprehensive explanation It attempts to explain a class of events, whereas an explanation might simply attempt to make sense of a specific event In the conventional view, a good theory can be tested and fits the evidence provided by research Underlying Assumptions and Points of DepartureEvery attempt at explanation invokes certain metaphysical, ontological, and epistemological assumptions about the ultimate nature of reality and being, and how we come to know and understand our world It is important to understand that almost anything we might say about white collar crime is rooted in our assumptions, whether explicit or implicit, concerning such questions What Do We Want To Explain?The conventional answer is that we must explain criminality, or what makes individuals or organizations commit white collar crimesA second a.

1. My topic ideas is North Korea with human rights, you need find
10 sources, read introduce.
Bibliography
Word-processed double spaced.
Keep a backup computer copy and hard copy.
Employ a standard format. Recommend the Chicago/Turabian
style.
See Gamer’s Bibliography. Check Miami University Library
Online Reference Shelf for bibliographic citations, style
manuals.
Your bibliography of 10 items should include items related to 1)
issue, 2) the thematic element (geography, economic, politics,
anthropology, or history) and 3) the country of your research.
Info on the recipient of your policy is useful also. Use at least
one foreign language source. Use international (non US) as well
as US sources. At least one source from your country.
Provide one paragraph on how you will use all of these
materials, include the databases you are using.
Include books, academic articles, newspaper, web materials.
Check PAIS, Scopus, Academic Search Complete, Social
Science Citation Index, Lexis/Nexis
Strive for quality (utility) and quantity (10).
CHICAGO/TURABIAN STYLE
Bibliographic entry for a book:
Turabian, Kate L. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses
and Dissertations, 6th ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
2016.

2. Bibliographic entry for a journal article:
Jackson, Richard. "Running down the Up-escalator: Regional
Inequality in Papua New Guinea," Australian Geographer 14
(May 2015): 175-84.
Journal article (on the Internet):
Browning, Tonya. "Embedded Visuals: Student Design in Web
Spaces." Kairos: A Journal for Teachers of Writing in Webbed
Environments 3, no. 1 (2007); available from
http://english.ttu.edu/kairos/2.1/features/browning/index.html;
Internet; accessed 21 August 2010.
Website:
National Consumers League. Helping Seniors Targeted for
Telemarketing Fraud. 2010; Retrieved February 2, 2015
from http://www. fraud.org/elderfraud/helpsen.htm.
WHITE COLLAR CRIME IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
4TH ED.
CHAPTER 8
EXPLAINING WHITE COLLAR CRIME
THEORIES AND ACCOUNTS
Trusted Criminals
Designed by: Jordan Land, M.S.

3. IntroductionA Theory is a formal version of an explanation,
although it is not necessarily a comprehensive explanation
It attempts to explain a class of events, whereas an explanation
might simply attempt to make sense of a specific event
In the conventional view, a good theory can be tested and fits
the evidence provided by research
Underlying Assumptions and Points of DepartureEvery attempt
at explanation invokes certain metaphysical, ontological, and
epistemological assumptions about the ultimate nature of reality
and being, and how we come to know and understand our world
It is important to understand that almost anything we might say
about white collar crime is rooted in our assumptions, whether
explicit or implicit, concerning such questions
What Do We Want To Explain?The conventional answer is that
we must explain criminality, or what makes individuals or
organizations commit white collar crimesA second answer is
that we must explain the crime, or the event itselfCriminal
behavior has been treated as both an individual propensity and
as an eventAmong the elements cited to explain criminal
behavior are motivation, freedom from social constraints, skill,
and opportunity
What Do We Want To Explain?A third answer to the question is
that criminalization must be explained firstThe process whereby
particular activities, entities and individuals come to be defined
as criminal
A truly substantial explanation for white collar crime must

4. address each of these matters, and ideally it must explore the
variety of interrelationships involved in white collar crime as
criminality, as an event and as criminalized activity
What Do We Want To Explain?Yet another issue in the
explanation of white collar crime is the appropriate explanatory
levelMacro-levelFocuses on the conditions within a society or
the organization that promotes white collar crimeMicro-
levelFocuses on the offenders and their individual propensities
and choicesMeso-levelFocuses on situational factors
The Biogenetic ExplanationAt its core was the notion that
criminals are inherently different from other people, even down
to their appearanceThis explanation was promoted by Franz
Joseph Gall’s phrenology and Italian criminologist Cesare
Lombroso’s concept of the “born criminal” as an atavistic
typeDuring much of the 20th century , biogenetic explanations
of criminality emerged, focusing on factors ranging from body
type to brain chemistry
The Biogenetic Explanation
Some criminologists who do not embrace the conservative
agenda accept the proposition that genetic and brain dysfunction
factors may play a role in criminality
Psychological ExplanationsThe focus is on personality, mental
processes, the enduring effects of early childhood traumas, and
the likeThe single most famous psychological explanations of

5. human conduct were advanced by Sigmund FreudFreudian
approach can be viewed as a reflection of the eternal conflict
between the desires of the individual and the needs of
civilizationMore specifically, could be linked with defects in
the superego, the ego or the id
PersonalityPersonality traits are among the most examined of
all psychological explanations of white collar crime
There are relatively few studies exploring the relevance of
personality for involvement in white collar crime
They have not produced any clear evidence of psychological
abnormality, and most offenders appear to fall within the range
of normal personality types
PersonalityPersonality is most typically associated with the
behavioral characteristics of an individual
Character and identity are associated with an individual’s
nature, especially his/her moral or ethical qualities
Sociogenic ExplanationsSome theoretical and empirical work
that adopts a sociogenic framework also addresses the matter of
criminality, especially in terms of alleged differences in
criminal propensities among members of different social classes
or groups
Gottfredson and Hirschi (1990) suggested that varying levels of
self-control are fundamental factors in people’s choices to
commit crimes and that low social control is more pronounced
among lower-class individuals

6. Organizational ResponsibilityWhen we engage in the common
practice of referring to organizations or networks of
organizations as actors, we are not simply speaking of a sum of
people and their individual actions but of patterned institutional
practices
Sutherland moved back and forth rather freely between
discussing the crimes of people of the upper socioeconomic
classes and the crimes of corporations
Organizational ResponsibilityDonald Cressey criticized his
former mentor Sutherland for attributing human capabilities to
corporations rather than distinguishing them from real people
Cressey insisted that we must recognize that corporations are
not people, cannot learn, do not have motivations and cannot
form intent
Organizational ResponsibilityIn a specific response to Cressey’s
critique, Braithwaite and Fisse defended the notion that
corporations can take criminal action and can be properly held
responsible for such action
They argued that a mixture of observable and abstracted
characteristics defines both individuals and corporations
Organizational ResponsibilityThe entire organization is seldom
involved in corporate crimeThe majority of personnel do not
directly participateOrganizations create opportunities for illegal
conduct by:Disproportionately serving affluent, accessible
victimsGenerating impersonal transactionsCreating and
allocating resourcesProviding strategic devices to facilitate and

7. cover up illegalitiesConditioning the development of new
normative prescriptions capable of being violated
The Various Dimensions
of Organizational CriminalityDifferent levels of organizational
analysis are relevant to understanding organizational crimeOn
the psychological level, the organization is viewed as a context
or environment that can influence individuals’ attitudes and
behavior in a criminal directionOn a structural level, the
organization is viewed as having structural features and social
processes that facilitate the commission of crimeOn an
ecological level, the organization is viewed as part of an
environment or interdependent system that has criminogenic
tendencies
The Various Dimensions
of Organizational CriminalitySome organizations are crime
coercive whereas others are crime facilitators
Theories of corporate crime have either attempted to explain
why some corporations commit crimes and others do not or have
addressed the apparent overall increase in corporate illegalities
at particular periods of time
The Various Dimensions of Organizational
CriminalityExternally, a variety of factors are related to
corporate crime, including:Economic climate, political and
regulatory environment, level of industry concentration, style
and strength of product distribution networks, product

8. differentiation and normative traditions within industries
Corporations are more likely to engage in corporate crime when
legitimate opportunities to achieve their goals are blocked but
illegitimate opportunities are available
Explaining White Collar Crime: Theories and PerspectivesMany
explanations of white collar crime focus more on the crime
rather than on criminalitySociological theories emphasize
structural factorsA structural perspective in criminology focuses
either on social conditions that account for specific forms of
criminal behavior or on how the distribution of power and
resources influences how crime is defined and generatedSome
white collar crime is carried out individually, but much is a
cooperative activity involving two or more individuals
General Theories of Crime and White Collar Crime
TheorySutherland advanced his theory of differential
association as a general theory that could account for both
conventional and white collar crime
Although general theories may have some success in accounting
for natural and physical phenomena, they are less usefully
applied to the enormously variable realm of human activity
Classical Criminology and Rational ChoiceThe core notions of
humans as capable of making rational choices and of a system
of justice with equitable punishments that fit the crime have
long been central to the operation of our criminal justice system
The classical assumptions about human nature have recently
been embraced by neoclassical criminologists and proponents of
rational choice, routine activities and social control

9. perspectives
Classical Criminology and Rational ChoiceCriminologists
essentially see criminal offenders as people who reason and
plan strategically, adapt to particular circumstances and weigh
costs and benefits
Individuals who commit crimes are not averse to breaking laws
if they see an opportunity they perceive to have a low likelihood
of sanctions and the expectation of personal benefits
Classical Criminology and Rational ChoiceRational choice
assumptions would appear to be especially applicable to white
collar crime
If we assume that humans have the capability of making rational
choices, then those who are better educated and better
positioned in life would seem to have an advantage in
considering and acting on various options
Alternative Dimensions of Crime and ChoicePaternoster and
Simpson have characterized corporate crime as criminal activity
that is rooted in instrumental and strategic choices made by
risk-averse managers who weigh various options’ perceived
costs and benefits to themselvesRoutine activities theory also
incorporates an assumption of rational decision making in its
approach to crimeThe theory focuses on crime events as a
consequence of the presence of motivated offenders, suitable
victims or targets and the absence of capable guardians

10. Social Control and BondsSocial control theory reverses the
conventional questions of why someone engages in criminal
behavior and instead asks why someone does not engage in
criminal behaviorThe answer is that people with strong bonds to
conventional institutions are constrained from engaging in
delinquent or criminal conduct
If social control theory is valid then we would expect that
corporate executives with stronger bonds to the corporation are
more likely to engage in corporate crimes on behalf of the
corporation
Control Balance and Control Fraud TheoriesControl balance
theory holds that crime and deviance are a function of the
“control balance ratio” or the amount of control one exercises
relative to the amount of control imposed upon one
So either a surplus of control or a deficit of control should
foster criminal behavior and deviance
Control fraud holds that when control over an organization is
realized, that organization becomes a weapon for perpetrating
fraud and theft
Social Process and LearningDifferential association views
criminal behavior as learned through contact with others with a
law-violating orientation
An overriding limitation of this theory is that it does not
adequately account for structural origins of the illegal patterns
of behavior and appears to confuse a process of involvement in
criminal behavior with a cause of such behavior
Social Process and LearningDifferential association does not

11. address the problem that some white collar crime is
individualistic and that collective forms of white collar crime
are committed by individuals who hold many attitudes that are
favorable to obeying laws
Sutherland’s theory hardly provides us with a comprehensive
explanation of white collar crime
Interactionism and LabelingInteractionist or labeling
perspectives on crime are derived from a symbolic interactionist
tradition emphasizing that meaning emanates from human
interaction
Labeling theory has been principally concerned with the process
of societal reaction on perceived crime rather than with the
standard etiological question, “What made them do it?”
Interactionism and LabelingThe first point relevant to white
collar crime is that powerful individuals and organizations are
more likely than the powerless to be able to avoid being labeled
as deviant or criminal, or to be able to negotiate more
successfully the terms of any effort to so stigmatize them
The claim that the labeling process itself inspires more criminal
behavior than it deters has been challenged on various grounds,
and it is difficult to demonstrate empirically
Interactionism and Labeling
White collar offenders who have been processed by the criminal
justice system typically have more legitimate options than
conventional offenders and are likely to be able to minimize the
full effects of the stigma

12. Neutralizations, Rationalizations and AccountsThe interrelated
concepts of neutralization, rationalization, and accounts play a
central role in efforts to make sense of white collar criminality
White collar offenders tend not to be classic “outlaw” types
White collar criminals most typically conform to most laws and
social conventions and are unlikely to identify with or endorse
the activities of conventional offenders
Neutralizations, Rationalizations and AccountsSo, how do they
become lawbreakers?First, you must understand a vocabulary of
motives:Excuses- tend to be defensiveJustifications- positive
interpretations of actionsNeutralizations- future or ongoing
behaviorAccounts- are invoked after the behavior has
occurredRationalizations- mental processes which allow a
person who is committing or about to commit a crime to
overcome guilt or moral inhibitions and justify the crime to
themselves or othersPeople who embezzle money rationalize
that they were only “borrowing” it
Structural Strain
and the Structure of OpportunityEmile Durkheim’s conception
of anomie referred to a situation of normlessness, a breakdown
of the guidelines for conventional behavior during rapid social
change
The insider trading crimes of the 1980s have been linked with
an anomic situation that fostered “the unbridled pursuit of
pecuniary rewards”

13. Structural Strain
and the Structure of OpportunityMerton’s revised notion of
anomie refers to an enduring situation in a society in which a
generalized goal of material success is promoted, but the means
to achieve such success legitimately are not equally distributed
Merton also gives the label “innovative” to one class of
adaptations that those who lack equal access to legitimate
means use to achieve material successAmong those
“innovations” is illegal behavior
Structural Strain
and the Structure of OpportunityAnomie theory has been
applied quite specifically to understanding the innovative
corporate use of illegal strategies to realize goals that cannot be
achieved legitimately
There are theorists who have produced variations of Merton’s
theory:Status deprivation theoryDifferential opportunity
theoryGeneral strain theoryInstitutional anomie theory
Conflict Theory and Criminogenic SocietiesConflict theory
rejects the consensus theory notion of the social world as an
organic or integrated system
In its so-called “non-partisan” form, conflict theory is
concerned with identifying how the values and interests of
different groups in society are disproportionately able to
influence the character and content of the law

14. The Structure of Contemporary Capitalist Society and White
Collar CrimeThe most basic form of structural explanation for
white collar crime forces on the nature of society itselfOne
principle version of conflict theory is Marxist or neo-Marxist
theoryKarl Marx viewed crime as an essential product of a
social class society, and of capitalism in particularHe believed
that humans manifest such patterns of behavior, and that
capitalism promotes these tendencies in human beings
The Structure of Contemporary Capitalist Society and White
Collar CrimeIn the Marxist view, the worst crime committed in
the name of capitalism is the systematic exploitation of the
working class
Marx suggested that crime by the rich and poor alike is a
rational, inevitable response to an economic system that fosters
greed, egoistic or individualistic tendencies, competitiveness,
and debasement of humansWhenever the capitalist system
undergoes an economic crisis, pressures to commit crimes
increase
Limitations of the Marxist AccountThere are two obvious
limitations:
It does not explain either the existence of significant levels of
white collar crime in socialistic countries or significant
variations among different capitalist countries
It is not helpful in explaining why some individuals and
organizations within capitalist societies engage in white collar
crime while others don't

15. Radical and Critical Perspectives
on White Collar CrimeReiman (1982) argued that Marxism is
materialist in explaining white collar crime as resulting from
the organization of material production
Whereas radicalism is idealist, at least when it explains white
collar crime as a function of the intentions of elites
Much of the radical criminological work for this period
examined the criminalization process as opposed to the “causes”
of crime
Radical and Critical Perspectives
on White Collar CrimeSince the 1980s, new perspectives
emerged within an evolving radical or critical criminologyThese
perspectives include:Left realism, peacemaking criminology,
feminist criminology, and postmodernist criminologyNeither the
causes of crime in the conventional sense nor white collar crime
itself have been important preoccupations of these
perspectivesThey have been more concerned with how crime is
conceived of or constituted
Explaining Criminalization
and White Collar CrimeExplaining criminal behavior and crime
has historically been the primary focus of criminology
In a legalistic sense, no crime exists until and unless there is
formal recognition that a type of activity should be designated a
crime
The criminalization process has been directly linked with
patterns of engagement in white collar crime

16. Explaining Criminalization
and White Collar CrimeThe seminal critic of capitalism, Karl
Marx, did not favor criminalization as a response to exploitative
and harmful corporate activitiesFor Marx, law by its very form
was likely to favor privileged segments of societyThe failure to
criminalize some forms of harmful white collar activity can help
promote such activityThe removal of legal control can create a
whole range of new criminal opportunities
Integrated Theories of White Collar CrimeColeman (1987)
developed an integrated theory that centers on the coincidence
of appropriate motivation and opportunityA culture generates
motives for lawbreaking when it emphasizes “possessive
individualism,” competition, and materialism, justifies
rationalizations, and removes unified restraining influences
Braithwaite (1989) based his integrative theory on two
traditions:
Structural Marxist theory
Differential association theory
Integrated Theories of White Collar CrimeCritical
criminologists who address corporate crime typically adopt an
integrated theoretical approachTaking into account variables
operating on the level of the:Organization of the
economyCorporate structureMarket forcesOrganizational
cultureInterpersonal workgroups
dynamicsRationalizationsIdentity factors

17. The Subprime Mortgage Market FraudsThe disintegration of the
subprime mortgage market in the U.S. beginning in 2006, led to
millions of homeowners in foreclosure on their homes or facing
the prospect of foreclosure
An application of a sophisticated integrated theory of the
subprime mortgage market frauds had certain
elements:Structural level (macro)Organizational level and
Dramaturgic level (meso)Individualistic level (micro)
The Subprime Mortgage Market FraudsOn the structural levelA
capitalistic political economy has a core characteristic - the
relentless pursuit of profit and a constant search for new
marketsOn the organizational levelWe have uncoupling of
mortgage originators from mortgage holdersOn the
individualistic levelThose who were at the center of the frauds
were sometimes afflicted with egocentric, overly optimistic,
narcissistic, entitlement-oriented, and excessive risk-taking
personality attributes, as well as character flaws in terms of
integrity
WHITE COLLAR CRIME IN CONTEMPORARY SOCIETY
4TH ED.
CHAPTER 7
ENTERPRISE CRIME,
CONTREPRENEURIAL CRIME,
AND TECHNOCRIME
Trusted Criminals

18. Designed by: Jordan Land, M.S.
Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar Crime
Enterprise refers to the interrelated dealings of legitimate
businesspeople, political officials, and syndicated racketeers
Organized crime refers to any organized illegal activity,
including organized professional theft, business theft, terrorist
groups, motorcycle gangs, and “racketeers” who extort money
by intimidation and violence
Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar CrimeOrganized crime is
most commonly associated with the Mafia or La Cosa Nostra, an
alleged national syndicate of criminals of Italian decent
engaged in systematic illegal enterprises involving:The sale and
distribution of illicit drugsGamblingProstitutionLoan
sharkingLabor racketeering
Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar CrimePerhaps the easiest
solution is to refer to the popular image of Mafia-type
syndicates, as syndicated crime and use the term organized
crime more broadlySeveral features are commonly associated
with syndicated crime:It’s a self perpetuating organizational
with a hierarchyA limited membershipSpecialized
rolesParticular obligationsOmerta

19. Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar CrimeSeveral obligations
that are commonly associated with syndicated crime:Omerta-
vow of secrecyConspire to monopolize illegal enterprises by
threat of or actual use of:ForceViolenceIntimidation Seek to
protect itself from prosecution by corrupting the political and
legal system
Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar Crime
Legitimate businesses and syndicated crime engage in many of
the same activities but in ways that are somewhat arbitrarily
defined as legal or illegal
Syndicated crime performs important functions for corporate
enterprises and the capitalist political economySyndicated crime
and capitalist institutions coexist profitably
Enterprise Crime:
Organized Crime and White Collar Crime
Perhaps the most accurate assessment of the economic impact of
syndicated crime acknowledges that it cuts both ways
It benefits some elements of the capitalist political economy
while harming others

20. The Relation between Governmental Crime
and Syndicated CrimeThe survival of syndicated crime may
depend on the cooperation or connivance of some governmental
officials
Investigations have uncovered evidence linking governors, state
legislators, judges, and various other government officials with
syndicated crime
On the national level, ties between government agencies and
syndicated crime go back at least as far as the early half of the
20th century
The Relation between Governmental Crime
and Syndicated CrimeLucky Luciano assisted the U.S. Navy
Intelligence in preventing sabotage and unrest on the New York
docks
CIA enlisted the cooperation of syndicated crime in its attempts
to overthrow Fidel Castro
Organized crime must be understood both as a product of a
capitalist economy and as the illegal activity of a network of
interdependent businesspeople, government officials, and
racketeers
Historical Roots of Organized CrimePiracy might be regarded as
the first form of organized crime
John Hancock apparently operated an organized crime cartel
that engaged in large-scale smuggling in the pre-Revolutionary
colonies
The syndicated form of organized crime is often considered to
have its roots in the Mafia, which emerged in southern Italy

21. Historical Roots of Organized CrimeItalian-American
syndicated crime was widely regarded as the dominant form of
authentic organized crime in the United States in the 20th
century
Prohibition provided an ideal opportunity for the dramatic
growth and expansion of syndicated crime because it created
enormous demand for a product, alcoholic beverages, in the
absence of a legal supplyThe repeal of Prohibition hardly
diminished the potency of syndicated crime
Historical Roots of Organized Crime
The objective of those involved in syndicated crime thus
parallels those of individuals in legitimate occupations, and
syndicated crime is simply seen as an unorthodox form of white
collar crime
The Relation between Syndicated Crime
and White Collar CrimeOne thesis concerning the connections
between syndicated crime and white collar crime suggests that
the methods used to establish the great industrial empires and
sprawling Western ranches of the 19th century were
fundamentally no different from the methods used by 20th
century mafiosi and syndicated crime membersThe 19th century
Robber Barons and cattle barons were the forerunners of 20th
century organized crime
The Relation between Syndicated Crime

22. and White Collar CrimeThe general public perception of
syndicated crime has in fact been somewhat ambivalent
Syndicated crime mobsters do not enjoy the same status of
respectability that white collar offenders doThey are more
vulnerable to:SuspicionInvestigationConviction
The Relation between Syndicated Crime
and White Collar CrimeLegitimate businesses provide both a
front and an important tax cover for illegal activities
They provide employment for associates and relatives who are
on probation and parole
Altogether, increasing involvement with legitimate business can
reduce the exposure of syndicated crime figures to prosecution
and may also reflect an aspiration for greater respectability
Hazardous Waste DisposalThe business of disposing of toxic
waste has been heavily infiltrated by syndicated crime because
of its longstanding domination of the garbage-carting and
disposal business
The illegal disposal of hazardous waste costs only a fraction of
the cost of safe and legal disposal
Less than 20% of these wastes are disposed of properly
Hazardous Waste DisposalIllegally disposed of hazardous waste
endangers the health of people exposed to it
Corporations that generate hazardous waste strongly lobbied
against laws that would impose substantial liability on them for
the effects of improper or illegal disposal

23. This activity is an especially clear example of a hybrid type of
white collar/organized crime
The Relations between Syndicated Crime
and Finance CrimeThe theft and manipulation of stocks and
bonds by syndicated crime has been a major problem since the
early 1970s
The longstanding practice of laundering the huge sums of
money generated by illegal enterprises obviously requires some
complicity on the part of banks, which benefit from these large
depositsSyndicated crime outfits have had various forms of
suspect dealings with financial institutions and have sometimes
infiltrated them
The Relations between
Syndicated Crime and Finance CrimeMany connections exist
between organized crime and white collar crime and the
boundary lines between them have blurred
Donald Cressey speculated that at some point we would no
longer be able to tell the difference between white collar crime
and organized crime
Contrepreneurial Crime:
Professional Criminals and White Collar CrimeA professional
criminal is anyone who engages in criminal activity regularlyIt
has been used interchangeably with the term career criminal
Professional criminals attempt to minimize the risk of arrest,

24. prosecution, and imprisonment by carefully planning their
crimes, avoiding violence, and putting in the “fix” with
corruptible law enforcement and political officials
Historical Origins of Professional Crime
Origins of professional crime have been traced back to
European feudalism when a certain proportion of the newly
disenfranchised turned to:Robbery, poaching, banditry, and
other outlaw practicesJesse James & John Dillinger have been
regarded as one class of professional criminals
The Relation between Professional Crime
and White Collar CrimeSeveral parallels exist between
professional criminal and white collar offendersBoth are
prepared to take risks to make moneyBoth are prepared to
violate the law to maximize profitBoth seek to immunize
themselves by bribing or financing the campaigns of politicians
or becoming informants for law enforcement officialsThe
classic professional criminal relies on skill and planning rather
than direct force or intimidation to achieve an illegal
objectiveBoth need to convey an aura of respectability and
inspire some level of trust to carry out their crimes
The Relation between Professional Crime
and White Collar CrimeProfessional
More accepting of their outlaw status
More likely to make a deliberate decision to become involved in
criminal activities

25. Attempts a pure theft of money from a vulnerable victim or
markWhite collar
Regard themselves as businesspeople
May drift into fraudulent enterprises
Defrauds by giving something of little or no real value in return
for money
What are the differences between the
classical professional criminal and
the contrepreneurial white collar
criminals?
Fraudulent Businesses:
Swindles, Scams, and Rackets
A vast number of enterprises are swindles, scams or rackets that
annually cost consumers, investors and other unwitting parties
billions of dollars
Are these activities properly classified as white collar crime?In
some cases, the activity is more appropriately described as
organized crime or professional crimeIn other cases, a
designation of white collar crime is clearly justified
FraudThe two key elements of fraud in legal terms are:Stealing
by deception
Reports of fraud appear early in recorded history
Ex. In the 4th century BC in Greece, a ship owner attempting to
defraud someone by seeking a cash advance for a ship laden
with corn when all along the intent was to scuttle the ship
instead of delivering the corn

26. FraudOther contemporary swindles and schemes include:Phony
charities, long lost-heir searches, magazine subscription rackets,
referral schemes, travel deceptions, etc.Consumer fraud has
been understudied by criminologists despite the fact that it
generates staggering annual losses that are estimated to be as
high as $100 billion annually Fraudulent businesses prey upon
human vanity, fantasy, loneliness, insecurity and fear
Ponzi and Pyramid Schemes
In 1919, Charles Ponzi began advertising that he could return
large profits to investors because he had learned how to take
advantage of the international currency and postage markets
The claim was that international postal reply coupons purchased
in a poor country such as Italy could be redeemed at a much
higher rate in the United States
Ponzi and Pyramid SchemesPonzi was not investing the
moneyHe was spending it on himself and paying off early
investors with some part of the money pouring in from newer
investorsEventually, the scheme was exposed and Ponzi went to
prisonHigh returns are promisedSome early investors may
receive payoffs, but most of the invested money is spent on a
lavish lifestyle for the perpetrators
Ponzi and Pyramid Schemes
March 12, 2009, Bernard L. Madoff pleaded guilty to 11
criminal counts in relation to a Ponzi scheme which the
government claims involved $65 billion
The Madoff Ponzi scheme was surely the largest in history to
date

27. Pyramid scheme is a special variant of a Ponzi scheme
Investment FraudsLosses due to investments in fraudulent
schemes and securities are especially widespread and
substantialBy some estimates, Americans lose more than $2
billion annually by investing in low-price penny stocksIn recent
years, fraudsters have been convicted in cases involving as
many as 10,000 investors, and hundreds of millions of dollars in
losses, in frauds involving bonds supposedly backed by a
collection agency and the financing of leases on office
equipment
Investment Frauds
The losses due to all such schemes are dwarfed by the losses to
investors as a consequence of massive accounting fraud at
Enron, WorldCom, HealthSouth and other major corporations
Home Improvement and Ownership FraudsSome contractors are
outright con artists
Many others are marginal contactors who mislead customers, do
incomplete or shoddy work, and declare bankruptcy or engage
in some other subterfuge to avoid settling claims
Builders, appraisers and mortgage brokers have conspired to
sell poorly constructed homes at inflated prices with
misrepresentation of tax obligations to prospective homeowners
Home Improvement and Ownership Frauds
In October 2008, Emmanuel Constant was accused of murder

28. and torture in Haiti and was sentenced to 27 years in prison in
connection with mortgage fraud using straw home buyers,
falsified loan information, and inflated appraisals in Queens,
NY
The FBI declared mortgage fraud as the fastest growing form of
white collar crime in the early 2000s
Land Sale FraudsIn the 1920s, many people who bought “land”
in Florida eventually discovered that their land was
underwaterThe basic scheme in these cases is to entice
prospective retirees and other investors with some attractive
brochures of beautiful developments complete with landscaping,
gold courses, and lakesThey use high pressure sales tactics to
persuade people to pay exorbitant prices for arid desert plots
that turn out to be virtually worthless when promised
development plans never materialize
Travel Scams
and Time-Share Vacation ResortsMillions of Americans receive
postcards or e-mails informing them that they’ve won a
glamorous vacationIf they respond to the inducements they are
persuaded to pay a “travel club” or “service” fee before
receiving their “prize”The free vacation would turn out to have
so many restrictions it would be useless to the
recipientRecipients often ended up with no vacation at all or
with one for which they paid a substantial amount of money
Payday Loans, Debt Relief, and Credit RepairPayday lenders
operating online or from storefronts target people with modest

29. incomes who need small loans to make it through till
paydaySome debt relief companies advise consumers to stop
making payments on their debt on the claim that they will
negotiate settlements on favorable terms, but by extracting large
fees directly from clients’ bank accounts, often put clients in a
deeper holeSome companies that offer to raise credit scores do
so by falsifying the customer’s credit history—a form of
fraud—and charge a hefty fee to do so
Employment Agency and Education-Related ScamsPeople have
paid fees to “employment agencies” that guarantee them jobs.
After sending in their money, many clients never hear from the
agency again, or receive sloppily-prepared resumes or outdated
lists of jobs or corporate contacts. In most cases, applicants do
not obtain jobs“Educational consultants” collect thousands of
dollars in return for the false promise that the consultant will
ensure their place in a schoolOther scams exist involving
diplomas, training, and financial assistance
Telemarketing or “Boiler Room” ScamsThe National Consumers
League estimated in a recent year that telemarketing frauds
extract an average of $845 from each victim.These operations
may offer tempting investments, prizes, vitamins, etc.Examples
include enticements for “cash loans” in which callers are
charged for generic information packages on how to apply for
bank loans, “one-shot” credit cards, bogus health product
promotions, and penny-stock offerings based on misleading
information about new companies.
Schemes to Defraud the WealthyMiddle-class people seeking a

30. high return on their investments can be susceptible to fraudEx.
About 6,000 people who invested $350 million in Colonial
Realty in the 1980s lost much of their money when the
operation turned out to be fraudulentSome victims of investment
fraud are quite wealthyEx. A New York college student
persuaded 100 well-off individuals to invest millions with the
investing entity he established and instead of investing the
money, he spent most of it on a lavish lifestyle
Technocrime, Including Computer CrimeTechnocrime is any
crime facilitated by any sophisticated form of technology
It has been described as a subset of or new form of white collar
crime
But not all illegalities committed with technology are white
collar crimes. Ex.—technocrime committed by spies or
terrorists, the use of computers for disseminating child
pornography, or the use of the internet by pedophiles to solicit
victims
Computer CrimeComputer crime is an illegal act wherein
computers and computer technology are used to commit the
offenseA computer may be the tool of a crime or the target of a
crimeCategories include internal computer crimes (sabotaging
programs), telecommunications crimes (hacking and illegal
bulletin boards), computer manipulation crimes (embezzlements
and frauds), computers in support of criminal enterprises, and
hardware/software thefts
Computer CrimeAn increasing proportion of theft today takes
the form of stealing information, pirating software and

31. electronic products, and copying intellectual propertyAn
estimated 1/3 of business software is piratedBusiness
transactions carried out on the internet have generated broad
new opportunities for criminal conductThe relative anonymity
of the internet can facilitate crime
Computer CrimeBusinesses have become increasingly concerned
about “click fraud”
Advertisers must pay for each “click” on their ads, but believe
that in some cases competitors are deliberately driving their
advertising costs up by fraudulent clicking
The internet has also facilitated identity theft and the theft of
confidential information
Computer CrimeA considerable amount of computer crime or
cybercrime is carried out by or through businesses or by people
within the context of a legitimate occupation, victimizing
consumers and individuals
The use of computers greatly increases the potential size and
scope of thefts
It also enables people working in certain occupations to use a
“salami technique”— that is, to steal small amounts of assets
from many sources
The Law and Computer CrimeDespite increasing publicity about
computer crimes, prosecutions for such crimes are relatively
few in number, constituting a fraction of prosecutors’ caseloads
The single most common charges pertain to child pornography
Traditional criminal laws are not always applicable to crimes
committed by manipulation of electronic software

32. The Law and Computer CrimeMost state and federal laws
applicable to computer crime came into being in the
1980s1986—Congress passed a computer Fraud and Abuse Act,
which intended to make the use of computers for fraud and theft
a felony 1996—passage of the National Information
Infrastructure Protection Act eliminated some of the common
defenses in computer crime cases2000—Internet False
Identification Prevention Act2000—USA Patriot Act added
amendments to the 1996 law
The Pursuit of Computer Crime CasesInvestigation of computer
crime require specially trained personnel and tend to be quite
time consuming
Criminal justice agencies on all levels must devote more
resources to technocrime
It is often necessary to resolve computer crimes privately and
informally, in part because special complications arise if cases
are pursued through the criminal justice system
Other Types of TechnocrimeATMs, telecommunications
systems, facsimile machines and other forms of technology also
provide a range of opportunities for misappropriation or theft
Advances in all forms of copying technology have provided new
opportunities for organized and professional crime
Businesses of all sizes are victimized by technocrime, but
commit some of it as well
Dealing with Hawala Informal Financial Centers in the Ethnic
Community
By JAMES CASEY, M.A. © PhotoDisc

33. In the immediate aftermath of September 11, 2001, many
experienced intelligence officers did not understand the concept
of hawala, and few knew what it actually represented in the
context of money laundering and terrorism financing. Then, as
today, hawala constitutes an important economic aspect of life
in America’s Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian
communities.1 Law enforcement officers
who work in these locations or investigate white-collar crime or
terrorism financing should know about and understand how to
deal with hawala and other nontraditional financial centers.
How Hawala Works
Hawala comprises one type of the informal value transfer
system (IVTS) used mostly by members of an ethnic community
to send money around the world. Other forms of IVTS, which
also can be elements of hawala, include physically transporting
(smuggling) currency and stored-value transfers (chits). Hawala
does not involve the immediate movement of any negotiable
instrument nor are actual funds immediately transmitted
anywhere. An ancient system that actually predates banking, it
works in an analogous manner to a more formal system of
“wiring” money.2 When individuals wire money, they contact a
legitimate money-wiring service and provide an amount of
funds they wish to send to another party plus a fee. If they send
money overseas, they generally pay a recognized margin or
exchange rate at which they purchase funds in that country’s
currency. Of course, funds are not actually “wired” to the other
person, and nobody physically sends money anywhere at that
time. Instead, one vendor accepts the cash from the sender, and
another gives the same amount to the recipient. Then, the two
vendors settle at a later time.
In more legitimate operations, these settling transactions almost
always involve the transfer of funds from one account to

34. another at banking institutions. With hawala, however, either a
transfer of funds to a bank or a number of less formal settling
transactions may occur. Hawaladars (i.e., operators) may travel
overseas on a regular basis to settle accounts in person with
their contacts. They may have other business interests with
these intermediaries that involve inventory and merchandise,
which they can manipulate to reflect the hawala transactions.
For example, hawaladars can trade premium goods, such as
phone cards, at a discount to represent the value of earlier
transactions.
Just like legitimate money-wiring operations, hawala often is
contained within another community business, such as an ethnic
market or travel agency, or run by freelancers who operate
autonomously in the community. The global scope of IVTS and
hawala is impossible to calculate. An International Monetary
Fund/ World Bank estimate puts worldwide IVTS transfers on
the order of tens of billions of dollars annually.3
Money Laundering
Hawala is not necessarily synonymous with money laundering
or even white-collar crime or terrorism financing. Money
laundering, by its very nature, involves attempting to make
“dirty” money, often via drug activity or organized crime
wherein criminals generate sums of wealth (usually cash) that
cannot be easily explained or managed, “clean.” So, they
transfer the money in and out of different accounts, banks, and
various legitimate and partially legitimate businesses. This
supposedly creates ambiguity as to its origin and lends
legitimacy to otherwise criminal proceeds. It is significant to
recall that money laundering, per se, generally is not, in and of
itself, a criminal act.4 Most money-laundering statutes require
evidence of a specific underlying enterprise, such as drug
trafficking or other criminal activity, to successfully prosecute
the money-laundering offense.

35. Casey heads the Eurasia Section
in the FBI’s Counterintelligence Division.Terrorism Financing
An interesting paradox surrounds the financing of terrorism.
First, cash proves as important, if not more so, to successful
terrorist operations as it does to any other prosperous venture,
legal or otherwise. But, at the opposite end of the equation,
terrorist operations are not prohibitively expensive. After all, a
teenage terrorist who straps on explosives and detonates himself
in a Tel Aviv restaurant killing dozens costs little, yet his
actions prove effective.
Ahmed Ressam, an Algerian loosely affiliated with al Qaeda,
had lived illegally in Canada for several years when he tried to
enter the United States with explosives in the trunk of his car.
He was destined for Los Angeles International Airport where he
intended to set off an explosion as part of a larger New Year’s
millennium terrorism plot. His overseas handlers had instructed
him to finance himself by burglarizing hotel rooms, stealing
credit cards, and committing other petty offenses.5 Timothy
McVeigh and Terry Nichols used the proceeds from several
home burglaries and gun show sales to buy farm-grade fertilizer
they mixed with fuel oil to bomb the Murrah Federal Building
in Oklahoma City.
According to the 9/11 Commission, the entire cost of the
September 11 plot was between $400,000 and $500,000.
Considering that close to two dozen individuals (the 19
hijackers plus overseas support elements) were likely involved
over an 18-month to 2-year period, the funds needed for
significant international travel, terrorist-camp training, flight
school, and living expenses only approximated $12,000 per
person, per year.
The 9/11 Commission also found no evidence of any foreign

36. government knowingly helping to finance the operation; instead,
most of the funds were derived from donations to charity. While
some media sources have claimed Saudi Arabia was responsible
for providing a large amount of terrorism funding in general and
particularly for the September 11 plot, a specific dollar-for-
dollar nexus does not exist. While the royal family in Saudi
Arabia maintains a complex relationship with both its citizens
and conservative religious clerics and charities in the country,
proving the government provided funds to these religious
leaders and charities knowing that the money would eventually
finance terrorism never has been established.6 Moreover, while
the 9/11 Commission found that al Qaeda used hawala to move
money in and out of Afghanistan, it also determined that the
group did not employ hawala in any way to fund the 19
hijackers or the events surrounding the September 11 attacks.7
Hawala in the Community
People use hawala for any number of reasons; many of these are
legitimate, while others are not. Investigators must understand
that in the Middle Eastern community, the importance of family
and other trusted relationships cannot be overemphasized.
Often, a member of the community refers to another as
belonging to a particular family when, in fact, the relationship
is so distant that it is legally insignificant. These family and
clan relationships perhaps are more significant than in any other
ethnic community in the United States. At the same time, many
members have relatives in their home countries they support
financially.
Within these Middle Eastern and Southeast Asian communities,
members trust local businessmen, including the hawaladar, a
great deal. That trust is one element that invites the use of
hawala. A fictional example of a member of the community
employed in violation of his tourist or student visa can help
illustrate the system. The young man does not have a social
security number and wishes to send money to his homeland, a

37. country where currently it is unlawful to do so, to support
relatives. He has four immediate incentives to use a local
hawaladar, rather than a traditional bank or money-wiring
service.
1) He is violating the terms of his visa by working in the United
States.
2) He does not have a social security number and may be
working without paying taxes.
3) Treasury regulations do not allow him to legally send money
to his country.
4) A hawaladar probably is more economical than other more
legitimate means of moving money because of lower finance
charges and exchange rates.
Passed in 2001, the United and Strengthening of America by
Providing Appropriate Tools Required to Intercept and Obstruct
Terrorism (USA PATRIOT) Act8 called on the U.S. Department
of the Treasury to determine whether Congress should stiffen
laws relating to IVTS in the United States. The report to
Congress concluded that although law enforcement had tools at
its disposal for dealing with IVTS (hawala), further education
was a key element. “The U.S. approach of regulating informal
value transfer activity is preferable to outlawing the activity
altogether, a course chosen by some nations. Attempting to
outlaw the IVTS ultimately deprives law enforcement of
potentially valuable information and drives the informal
remittance providers further ‘underground.’ Outlawing the
activity also deprives the mostly law-abiding IVTS customers of
the primary channel through which they transfer funds.”9
© PhotoDisc Techniques for Law Enforcement
As with any crime problem, a keen understanding of who is who

38. in the community constitutes one of the keys to successfully
dealing with hawala. Officers and investigators need to use their
sources of information to determine which merchants and
individuals in the community act as IVTS brokers. When
suspicion arises that these entities are employing IVTS to
facilitate drug trafficking, terrorism financing, or money
laundering, law enforcement can exploit a host of local, state,
and federal offenses these enterprises are committing.
Regardless of how well-meaning or “community oriented”
hawaladars are, they violate technical infractions each time they
engage in a financial transaction. The federal Bank Secrecy Act
(BSA)10 requires any person or group acting as a money-
services business (MSB) to adhere to numerous reporting and
record-keeping requirements, most or all of which hawaladars
routinely ignore. Additionally, these businesses, by law, must
register with the Department of the Treasury’s Financial Crimes
Enforcement Network (FinCEN), which, again, they usually
disregard. Furthermore, MSBs are required by law to produce
suspicious activity reports (SARs) for transactions over $2,000
that appear, or should appear to them, to involve illegal
activity. Finally (although not all-inclusively), investigators
should note that Title 18 of the U.S. Code makes it a crime to
operate an MSB in the absence of compliance with applicable
state licensing requirements.11 Undoubtedly, these enterprises
also do not appropriately follow these regulations.
A misperception exists that hawaladars do not keep records; this
is false. Many keep extensive documentation because the
settling of accounts often takes place well into the future. What
investigators need to look for are unconventional records or
ones kept in a language other than English. Also, because
hawaladars barter in other than cash products, investigators
should check for large transactions involving food stamps,
lottery tickets, and phone cards, all of which can be alternate
forms of currency in the community.12 Of course, phone

39. records and those from Internet service providers, as well as
legitimate bank documents, can be valuable because they show
who the hawaladar has dealt with. Investigators should focus on
contacts and transactions that involve Great Britain,13
Switzerland, and Dubai as these comprise major financial
centers with strict financial secrecy laws.14 Moreover, even
when hawaladars are not knowingly involved in serious illegal
activity, their nonconforming business practices put them in
positions where they could assist law enforcement with the real
criminal element in a community, especially those dealing in
narcotics, laundering money, or financing terrorism.
Conclusion
The hawala concept is not prohibitively complicated. Its
deviance from conventional banking and financial institutions,
together with its place in the Middle Eastern and Southeast
Asian communities, can pose a challenge for investigators
experienced in more traditional financial crimes, including
money laundering and terrorism financing. However, employing
some specific techniques, coupled with a solid community
intelligence base, should assist them with hawala and
nontraditional financial centers.
Endnotes
1 These locales often include individuals of Indonesian, Indian,
Palestinian, and Egyptian nationalities.
2 Patrick M. Jost and Harjit Singh Sandhu, Interpol General
Secretariat, The Hawala Alternative Remittance System and Its
Role in Money Laundering (Lyon, January 2000).
3 Secretary of the U.S. Department of the Treasury, Report to
the Congress in Accordance with Section 359 of the USA
PATRIOT ACT.
4 While transferring money between different accounts and

40. banks may not constitute money laundering per se, investigators
are encouraged to look carefully at all federal, state, and
municipal laws and regulations and consult with financial
crimes prosecutors as activities, such as “structuring” and
improper record keeping, in fact, may constitute specific
criminal conduct sufficient to establish money-laundering
charges.
5 National Commission on Terror Attacks Upon the United
States, The 9/11 Commission Report: Final Report of the
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks upon the United
States (Washington, DC, 2004), 175.
6 Ibid., 170-171.
7 Ibid., 499 (note 131 to chapter 5).
8 PL 107-56, October 26, 2001, 115 Stat 272.
9 Supra note 3.
10 See 31 USC 5311.
11 Supra note 3.
12 Recently, some companies have begun issuing traditional
credit cards that can be legally obtained anonymously.
Customers prepay a fixed amount for the cards then use them at
retailers (currently, online auctions), which accept the card
anonymously as payment.
13 For additional information, see Marc D. Ferbrache,
“Offshore Financial Centers: The Channel Islands and the Isle
of Man,” FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin, February 2001, 10-15.
14 Supra note 2.

41. Financing Terror
By DEAN T. OLSON, M.A.
'The frequency and seriousness of international terrorist acts are
often proportionate to the financing that terrorist groups might
get.”1 Terrorist organizations must develop and maintain robust
and low-key funding sources to survive. Domestic and
international terrorist groups raise money in the United States
to exploit the nation’s market-based economy and democratic
freedoms for profits that they send overseas or use locally to
finance sleeper cells. Raising funds on American soil fulfills
complementary goals by undermining the economy, introducing
counterfeit and often unsafe or adulterated products and
pharmaceuticals into the consumer market, and increasing the
social costs of substance abuse by feeding the demand for illicit
drugs.
The terrorists who attacked the World Trade Center in New
York City in 1993 originally planned to use a larger bomb to
bring down both towers by toppling one into the other.2 They
also wanted to amplify the carnage by augmenting their vehicle-
borne improvised explosive device with a chemical or biological
weapon to increase casualties and hamper rescue efforts. Their
goal, however, went awry because they ran out of money.
Similarly, lack of funds limited the plans of another group that
conspired in 2003 to simultaneously bomb the Egyptian,
American, and other Western embassies in Pakistan.3
Inadequate monetary resources forced the group to focus on
attacking only the Egyptian embassy. “A short time before the
bombing of the [Egyptian] embassy the assigned group... told us
that they could strike both the Egyptian and American

42. embassies if we gave them enough money. We had already
provided them with all that we had and we couldn’t collect more
money.”4
A major source of terrorist funding involves criminal activities.
Groups use a wide variety of low-risk, high-reward crimes to
finance their operations. Those most likely encountered by local
law enforcement involve six primary areas.
Captain Olson serves with the Douglas County, Nebraska,
Sheriff’s Department.
Illicit Drugs
“If we cannot kill them with guns, so we will kill them with
drugs.”5 Documented links exist between terrorist groups and
drug trafficking, notably the smuggling of pseudoephedrine, a
precursor used to manufacture methamphetamine. After
purchasing the substance in multiton quantities, smugglers
associated with one terrorist group moved truckloads of it into
the United States to feed methamphetamine labs in California
and neighboring southwestern states.
In three major drug investigations, DEA arrested more than 300
people and seized over $16 million in currency and enough
pseudoephedrine to manufacture 370,000 pounds of
methamphetamine. To put this quantity into context, the average
annual seizure of methamphetamine throughout the United
States in 2002 was 6,000 pounds.6
Fraud
Frauds perpetrated by terrorist groups include identity theft for
profit and credit card, welfare, social security, insurance, food
stamp, and coupon fraud. Industry experts estimate that $3.5
billion in coupons are redeemed annually.7 About 10 percent, or
$3.5 million, is fraudulent.
In 1987, authorities disrupted a large coupon fraud ring

43. involving more than 70 participants.8 The conspirators were
accused of sending a portion of the proceeds to Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) bank accounts in the Middle
East and Europe. A Palestinian operating several grocery stores
in the North Miami, Florida, area was the key player in a
nationwide money laundering and financing operation for the
PLO. The investigation discovered that 72 individuals from
throughout the United States gathered in Hollywood, Florida, to
further the fraudulent coupon distribution network. One person
was identified as a cell leader of a terrorist network. Members
of the group also were involved in hijacking trucks and selling
stolen food stamps and property.9
In 1994, New York City officials identified the head of a
coupon fraud ring who had established a network of stores by
targeting those owned and controlled by Middle Eastern
businessmen willing to participate in schemes that defrauded
American commercial enterprises.10 Most of the time, a small
store that normally submitted $200 to $300 in coupons monthly
would suddenly begin sending in tens of thousands of dollars
worth of them after joining the network. The store owners never
saw the coupons; they only received the redemption checks. In
many cases, the owners borrowed money or agreed to lease
stores for a monthly fee set by the network. They used coupons
to pay the debt on these loans, which sometimes required 49
percent interest per month.11
Stolen Baby Formula
In another scheme in the late 1990s, investigators in Texas
discovered that organized shoplifting gangs paid drug addicts
and indigent people $1 per can to steal baby formula. The
groups repackaged the products in counterfeit cardboard boxes
before shipping the bootleg formula to unsuspecting stores
across the United States. One of the largest rings at the time
netted $44 million in 18 months.12
As the terrorist attacks on September 11 unfolded, a Texas state
trooper pulled over a rental van and found an enormous load of

44. infant formula inside. Police later identified the driver as a
member of a terrorist group and linked him to a nationwide theft
ring that specialized in reselling stolen infant formula and
wiring the proceeds to the Middle East.13 The investigation led
to felony charges against more than 40 suspects, about half of
them illegal immigrants.
Police also seized $2.7 million in stolen assets, including $1
million worth of formula. This investigation was only the
beginning. In the years after September 11, police discovered
and disrupted several regional and national theft rings
specializing in shoplifted baby formula. At least eight of the
major cases involved individuals of Middle Eastern descent or
who had ties to that region.14
Intellectual Property Theft
According to media reports, the terrorists who bombed the
World Trade Center in 1993 allegedly financed their activities
with counterfeit textile sales from a store in New York City.15
A raid on a souvenir shop led to the seizure of a suitcase full of
counterfeit watches and the discovery of flight manuals for
Boeing 767s, some containing handwritten notes in Arabic. A
subsequent raid on a counterfeit handbag shop yielded faxes
relating to the purchase of bridge inspection equipment. While
investigating an assault on a member of an organized crime
syndicate 2 weeks later, police found fake driver’s licenses and
lists of suspected terrorists, including the names of some
workers from the handbag shop, in the man’s apartment.16
Pirated software constitutes a tremendous source of funds for
transnational criminal syndicates, as well as terrorist groups. It
is not difficult to see why software piracy has become
attractive. A drug dealer would pay about $47,000 for a kilo of
cocaine and then sell it on the street for approximately $94,000,
reaping a 100 percent profit. But, for the same outlay of
$47,000 and substantially less risk, an intellectual property thief
could buy 1,500 bootleg copies of a popular software program

45. and resell them for a profit of 900 percent.17 To put these
numbers into context, the September 11 attacks cost
approximately $500,000, or $26,000 per terrorist. One
successful large-scale intellectual property crime easily could
fund multiple terrorist attacks on the scale of those of
September 11, 2001.
Items Common to Illegal Hawala Operations
· Spiral notebooks, scraps of paper, or diaries listing
information for numerous financial transactions, which
generally include the date, payer name, amount received,
exchange rate, and payment method or remittance code
· An unusually high number of phone lines at a residence or
business; short incoming calls and lengthy overseas calls
· Fax transmittal logs/receipts, which may contain name of
sender, beneficiary, or a code
· Wire transfer receipts/documents
· Phone records/documents; multiple calling cards
· Multiple financial ledgers (one for legitimate transfers, one
for criminal activity, and one possibly for settling accounts)
· Bank account information, particularly multiple accounts,
under same name
· Multiple identification (false ID for the subject or for several
other individuals)
· Third-party checks
· Evidence of other fraud activity

46. Cigarette Smuggling
Exploiting a considerable tax differential, smugglers bought van
loads of cigarettes for cash in North Carolina and transported
them to Michigan.18 According to prosecutors, each trip netted
$3,000 to $10,000. In 1 year, the recipient of the profits, who
had links to a terrorist group, had deposited over $735,000 in
bank accounts while paying for houses, luxury cars, and other
goods with cash. The group sent items, such as night-vision
goggles, cameras and scopes, surveying equipment, global
positioning systems, and mine and metal detection equipment,
to other terrorists abroad.19 The ringleader was sentenced to
155 years in prison, and his second in command received a 70-
year prison sentence.
Informal Value Transfer Systems
Informal value transfer and alternative remittance systems play
a significant role in terrorism financing. One example, hawala,
involves the transfer or remittance of money from one party to
another, normally without the use of such formal financial
institutions as banks or money exchanges. International
financial institutions estimate annual hawala transfers at
approximately $2 trillion dollars, representing 2 percent of
international financial transactions.20
Because these systems operate below legal and financial radars,
they are susceptible to abuse by criminal elements and
terrorists.21 Moreover, few elements of this informal transfer
system are recorded, making it difficult to obtain records of the
transmitters and the beneficiaries or to capture the scale and
magnitude of such transfers. Although operators keep ledgers,
their records often are written in idiosyncratic shorthand and
maintained only briefly.
Conclusion

47. From stolen baby formula to intellectual property theft, terrorist
groups employ a variety of criminal schemes to raise funds.
And, as with other homeland security matters, countering
terrorist financing is fundamentally a local law enforcement
responsibility. The more familiar officers are with the criminal
enterprises used by these groups to raise money, the more
effective they will be in finding ways to counter such activities.
Countermeasures must disrupt terrorist financing and starve
such groups of the money necessary to sustain their
organizations and to perpetrate attacks. Without the financial
means to carry out their missions, terrorists will find it
increasingly difficult to continue their wanton acts of death and
destruction.
Endnotes
1 Interpol, Terrorism: The Financing of Terrorism (2005);
retrieved July 2005 from
http://www.interpol.int/Public/Terrorism/ financing.asp.
2 Loretta Napoleoni, Modern Jihad: Tracing the Dollars Behind
the Terror Networks (Sterling, VA: Pluto, 2003), 4.
3 Nick Kochan, The Washing Machine (New York, NY:
Thompson, 2005), 34.
4 Ibid., 32.
5 Rachel Ehrenfeld, Funding Evil: How Terrorism Is Financed
and How to Stop It (Seattle, WA: National Press, 2003), 123.
6 Drug Enforcement Administration, More than 100 Arrested in
Nationwide Methamphetamine Investigation, Federal News
Service, January 10, 2002; retrieved July 2005 from

48. http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/ major/me3.html.
7 B. Jacobson, Coupon Fraud, Testimony before the U.S. Senate
Select Committee on Intelligence, Washington, DC, 1997.
8 Ibid.
9 “U.S. Grocery Coupon Fraud Funds Middle Eastern
Terrorism,” New American 13, no. 5 (March 13, 1997);
retrieved July 2005 from http://www.thenewamerican.
com/tna/1997/vo13no05/vo13no05_ coupon.htm.
10 Ibid.
11 Ibid.
12 Mark Clayton, “Is Black Market Baby Formula Financing
Terrorism?” Christian Science Monitor, June 29, 2005; retrieved
August 2005, from http://www.
usatoday.com/news/nation/2005-06-28baby-formula_x.htm.
13 Ibid.
14 Ibid.
15 John Nurton, “Why Counterfeiting Is Not So Harmless,”
Managing Intellectual Property, September 2002, 43.
16 Kathleen Millar, “Financing Terror: Profits from Counterfeit
Goods Pay for Attacks,” Customs Today, retrieved June 2005,
from http://www.customs.gov/xp/
CustomsToday/2002/November/interpol. xml.
17 Jennifer L. Schenker, “Busting Software Pirates,” Time
2002, 54.
18 Patrick Fleenor, “Cigarette Taxes, Black Markets, and

49. Crime,” Policy Analysis, 2003, 13.
19 Ibid., 57.
20 Larry Lambert, “Underground Banking and National
Security,” Sapra India Bulletin, February/March 1996; retrieved
July 2005, from http://www.subcontinent.
com/sapra/bulletin/96feb-mar/si960308. html.
21 Supra note 1, 37.
Running head: CRIME ANALYSIS
1
CRIME ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
5
Crime Analysis Technology

50. Crime analysis is a function that usually involves the systemic
analysis in identifying as well as analyzing the crime patterns
and trends. Crime analysis is very important for law
enforcement agencies as it helps law enforcers effectively
deploy the available resources in a better and effective manner,
which enables them to identify and apprehend suspects. Crime
analysis is also very significant when it comes to arriving at
solutions devised to come up with the right solution to solve the
current crime problem and issues as well as coming up with the
right prevention strategies. Since the year 2014, crime rates in
the USA have increased steadily as per a study done by
USAFacts, which is a non-partisan initiative (Osborne &
Wernicke, 2013). With this increase in crime rates, which has
majorly resulted in massive growth in technology, it is essential
to come up with better means and ways of dealing with the
increased crime rates. With the current advancement in
technology, better law enforcement tools developed, which has
enabled better crime deterrence in better and efficient ways. All
this has been facilitated by the efforts of crime analysts who
have come up with better tools and thus enabling the law
enforcers to better deal with the crimes (Osborne & Wernicke,
2013). In this paper, I will consider the application of crime
analysis technology and techniques in fighting crimes.
Application of crime analysis technology and techniques used to
make crime analysis more accurate and efficient.
Currently, the two technological tools that are used in
predictive policing software have enabled security agencies to
effectively use predictive policing ("Crime Analysis: Fighting
Crime with Data," 2017). Application of this software has
enabled better crime prevention as with data obtained in the
previous crimes have been used to predict possible future severe
crimes in a specific area.
Through the adoption and use of crime analysis, law
enforcement agencies have been able to fight against crimes as
when compared with the past effectively. The use of crime

51. analysis comes at the right time, where there has been an
increase in crime rates in the current digital error. In a survey
done by Wynyard group in 2015, the study revealed that for
every 10 law enforcement officials 9 of them believe that the
use of current technology in crime analysis has had positive
effects in helping the agencies in solving crimes as they can
identify essential links and trends in crimes ("Crime Analysis:
Fighting Crime with Data," 2017). In the same way, other
sectors have benefited from data analysis with spreadsheets,
databases, and mapping, law enforcers have been able to use
data analysis to come up with a better decision. Crime analysis
has had many positive impacts in different areas, which
includes robberies and arsons with pattern examining as well as
reviewing events sequence (Santos, 2012).
Use crime analysis technology is very useful in fighting
terrorism activities through analysis of previous crimes and thus
predicting any intended cyber-attacks. One of the most
important federal agency mandated to deal with terrorist
activity is the FBI. Therefore, be essential to implementing the
initiative to the FBI agent. FBI is a U.S. domestic security and
intelligence service. The FBI operates under the United States
department of justice jurisdiction and usually reports to the
director of national intelligence and attorney general. FBI is the
United States leading organization when it comes to matters
aimed at countering terrorist activities as well as investigation
of criminal activities. The FBI formed in 1908, the organization
currently has about 35,204 employees and its headquarters are
in Washington, D.C. Having being involved in both law
enforcing responsibilities as well as intelligence, the FBI is
unique as it has dual responsibilities and thus significant agency
in the U.S. Some of the vital roles includes ensuring the United
States has protection from terrorist activities as well as foreign
threat activities. In addition, it mandates upholding and
enforcing criminal laws of the U.S. as well as providing
criminal justice services and leadership to both federal, state,
international agencies as well as municipal. Implementing a

52. better law enforcement initiative in the FBI is therefore very
important, as it will strengthen the ability of the FBI when it
comes to dealing with the terrorist as well as ensuring the
nation has protection from other foreign threats. To ensure the
success of the initiative, most of the stakeholders will be
technological companies. Technological companies will ensure
the success of the action reaches achievement. The target
audience will be the leaders of the FBI agents, as this will
ensure that the information reaches the rest of the FBI
fraternity.
References
Crime Analysis and Patterns. (n.d.). The International Crime
Drop. doi:10.1057/9781137291462.0014
Crime Analysis: Fighting Crime with Data. (2017, June 12).
Retrieved from
https://www.floridatechonline.com/blog/criminal-justice/crime-
analysis-fighting-crime-with-data/
Crime Analysts Fight Crime From Behind a Keyboard. (2019,
July 29). Retrieved from
https://online.campbellsville.edu/criminal-justice/crime-
analysts/
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI): History, Role & Purpose.
(n.d.). Retrieved from
https://study.com/academy/lesson/federal-bureau-of-

53. investigation-fbi-history-role-purpose.html
Osborne, D., & Wernicke, S. (2013). Introduction to Crime
Analysis: Basic Resources for Criminal Justice Practice.
London, England: Routledge.
Santos, R. B. (2012). Crime Analysis With Crime Mapping.
SAGE.
The United States. Federal Bureau of Investigation. (n.d.). The
FBI Story.
Crime Analysis technology:
This area has become the most important asset in the modern
world. This topic interest me because it is the most common
denominator between law enforcers and law offenders. What is
also interesting is that information technology is literally at the
fingertips of everybody. It is more interesting and feasible
because it is one of the more effective ways of solving crime
whether it is a detective triangulating signal off a cellphone
tower to place an alleged killer in the area of a crime or doing a
scan of a confiscated computer to detect inappropriate
pornography. This is an interesting topic because it addresses
developments that can be used to collect enormous amounts of
evidence in crimes. However, it might be less feasible than the
other topics due to the devastating effects that a mistake caused
in this field can have on the universe.
For my Capstone Project I choose Crime Analysis Technology
and techniques of fighting crimes. There is so much crime
solving, current or cold case based on ever-evolving technology
and the access it gives crime fighters. I believe extensive
research and knowledge of this topic is researchable as well as
presentable. The current technology and social media craze, law
enforcement needs to take advantage of it and to society needs
to be knowledgeable of how safe or dangerous it can be.

54. Unit 3.2: Peer Review Article
With your research, you will be reviewing a total of four (4)
peer reviewed articles. For this discussion board, attach 1 of
your articles and summarize it briefly for your peers.
· What key data will you be using for your research?
· How do you think this article will play a role in your final
research?
· What are the 3 most important facts do you think this article
covers?
The key data I will be using in my research is what is most and
least common to society in the technology era. Anything from
mobile phone technology, social media investigation and safety,
to computer analyst software and safety, also how law
enforcement uses the same tools and more to prevent,
investigate, and catch an offender. The three most important
facts this article will provide is information on the devices,
tools, and techniques that is most important to the research
O, U. S. D. (2007). Investigative Uses of Technology: Devices,
Tools, and Techniques. Retrieved January 30, 2020, from
https://www.crime-scene-investigator.net/investigative-uses-of-
technology-devices-tools-and-techniques.html
Running head: CRIME ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
1
CRIME ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
9

55. Crime Analysis Technology
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Crime Analysis Technology
Peer-Reviewed Article Analysis
Technology has evolved over the years in various sectors, with
new technological innovations being developed. One of the
areas that has witnessed great applications of technological
evolution is in the detection and prevention of crime. This
article will analyze the various technologies that are used to
prevent and detect crime.
Byrne and Marx (2011) in their article reviews the topic in
detail and gives insight in the role of technology in combating
crime.
The key data that will be used in this research is secondary data
from various peer-reviewed sources that review the topic of
Crime Analysis Technology from various perspectives. Byrne
and Marx (2011) presents various data on crime and the use of
Information Technology in crime detection and prevention. For

56. instance, it highlights that the percentage of schools in the
United States that deploy metal detectors is approximately 2%.
The article also approximates that as of 2006, one million
CCTV cameras had been deployed in the United States,
although the article does not provide current estimates on the
same.
The article plays a great role in my final research. It gives a
highlight of the various technological applications for crime
prevention and detection. This can provide a background for
further research, especially the technological innovations that
are currently being developed. The article also presents figures
about various elements of technology in crime prevention and
detection such as the number of CCTV cameras, the crime rates
such as the registered sex offenders, among others. Projections
can therefore be made to the future.
The article mentions several significant facts. First, it classifies
technological innovations in criminal justice as hard technology
versus soft technology. Hard technology innovations include
hardware and materials while soft technology innovations
include information systems and computer software. Examples
of hard technology is the CCTV cameras, metal detectors, and
security systems at homes and schools. Examples of soft
technology include predictive policing technology, crime
analysis techniques, software, and data sharing techniques,
among others. Both of the two categories of technological
innovations are important in criminal justice. Another fact is the
new technology of policing. The article identifies hard policing
technological tools such as non-lethal weaponry and
technologies for officer safety. It highlights soft policing
technologies such as data-driven policies in policing and
information sharing. Another important fact that the article
mentions is the issues that should be considered in
technological innovations in criminal justice. Some of the issues
mentioned in the article is that policy should be determined by
research and evaluation and using evidence-based practice
should be used to develop new programs or remodel the existing

57. ones.
Overall, the article provides a good background for further
research in technology in criminal justice system. More
innovations may be included in further research due to ongoing
technological innovations for crime prevention and detection.
For example, further research should look at technological
innovations to curb cyber-bullying due to the huge impact of
social media.
References
Byrne, J. & Marx, G. (2011). Technological Innovations in
Crime Prevention and Policing. A
Review of the Research on Implementation and Impact.
Retrieved from
https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/238011.pdf
Running head:
CRIME ANALYSI
S
TECHNOLOGY
1

58. Crime Analys
is Technology
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation
Running head: CRIME ANALYSIS TECHNOLOGY
1

59. Crime Analysis Technology
Student’s Name
Institutional Affiliation