Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education

STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIES |
least, all of these a d d i t i o n a l costs o f h a v i n g a d i s a b
i l i t y c a n be m e t t h r o u g h student f i n a n c i a l
a i d s o u r c e s . . . . U n f o r t u n a t e l y , the s y s t e m
does n o t live up to its ideals, a n d faces d i f f i c u l t i e s
i n p r a c t i c e . . . . S t u d e n t s w i t h disabihties m u s t d
o c u m e n t to the financial a i d a d m i n i s t r a t o r
the expenses r e l a t e d to t h e i r d i s a b i l i t i e s that are n
o t p r o v i d e d f o r by a n o t h e r s o u r c e . T h i s
r e q u i r e s s e l f - c o n f i d e n c e a n d s e l f - a d v o c a
c y s k i l l s that o f t e n h a v e n o t been w e l l d e v e l o p
e d
i n students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s . T h e s e students m u s
t u n d e r t a k e the d i f f i c u l t a n d c o m p l e x task
of c a t a l o g i n g a n d d o c u m e n t i n g a l l of the
expenses r e l a t e d to their d i s a b i l i t i e s a n d r e d u -
c i n g that a m o u n t by s u p p o r t r e c e i v e d f r o m e l s
e w h e r e , s u c h as V o c a t i o n a l R e h a b i l i t a t i o n
( V R ) . T h i s is a f o r m i d a b l e c h a l l e n g e that w o u
l d test the s k i l l s o f a n y o n e a n d is s o m e t i m e s
u n r e a s o n a b l e f o r students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s .
C u r r e n t l y , f u l l y m e e t i n g the needs of students w i t
h d i s a b i l i t i e s w o u l d r e q u i r e d i v e r t i n g
r e s o u r c e s f r o m other l o w - i n c o m e students. T h i s
w o u l d n o t be a just or desirable result.
T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o l i c y change r e q u i r e d to
meet the f i n a n c i a l needs o f l o w - i n c o m e
students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s is to e x p a n d the a m o u n
t of f i n a n c i a l a i d a v a i l a b l e f o r a l l l o w -
i n c o m e students. O t h e r w i s e , the process becomes a m

a t t e r o f r a t i o n i n g a n d r e d i s t r i b u t i n g
l i m i t e d f i n a n c i a l a i d d o l l a r s a m o n g v a r i o u
s g r o u p s of financially needy s t u d e n t s , i n c l u d i n g
those w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s .
HAVING A DISABILITY IS TIME CONSUMING
G e n e r a l l y , students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s i n h i g h e
r e d u c a t i o n can a t t a i n the same a c a d e m i c
l e v e l s as t h e i r peers w i t h o u t d i s a b i l i t i e s ; h o
w e v e r , students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s c a n n o t do it as
q u i c k l y . S t u d e n t s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s m a y h a
v e c o n d i t i o n s that s l o w t h e m d o w n i n g e n e r a l .
F o r
e x a m p l e , it takes longer to w a l k f r o m p o i n t A to p o
i n t B w h e n one's energy a n d s t a m i n a
are s a p p e d by c h r o n i c i l l n e s s . A p e r s o n i n a w h
e e l c h a i r or w i t h c e r e b r a l p a l s y needs m o r e
t i m e to bathe, dress, s h o p , a n d a c c o m p l i s h other
self-care tasks. S t u d e n t s w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s
h a v e m u l t i p l e d e m a n d s o n their time f o r the t r e a
t m e n t s a n d s e r v i c e s r e q u i r e d to m e e t t h e i r
needs a p a r t f r o m t h e i r studies. T r i p s to d o c t o r s , t
h e r a p i s t s , c o u n s e l o r s , a n d a d m i n i s t r a t o r s
take t i m e . I t also takes time to a c q u i r e , set u p , l e a r n
h o w to use, a n d m a i n t a i n a u x i h a r y
l e a r n i n g aids s u c h as e l e c t r o n i c readers or v i d e o
t e x t d i s p l a y s . S o f t w a r e bugs a n d c o m p u t e r
crashes are n o t just i n c o n v e n i e n c e s f o r a student w i
t h a disability, w h o m u s t h a v e e l e c t r o n i c
ai ds to s t u d y — t h e s e t e c h n i c a l glitches b r i n g a
halt to l e a r n i n g .
F u r t h e r , students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s o f t e n take l o
n g e r to p e r f o r m a c a d e m i c tasks. M a n y
d i s a b i l i t i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y l e a r n i n g d i s a b i

l i t i e s , i n c r e a s e the t i m e needed to process i n f o r m
a -
t i o n , w h i c h IS the c e n t r a l task of m o s t a c a d e m i c
w o r k . A s t u d e n t w i t h d y s l e x i a needs m o r e
t i m e to r e a d a n d u n d e r s t a n d a g i v e n a m o u n t o
f w r i t t e n t e x t c o m p a r e d w i t h a student
w i t h o u t this disabiUty. T h e speed at w h i c h an aide
reads t e x t to a b l i n d s t u d e n t is s l o w e r
t h a n the r e a d i n g speed o f sighted students. L i s t e n i n
g to a l e c t u r e o v e r again o n tape takes
l o n g e r t h a n r e v i e w i n g notes t a k e n i n the c l a s s r
o o m .
G i v e n the ti m e d e m a n d s f a c e d by students w i t h d i
s a b i l i t i e s , it f o l l o w s that the t i m e to
degree c o m p l e t i o n f o r students w i t h d i s a b i l i t i e s
is longer t h a n for t h e i r peers w i t h o u t d i s -
a b i l i t i e s . . . . T h e l o n g e r time that students w i t h d i
s a b i l i t i e s need to c o m p l e t e t h e i r studies
i ncreases t h e i r costs of higher e d u c a t i o n . T h e i r f o r
g o n e i n c o m e is greater than that of t h e i r
peers w i t h o u t d i s a b i l i t i e s . M o s t i m p o r t a n t l
y , even i f students w i t h disabihties are t a k i n g a
r e d u c e d or p a r t - t i m e c o u r s e l o a d , they s t i l l
have to l i v e f u l l t i m e . T h e y face a d d i t i o n a l y e a
r s
of r o o m a n d b o a r d costs, semester fees, a n d the e x t r a
costs associated w i t h t h e i r d i s a b i l i t y
to m a k e the same a c a d e m i c progress that their peers w i t
h o u t d i s a b i l i t i e s m a k e i n a s h o r t e r
CIJSSISM
rime. T h e y m a y also be c h a r g e d m o r e per c r e d i t h o

u r or p e r c o u r s e i f they are t a k i n g less
t h a n the s t a n d a r d f u l l - t i m e c o u r s e l o a d .
I n s u m , l o w - i n c o m e students w i t h di sabi hti es g e n
e r a l l y h a v e a greater n e e d f o r f i n a n c i a l
a i d t h a n t h e i r peers w i t h o u t d i s a b i l i t i e s . B u t
, they face a d d i t i o n a l obstacles i n a s s e m b l i n g
the p a c ka ge o f r e s o u r c e s to p a y f o r college. A l a r g
e r b u r d e n is p l a c e d o n students w i t h
d i s a b i l i t i e s w h o m a y h a v e less c a p a c i t y to bear
i t .
32
Trafficking in Persons Report 2011
U.S. Department of S(ate
WHAT IS TRAFFICKING IN PERSONS?
O v e r the past 15 y e a r s , " t r a f f i c k i n g i n p e r s o n s
" or " h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g " h a v e been used as
u m b r e l l a t e r m s for a c t i v i t i e s i n v o l v e d w h e n
one p e r s o n obtains or h o l d s a n o t h e r p e r s o n i n
c o m p e l l e d s e r v i c e . T h e T r a f f i c k i n g V i c t i m
s P r o t e c t i o n A c t ( T V P A ) describes this c o m p e l l e
d
s e r v i c e u s i n g a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t t e r m s : i n
v o l u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e , slavery, debt b onda ge,
a n d f o r c e d labor.
M a j o r f o r m s o f h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g i n c l u d e :
FORCED LABOR
A l s o k n o w n as i n v o l u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e , f o r c e

d l a b o r m a y r e s u l t w h e n u n s c r u p u l o u s e m p l o
y -
ers e x p l o i t w o r k e r s made m o r e v u l n e r a b l e by
high rates o f u n e m p l o y m e n t , p o v e r t y ,
c r i m e , d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , c o r r u p t i o n , p o l i t i
c a l c o n f l i c t , or c u l t u r a l acceptance o f the p r a c t i
c e .
I m m i g r a n t s are p a r t i c u l a r l y v u l n e r a b l e , but
i n d i v i d u a l s also m a y be f o r c e d i n t o l a b o r i n
t h e i r o w n c o u n t r i e s . F e m a l e v i c t i m s of f o r c
e d or b o n d e d labor, e s p e c i a l l y w o m e n a n d g i r l s
i n d o m e s t i c s e r v i t u d e , are o f t e n s e x u a l l y e x
p l o i t e d as w e l l .
SEX TRAFFICKING
W h e n an a d u l t is c o e r c e d , f o r c e d , or d e c e i v e d
i n t o p r o s t i t u t i o n — o r m a i n t a i n e d i n p r o s -
t i t u t i o n t h r o u g h c o e r c i o n — t h a t p e r s o n is a
v i c t i m of t r a f f i c k i n g . A l l o f those i n v o l v e d i n
TRAFFICKING IN P E R S O N S R E P O R T 2011
r e c r u i t i n g , t r a n s p o r t i n g , h a r b o r i n g , r e c e i
v i n g , o r o b t a i n i n g the p e r s o n f o r that p u r p o s e
h a v e c o m m i t t e d a t r a f f i c k i n g c r i m e . S e x t r a
f f i c k i n g also c a n o c c u r w i t h i n debt bondage,
as w o m e n a n d girls are f o r c e d to c o n t i n u e i n p r o s
t i t u t i o n t h r o u g h the use of u n l a w f u l
" d e b t " p u r p o r t e d l y i n c u r r e d t h r o u g h t h e i r t
r a n s p o r t a t i o n , r e c r u i t m e n t , or e v e n t h e i r c r
u d e
" s a l e " — w h i c h e x p l o i t e r s insist they m u s t pay o f
f before they can be free. I t is c r i t i c a l

to u n d e r s t a n d that a p e r s o n ' s i n i t i a l c o n s e n t
to p a r t i c i p a t e i n p r o s t i t u t i o n is n o t l e g a l l y
d e t e r m i n a t i v e : i f they are thereafter h e l d i n s e r v i
c e t h r o u g h p s y c h o l o g i c a l m a n i p u l a t i o n
or p h y s i c a l f o r c e , they are t r a f f i c k i n g v i c t m i s
a n d s h o u l d r e c e i v e benefits o u t l i n e d i n the
P a l e r m o P r o t o c o l a n d a p p h c a b l e d o m e s t i c l
a w s .
BONDED LABOR
O n e f o r m of f o r c e or c o e r c i o n is the use of a b o n d ,
or debt. O f t e n r e f e r r e d to as " b o n d e d
l a b o r " or " d e b t b o n d a g e , " the p r a c t i c e has l o n
g been p r o h i b i t e d u n d e r U . S . l a w by the
t e r m peonage. . . . W o r k e r s a r o u n d the w o r l d f a l l
v i c t i m to debt bondage w h e n t r a f f i c k e r s
or r e c r u i t e r s u n l a w f u l l y e x p l o i t an i n i t i a l
debt the w o r k e r a s s u m e d as p a r t of the terms of
e m p l o y m e n t . W o r k e r s also m a y i n h e r i t debt i n
m o r e t r a d i t i o n a l systems of b o n d e d labor.
I n S o u t h A s i a , f o r e x a m p l e , it is e s t i m a t e d that
there are m i l l i o n s o f t r a f f i c k i n g v i c t i m s
w o r k i n g to p a y off t h e i r a n c e s t o r s ' debts.
DEBT BONDAGE AMONG MIGRANT LABORERS
A b u s e s of c o n t r a c t s a n d h a z a r d o u s c o n d i t i o
n s of e m p l o y m e n t f o r m i g r a n t l a b o r e r s do
n o t n e c e s s a r i l y c o n s t i t u t e h u m a n t r a f f i c k i
n g . H o w e v e r , the i m p o s i t i o n of i l l e g a l costs a n
d
debts o n these l a b o r e r s i n the s o u r c e c o u n t r y ,
often w i t h the s u p p o r t o f labor agencies a n d
e m p l o y e r s in the d e s t i n a t i o n c o u n t r y , c a n c o
n t r i b u t e to a s i t u a t i o n o f debt bondage. T h i s is

the case e v e n w h e n the w o r k e r ' s status i n the c o u n t
r y is tied to the e m p l o y e r i n the c o n t e x t
of e m p l o y m e n t - b a s e d t e m p o r a r y w o r k p r o g r
a m s .
INVOLUNTARY DOMESTIC SERVITUDE
A u n i q u e f o r m of f o r c e d l a b o r is the i n v o l u n t a
r y s e r v i t u d e of d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s , w h o s e
w o r k p l a c e s are i n f o r m a l , c o n n e c t e d to t h e i r
o f f - d u t y l i v i n g q u a r t e r s , a n d n o t o f t e n s h a r
e d
w i t h other w o r k e r s . S u c h an e n v i r o n m e n t , w h i
c h o f t e n s o c i a l l y isolates d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s ,
is c o n d u c i v e to n o n c o n s e n s u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n
since a u t h o r i t i e s c a n n o t i n s p e c t p r i v a t e p r o
p -
erty as easily as they can i n s p e c t f o r m a l w o r k p l a c e
s . I n v e s t i g a t o r s a n d s e r v i c e p r o v i d e r s
r e p o r t m a n y cases of u n t r e a t e d illnesses a n d ,
tragically, w i d e s p r e a d s e x u a l abuse, w h i c h i n
s o m e cases m a y be s y m p t o m s of a s i t u a t i o n of i n
v o l u n t a r y s e r v i t u d e .
FORCED CHILD LABOR
M o s t i n t e r n a t i o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d n a t i
o n a l l a w s r e c o g n i z e c h i l d r e n m a y l e g a l l y
engage
i n c e r t a i n f o r m s of w o r k . T h e r e is a g r o w i n g c
o n s e n s u s , h o w e v e r , that the w o r s t f o r m s of
184 1 C L A S S I S M

c h i l d labor, i n c l u d i n g b o n d e d a n d f o r c e d labor
o f c h i l d r e n , s h o u l d be e r a d i c a t e d . A c h i l d
c a n be a v i c t i m of h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g regardless of
the l o c a t i o n of that n o n c o n s e n s u a l
e x p l o i t a t i o n . I n d i c a t o r s of possible f o r c e d l a
b o r of a c h i l d i n c l u d e s i t u a t i o n s m w h i c h the
c h i l d appears to be i n the c u s t o d y of a n o n - f a m i l y
m e m b e r w h o has the c h i l d p e r f o r m w o r k
that f i n a n c i a l l y benefits s o m e o n e outside the c h i l d
' s f a m i l y a n d does n o t o f f e r the c h i l d the
o p t i o n of l e a v i n g .
A n t i - t r a f f i c k i n g responses s h o u l d s u p p l e m e n
t , n o t r e p l a c e , t r a d i t i o n a l a c t i o n s against
c h i l d labor, s u c h as r e m e d i a t i o n a n d e d u c a t i o
n . W h e n c h i l d r e n are e n s l a v e d , h o w e v e r ,
t h e i r abusers s h o u l d n o t escape c r i m i n a l p u n i s h
m e n t by v i r t u e of l o n g - s t a n d i n g a d m i n i s t r a -
t i v e responses to c h i l d l a b o r p r a c t i c e s .
CHILD SOLDIERS
C h i l d s o l d i e r i n g is a m a n i f e s t a t i o n of h u m a n
t r a f f i c k i n g w h e n it i n v o l v e s the u n l a w f u l
r e c r u i t m e n t or use of c h i l d r e n — t h r o u g h f o r c
e , f r a u d , o r c o e r c i o n — a s c o m b a t a n t s or f o r
l a b o r or s e x u a l e x p l o i t a t i o n by a r m e d f o r c e s
. P e r p e t r a t o r s m a y be g o v e r n m e n t f o r c e s , p a
r a -
m i l i t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s , or r e b e l g r o u p s . M a
n y c h i l d r e n are f o r c i b l y a b d u c t e d to be used
as c o m b a t a n t s . O t h e r s are u n l a w f u l l y made to w
o r k as p o r t e r s , c o o k s , g u a r d s , s e r v a n t s ,
messengers, or spies. Y o u n g g i r l s c a n be f o r c e d to m
a r r y or h a v e s e x w i t h m a l e c o m b a t a n t s .
B o t h m a l e a n d f e m a l e c h i l d s o l d i e r s are often s

e x u a l l y abused a n d are at high r i s k of
c o n t r a c t i n g s e x u a l l y t r a n s m i t t e d diseases.
CHILD SEX TRAFFICKING
A c c o r d i n g to U N I C E F , as m a n y as t w o m i l l i o n
c h i l d r e n are subjected to p r o s t i t u t i o n i n
the g l o b a l c o m m e r c i a l s e x t r a d e . I n t e r n a t i o
n a l c o v e n a n t s a n d p r o t o c o l s obhgate c r i m i -
n a l i z a t i o n of the c o m m e r c i a l s e x u a l e x p l o i t
a t i o n of c h i l d r e n . T h e use of c h i l d r e n i n the
c o m m e r c i a l s e x trade is p r o h i b i t e d u n d e r both
the P a l e r m o P r o t o c o l a n d U . S . l a w as w e l l
as by legislation i n c o u n t r i e s a r o u n d the w o r l d . T h
e r e can be no e x c e p t i o n s a n d no c u l t u r a l
or s o c i o e c o n o m i c r a t i o n a l i z a t i o n s p r e v e n t
i n g the rescue of c h i l d r e n f r o m s e x u a l s e r v i t u d
e .
S e x t r a f f i c k i n g has d e v a s t a t i n g consequences for
m i n o r s , i n c l u d i n g l o n g - l a s t i n g p h y s i c a l
a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l t r a u m a , disease ( i n c l u d i n
g H I V / A I D S ) , d r u g a d d i c t i o n , u n w a n t e d p r e
g -
nancy, m a l n u t r i t i o n , s o c i a l o s t r a c i s m , a n d
possible d e a t h .
VICTIMS' STORIES
U . S . A .
A l i s s a , 1 6 , m e t a n o l d e r m a n at a c o n v e n i e n c e
s t o r e i n D a l l a s a n d after a f e w dates
a c c e p t e d h i s i n v i t a t i o n to m o v e i n w i t h h i m .
B u t s o o n A l i s s a ' s n e w b o y f r i e n d c o n v i n c e d

TRAFFICKING IN P E R S O N S R E P O R T 2011 | 185
h e r to be a n e s c o r t f o r h i m , a c c o m p a n y i n g m e
n o n dates a n d h a v i n g s e x w i t h t h e m f o r
m o n e y . H e t o o k h e r to a n a r e a k n o w n f o r street p
r o s t i t u t i o n a n d f o r c e d h e r to h a n d
o v e r a l l o f h e r e a r n i n g s . H e m a d e A l i s s a get a t
a t t o o o f h i s n i c k n a m e s , b r a n d i n g h e r as
h i s p r o p e r t y , a n d he p o s t e d p r o s t i t u t i o n a d v
e r t i s e m e n t s w i t h h e r p i c t u r e o n an I n t e r n e t
site. H e r e n t e d h o t e l r o o m s a r o u n d D a l l a s a n d
f o r c e d A l i s s a to h a v e s e x w i t h m e n w h o
r e s p o n d e d to the a d s . T h e m a n , w h o k e p t an a s s
a u l t r i f l e i n the c l o s e t o f h i s a p a r t m e n t ,
t h r e a t e n e d A l i s s a a n d p h y s i c a l l y a s s a u l t e
d h e r o n m u l t i p l e o c c a s i o n s . T h e m a n l a t e r p l
e d
g u i l t y to t r a f f i c k i n g A l i s s a .
H O N D U R A S - U . S . A .
M a i r a w a s 15 w h e n t w o w e l l - d r e s s e d m e n d r i
v i n g a n i c e c a r a p p r o a c h e d h e r a n d t w o
f r i e n d s i n a s m a l l H o n d u r a n v i l l a g e . T h e y t o
l d the g i r l s t h e y w e r e b u s i n e s s m e n a n d
o f f e r e d to take t h e m to the U n i t e d States to w o r k i n
a t e x t i l e f a c t o r y . M a i r a t h o u g h t it
w a s the p e r f e c t o p p o r t u n i t y to h e l p h e r s i n g l e
m o t h e r , w h o s t r u g g l e d to s u p p o r t s e v e n
c h i l d r e n .
B u t u p o n a r r i v i n g i n H o u s t o n , the g i r l s w e r e h
e l d c a p t i v e , beaten, r a p e d , a n d f o r c e d to
w o r k i n c a n t i n a s that d o u b l e d as b r o t h e l s . M e
n w o u l d c o m e to the c a n t i n a a n d choose a

beer a n d a g i r l , s o m e t i m e s as y o u n g as 1 2 . T h e y
w o u l d p a y f o r the beer a n d sit w i t h the
g i r l w h i l e she d r a n k i t . I f they w a n t e d to h a v e s e
x w i t h the g i r l , they w o u l d take her to the
b a c k a n d p a y c a s h f o r a m a t t r e s s , p a p e r t o w e l
s , a n d s p e r m i c i d e . T h e c a p t o r s beat the g i r l s
d a i l y i f they d i d n o t m a k e e n o u g h money.
A f t e r s i x y e a r s , M a i r a w a s able to escape the c a n t
i n a a n d r e t u r n to her m o t h e r w i t h the
h e l p o f a k i n d A m e r i c a n f a m i l y . H e r t w o f r i e
n d s r e m a i n m i s s i n g .
P H I L I P P I N E S - U . S . A .
M a r i a c a m e to the U n i t e d States w i t h s o m e 5 0 o t h
e r F i l i p i n o n a t i o n a l s w h o w e r e p r o m -
i s e d h o u s i n g , t r a n s p o r t a t i o n , a n d l u c r a t i v
e jobs at c o u n t r y c l u b s a n d h o t e l s u n d e r the
guest w o r k e r p r o g r a m . L i k e the o t h e r s , M a r i a d
u t i f u l l y p a i d the s u b s t a n t i a l r e c r u i t m e n t
fees to c o m e to the U n i t e d S t a t e s . B u t w h e n she a r
r i v e d , she f o u n d t h a t t h e r e w a s n o
e m p l o y m e n t s e c u r e d f o r her. S h e d i d n o t w o r k
f o r w e e k s , b u t the r e c r u i t e r s s e i z e d h e r
p a s s p o r t a n d p r o h i b i t e d her f r o m l e a v i n g t h e
i r h o u s e . S h e a n d o t h e r w o r k e r s s l e p t s i d e -
b y - s i d e o n the f l o o r s o f the k i t c h e n , garage, a n d
d i n i n g r o o m . T h e y w e r e fed p r i m a r i l y
c h i c k e n feet a n d i n n a r d s . W h e n the w o r k e r s c o
m p l a i n e d , the r e c r u i t e r s t h r e a t e n e d to
c a l l the p o l i c e or i m m i g r a t i o n s e r v i c e s to a r r
e s t a n d d e p o r t t h e m . A f e d e r a l g r a n d j u r y
i n d i c t e d the t w o d e f e n d a n t s f o r c o n s p i r a c y
to h o l d the w o r k e r s i n a c o n d i t i o n o f f o r c e d
l a b o r .

I N D I A - U . S . A .
R a v i w a s a m o n g h u n d r e d s of w o r k e r s l u r e d to
the U n i t e d States f r o m I n d i a by an o i l r i g
c o n s t r u c t i o n c o m p a n y o p e r a t i n g i n the G u l f
C o a s t . L a c k i n g s k i l l e d w e l d e r s a n d p i p e f i t
t e r s
to h e l p r e b u i l d after H u r r i c a n e K a t r i n a s t r u c k
the area i n 2 0 0 5 , the c o m p a n y b r o u g h t
R a v i a n d o t h e r s f r o m I n d i a o n [ w o r k p e r m i t ]
v i s a s , p r o m i s i n g t h e m p e r m a n e n t visas a n d
residency. B u t , the p r o m i s e s w e r e false. I n s t e a d , R
a v i w a s f o r c e d to l i v e w i t h 2 3 other m e n
i n a s m a l l r o o m w i t h n o p r i v a c y a n d t w o toilets.
T h e c a m p w a s l i n e d w i t h b a r b e d w i r e a n d
CUSSISM
s e c u r i t y g u a r d s , so n o one o n the outside k n e w R a
v i ' s w h e r e a b o u t s . T h e c o m p a n y c h a r g e d
so m u c h f o r f o o d a n d a b u n k b e d t h a t R a v i w a s
unable to send any m o n e y h o m e or r e p a y
the m o n e y he b o r r o w e d f o r h i s t r a v e l e x p e n s e
s to the U n i t e d States. W h e n the w o r k e r s
began o r g a n i z i n g to p r o t e s t t h e i r w o r k i n g c o n
d i t i o n s , the c o m p a n y began a r b i t r a r y f i r i n g s
a n d p r i v a t e d e p o r t a t i o n s of the protest l e a d e r s .
T h o s e w h o r e m a i n e d f i l e d a class a c t i o n
l a w s u i t a n d a p p l i e d f o r T V P A i m m i g r a t i o n s
e r v i c e s .
MOVING TOWARDS A DECADE OF DELIVERY -
PREVENTION

T h e d e m a n d f o r c h e a p goods, s e r v i c e s , l a b o r ,
a n d s e x opens o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r the e x p l o i t a -
t i o n o f v u l n e r a b l e p o p u l a t i o n s . A n d it is o n
this d e m a n d that h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g t h r i v e s .
People are bought a n d s o l d as c o m m o d i t i e s w i t h i n
a n d across b o r d e r s to satisfy d e m a n d
f r o m b u y e r s . Poverty, u n e m p l o y m e n t , l a c k of o
p p o r t u n i t y , s o c i a l u p h e a v a l , a n d p o l i t i c a l
i n s t a b i l i t y f a c i l i t a t e t r a f f i c k e r s ' a b i l i t ) '
to r e c r u i t v i c t i m s , b u t they do n o t i n t h e m s e l v
e s cause
t r a f f i c k i n g . T h e e c o n o m i c r e a l i t y is that h u m
a n t r a f f i c k i n g is d r i v e n by p r o f i t s . I f n o b o d y
p a i d f o r s e x , s e x t r a f f i c k i n g w o u l d n o t e x i s t
. I f n o b o d y p a i d for goods p r o d u c e d w i t h a n y
a m o u n t of s l a v e r y , f o r c e d l a b o r i n m a n u f a c t
u r i n g w o u l d be a t h i n g of the past. I n c r e a s i n g l y ,
a n t i - t r a f f i c k i n g a c t o r s are l o o k i n g to c o m b a
t m o d e r n s l a v e r y f r o m the d e m a n d side r a t h e r
t h a n f o c u s i n g o n arrests a n d p r o s e c u t i o n s (the s
u p p l y side) a l o n e .
G o v e r n m e n t s can go a l o n g w a y t o w a r d t a c k l i n
g d e m a n d . T h e y c a n , f o r e x a m p l e ,
r e q u i r e t h a t g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t o r s a n d s u
b c o n t r a c t o r s ensure that e m p l o y e e s are n o t
h i r e d or r e c r u i t e d t h r o u g h f r a u d u l e n t means
or the use o f e x c e s s i v e fees. S u c h p o l i c i e s
w o u l d i n c r e a s e t r a n s p a r e n c y a n d m a k e it m o
r e d i f f i c u l t f o r u n s c r u p u l o u s labor b r o k e r s
to use debt bondage as a m e a n s of p r o v i d i n g cheap l a b
o r f o r g o v e r n m e n t c o n t r a c t s . T h i s
is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t f o r t h i r d - c o u n t r y
n a t i o n a l s , w h o are o f t e n i m p o r t e d for large
c o n s t r u c t i o n projects a n d w h o are m o r e susceptible

to e x p l o i t a t i o n due to distance a n d
i s o l a t i o n , language b a r r i e r s , a n d d e p e n d e n c e
o n the e m p l o y e r f o r visas o r w o r k p e r m i t s ,
a m o n g o t h e r f a c t o r s . P u b l i c - p r i v a t e p a r t n
e r s h i p s that create t r a n s p a r e n c y i n s u p p l y c h a i
n s
c a n h a v e a s i g n i f i c a n t i m p a c t o n d e m a n d r e d
u c t i o n , h e l p i n g to m a k e f r e e d o m the business
o f b o t h g o v e r n m e n t s a n d the p r i v a t e sector.
G o v e r n m e n t s c a n a t t a c k d e m a n d f o r c o m m e r
c i a l s e x by e s t a b l i s h i n g " z e r o t o l e r a n c e "
p o l i c i e s f o r g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s a n d c o n
t r a c t o r s w h o p a r t i c i p a t e i n t r a f f i c k i n g o r
p r o c u r e c o m m e r c i a l sex acts. S u c h p o l i c i e s s h
o u l d m a k e c l e a r that c o n t r a c t i n g a n d sub-
c o n t r a c t i n g c o m p a n i e s are r e s p o n s i b l e for n o
t i f y i n g e m p l o y e e s of the p r o h i b i t e d b e h a v i o
r ,
a n d they s h o u l d p r o v i d e p e n a l t i e s f o r v i o l a t i
o n s as severe as t e r m i n a t i o n of the c o n t r a c t
and/or d e b a r m e n t f r o m f u t u r e g o v e r n m e n t c o n
t r a c t i n g . T h i s gives c o m p a n i e s , m a n y o f
w h o m s t a n d to lose m u l t i m i l l i o n d o l l a r c o n t r
a c t s if p e n a l i z e d , a m a j o r i n c e n t i v e to e n s u r e
t h a t t h e i r e m p l o y e e s a n d s u b c o n t r a c t o r s are
i n n o w a y c o n t r i b u t i n g to the d e m a n d that
c o n t r i b u t e s to s e x t r a f f i c k i n g .
WATCH WHAT YOU EAT: SLAVERY AND FOOD
T h e d u s t y images o f slaves w o r k i n g o n p l a n t a t i o
n s l i n e b o o k s h e l v e s a n d m u s e u m w a l l s ,
but the d e m a n d f o r c h e a p goods i n a g l o b a l i z e d e
c o n o m y sustains s l a v e r y t o d a y i n f i e l d s

TRAFFICKING IN P E R S O N S R E P O R T 2011 |
a n d f a r m s . T r a n s c o n t i n e n t a l s l a v e r y a n d the
T r i a n g l e T r a d e d r o v e the bygone m e r c a n t i l e
e m p i r e s of E u r o p e a n d the A m e r i c a s . B u t the I n
t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r O r g a n i z a t i o n ( I L O )
estimates 6 0 p e r c e n t of c h i l d l a b o r w o r l d w i d e is
i n a g r i c u l t u r e , a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c t s
c o m p r i s e the largest category of items o n the L i s t of G o
o d s P r o d u c e d by C h i l d L a b o r or
F o r c e d L a b o r p u b l i s h e d by the U . S . D e p a r t m e
n t of L a b o r ( D O L ) .
F r o m the c o c o a f a r m s of W e s t A f r i c a to the c o t t
o n f i e l d s of U z b e k i s t a n to the t o m a t o
f i e l d s o f the U n i t e d States, t h i s m o d e r n f o r m o f
s l a v e r y r e m a i n s c o m m o n i n the a g r i c u l -
t u r a l i n d u s t r y a n d is m a r k e d by t e c h n i q u e s
that are a n y t h i n g b u t m o d e r n . A c c o r d i n g to
D O L , there m a y be m o r e f o r c e d c h i l d l a b o r e r s i
n f a r m i n g t h a n i n m a n u f a c t u r i n g . I n some
c o u n t r i e s , p a r t i c u l a r l y i n S o u t h A s i a , f a m i
l i e s of f a r m e r s c o n t i n u e to i n h e r i t the debts o f
t h e i r ancestors that, i n m a n y cases, have been passed d o w
n for g e n e r a t i o n s . A n d s l a v e r y
r e p o r t e d l y e x t e n d s into the o c e a n s , w i t h f o r c
e d l a b o r r a m p a n t i n the c o m m e r c i a l f i s h i n g
i n d u s t r i e s i n some r e g i o n s .
B u s i n e s s e s a n d g o v e r n m e n t s b o t h h a v e i m p
o r t a n t r o l e s to p l a y i n e r a d i c a t i n g s l a v e r y i n
s u p p l y c h a i n s . I n this age o f i n c r e a s i n g l y a w a
r e c u s t o m e r s , c o m p a n i e s w i l l h a v e to be m o r e
t h o r o u g h i n t r a c i n g t h e i r r a w m a t e r i a l s a n d

m o n i t o r i n g t h e i r s u p p l y c h a i n s . G o v e r n m e
n t s
m u s t be m o r e d i l i g e n t i n e n f o r c i n g e x i s t i n g l
a w s a n d r e g u l a t i o n s . W i t h the passage of n e w
l a w s , r a w m a t e r i a l t r a c e a b i l i t y is s h i f t i n g f
r o m a v o l u n t a r y best p r a c t i c e i n t o a legal obhga-
t i o n . C o m p a n i e s i n a l l i n d u s t r i e s are f a c i n g
g r o w i n g p r e s s u r e to u n d e r s t a n d the c o n d i t i o
n s
u n d e r w h i c h t h e i r r a w m a t e r i a l s w e r e a t t a i n
e d .
PROMULGATING BUSINESS STANDARDS
I n t o d a y ' s g l o b a l i z e d e c o n o m y , there are o f t e
n c o m p l e x i n t e r s e c t i o n s b e t w e e n l e g a l
business
o p e r a t i o n s a n d illegal h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g . I n c
r e a s i n g l y , the p r i v a t e sector is a c k n o w l e d g i n g
its role i n e r a d i c a t i n g h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g , both
i n p r e v e n t a t i v e m e a s u r e s to ensure that cor-
p o r a t i o n s are n o t f u e l i n g d e m a n d f o r f o r c e d l
a b o r a n d i n p r o a c t i v e i n i t i a t i v e s to a l l e v i a t
e or
a m e l i o r a t e s u c h abuses. T h e r e is also g r o w i n g p
u b l i c interest to k n o w w h e r e a n d h o w goods
a n d f o o d s are p r o d u c e d , m a n u f a c t u r e d , p r o c
e s s e d , a n d d i s t r i b u t e d . C o n s u m e r s , a c t i v i s
t s ,
a n d i n v e s t o r s are u r g i n g c o m p a n i e s to sign a n d
i m p l e m e n t e t h i c a l codes o f c o n d u c t .
Businesses p l a y a c r u c i a l r o l e i n e n s u r i n g that f o r
c e d l a b o r does n o t c o n t r i b u t e to the
p r o d u c t s w e buy. G i v e n the c o m p l e x i t y o f t o d a
y ' s s u p p l y c h a i n s , h o w e v e r , the m o s t effec-

t i v e s o l u t i o n s f o r e n d i n g f o r c e d l a b o r w i l l c
o m e f r o m c o l l a b o r a t i o n a m o n g g o v e r n m e n t
s ,
c o r p o r a t i o n s , c i v i l society, a n d c o n s u m e r s . S
o m e recent e x a m p l e s o f m u l t i - s t a k e h o l d e r
a p p r o a c h e s to a d d r e s s i n g s l a v e r y i n s u p p l y
c h a i n s h a v e s h o w n great p r o m i s e .
T h e C a l i f o r n i a T r a n s p a r e n c y i n S u p p l y C h a
i n s A c t of 2 0 1 0 r e q u i r e s r e t a i l sellers a n d
m a n u f a c t u r e r s i n C a l i f o r n i a to p u b l i c l y
disclose t h e i r e f f o r t s to e r a d i c a t e s l a v e r y a n d
h u m a n
t r a f f i c k i n g t h r o u g h o u t their d i r e c t s u p p l y c h
a i n s . T h e l e g i s l a t i o n a p p l i e s to r e t a i l e r s a n
d
m a n u f a c t u r e r s w i t h m o r e than $ 1 0 0 m i l h o n i n
a n n u a l w o r l d w i d e gross receipts. I t affects
m o r e t h a n 3 , 0 0 0 c o m p a n i e s d o i n g business i n C
a l i f o r n i a . T h e s e c o m p a n i e s r e p r e s e n t
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 7 p e r c e n t of e c o n o m i c a c t i v
i t y i n the state, w h i c h has the e i g h t h largest
e c o n o m y i n the w o r l d . B e g i n n i n g i n J a n u a r y 2
0 1 2 , c o m p a n i e s a f f e c t e d by the act w i l l
h a v e to post o n t h e i r w e b s i t e s w h a t p o l i c i e s
they h a v e i n place to e n s u r e that t h e i r s u p p l y
c h a i n s are free of s l a v e r y a n d h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n
g . T h e s e p o l i c i e s can i n c l u d e e v a l u a t i n g a n d
a d d r e s s i n g the r i s k of h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g , a u
d i t i n g s u p p l i e r s , a n d t r a i n i n g e m p l o y e e s a
n d
m a n a g e m e n t o n h u m a n t r a f f i c k i n g a n d slavery.
T h e t e x t o f the C a l i f o r n i a l a w c a n be f o u n d
at http://go.usa.gov/D8n.

j C L A S S I S M
PEOPLE ARE NOT COLLATERAL
O n e of the m o s t c o m m o n a s s u m p t i o n s about " a v
e r a g e " t r a f f i c k i n g v i c t i m s is that they c o m e
f r o m the p o o r e s t , m o s t i s o l a t e d c o m m u n i t i e
s . S t u d i e s of p o p u l a t i o n s i n c o u n t r i e s o f o r i
g i n
f o r t r a n s n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a l t r a f f i c k i n g
h a v e s h o w n that the i n c i d e n c e of t r a f f i c k i n g is
highest a m o n g those w h o h a v e b e c o m e e m p o w e r e
d e n o u g h to a s p i r e to a better l i f e but
h a v e f e w good o p t i o n s f o r f u l f i l l i n g those a s p i
r a t i o n s . T h e y h a v e attended a g i r l s ' s c h o o l
a n d n o w realize they are o v e r e d u c a t e d f o r the f e w
o p t i o n s i n t h e i r v i l l a g e s . T h e y h a v e
seen s o m e o n e r e t u r n h o m e w i t h m o n e y to p r o v i
d e f o r t h e i r f a m i h e s . T h e y h a v e w a t c h e d a
t e l e v i s i o n s h o w that depicts the e x c i t e m e n t of c i
t y l i f e , or they s i m p l y h a v e e n o u g h c o u r a g e
to t r y a n d m a k e a better life f o r t h e m s e l v e s , if o n l
y they k n e w w h e r e to start.
T h a t ' s w h e r e the t r a f f i c k e r s c o m e i n . E x p l o i
t i n g the i n f o r m a t i o n gap, they o f f e r to
m a k e that c o n n e c t i o n — t o a g o o d job, a better l i f e
, a t r a n s p o r t a t i o n o p t i o n . T h e y p r e y o n
t h e i r v i c t i m s ' i n n a t e h o p e a n d a b i l i t y to c o n
c e i v e o f s o m e o p p o r t u n i t y f o r a better l i f e .
T h e y e x p l o i t t h e i r v i c t i m s ' t r u s t a n d c o n f i d
e n c e i n t h e i r o w n a b i h t y to s u c c e e d . T h e y f i n
d
people w h o h a v e n o t h i n g a n d coerce t h e m i n t o u s i
n g t h e i r l i v e s a n d f r e e d o m as c o l l a t e r a l

to guarantee a better f u t u r e . W h i l e broad-based e c o n o
m i c i n i t i a t i v e s c a n n o t a u t o m a t i c a l l y
be c o n s t r u e d as a n t i - t r a f f i c k i n g p r e v e n t i o n
a c t i v i t i e s , g o v e r n m e n t s m u s t r e c o g n i z e the
i n e q u a l i t y o f access to c a p i t a l w h e n c o n s i d e r i
n g e f f o r t s to reduce v u l n e r a b i l i t y to m o d e r n
s l a v e r y M i g r a n t w o r k e r s s h o u l d n o t n e e d to i
n c u r debt f r o m l a b o r b r o k e r s to secure jobs
overseas. I n s t e a d , g o v e r n m e n t s c o u l d p r o v i d e
s m a l l - s c a l e l o a n s to c o v e r t r a v e l costs a n d
p r o t e c t w o r k e r s ' r i g h t s w h i l e they are a b r o a d .
E n t i r e villages s h o u l d not be t r a p p e d i n
b o n d e d l a b o r because o f debts i n h e r i t e d f r o m p r
e v i o u s g e n e r a t i o n s . I n s t e a d , g o v e r n m e n t s
c o u l d p r o v i d e legal a l t e r n a t i v e s f o r c r e d i t a n
d e n f o r c e d e c a d e s - o l d l a w s b a n n i n g g e n e r a
-
t i o n a l debt bondage.
M o d e r n h i s t o r y has p r o v e n that m i c r o c r e d i t a
n d m i c r o f i n a n c e can i m p r o v e the status
o f w o m e n , p r o m o t e better n u t r i t i o n , increase
access to h e a l t h c a r e a n d e d u c a t i o n , a n d
b r o a d e n c o m m u n i t i e s ' access to c r e d i t . W h e n c
o m b i n e d w i t h targeted a n t i - t r a f f i c k i n g p r o -
g r a m m i n g , m i c r o f i n a n c e i n i t i a t i v e s c a n act
as l i b e r a t o r s , p r o v i d i n g o p p o r t u n i t i e s w i t
h o u t
r i s k a n d r e h a b i l i t a t i o n w i t h a m o n e y - b a c k e
d f u t u r e . A n d m i c r o - l e n d i n g is n o t the o n l y
s o l u t i o n — p u t t i n g t r a f f i c k e r s i n p r i s o n a n
d d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e i r i l l - g o t t e n gains to t h e i r v
i c t i m s
is the u l t i m a t e debt f o r g i v e n e s s p r o g r a m .
SENDING AND RECEIVING: THE CHALLENGE OF LABOR

IN A GLOBAL SOCIETY
M i g r a n t s are v u l n e r a b l e to m o d e r n slavery. W o
m e n t r a v e l w i t h d r e a m s of better l i v e s a n d
jobs as w a i t r e s s e s or m a i d s , o n l y to be e n s l a v e d
i n p r o s t i t u t i o n or d o m e s t i c s e r v i t u d e .
W o r k e r s are t r a p p e d i n debt b o n d a g e — i n m y r i
a d w a y s , as a r e s u l t o f the costs o f m i g r a -
t i o n , s u c h as r e c r u i t m e n t fees. A n d it is n o t just i
l l e g a l m i g r a t i o n ; the 2 0 1 1 r e p o r t i n g y e a r
s a w cases a r o u n d the w o r l d w h e r e the v i c t i m s t r
a v e l e d to t h e i r d e s t i n a t i o n c o u n t r y t h r o u g h
l e g a l m e a n s , o n l y to be e n s l a v e d after a r r i v a l .
W h i l e m i g r a t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t t o o l f o r e c o
n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t f r o m the i n d i v i d u a l
l e v e l to the n a t i o n a l l e v e l , there is an u r g e n t n e e
d to s t r e n g t h e n i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o o p e r a t i o n
a n d s t a n d a r d s to m a n a g e l a b o r m i g r a t i o n . A c
c o r d i n g to the l O M , m o s t c o u n t r i e s i n the
w o r l d — a n d not just i n the d e v e l o p i n g w o r l d — l
a c k the c a p a c i t y to manage e f f e c t i v e l y
the i n t e r n a t i o n a l m o b i l i t y o f people today. T h e i
n c r e a s e d f l o w s a n d the d r a m a t i c g r o w t h
o f a p r o f i t - m i n d e d r e c r u i t m e n t i n d u s t r y that
operates across b o r d e r s m e a n t h a t t o d a y ' s
BONDS O F S I S T E R H O O D — B O N D S O F O P P R E
S S I O N |
labor. E m p l o y e d m i d d l e - a n d u p p e r - m i d d l e
class w o m e n escaped the d o u b l e day s y n -
d r o m e by h i r i n g p o o r w o m e n o f c o l o r to p e r f o r
m h o u s e w o r k a n d c h i l d c a r e , a n d this w a s

c h a r a c t e r i z e d as p r o g r e s s . S o m e f e m i n i s t s
d e f i n e d d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e as p r o g r e s s i v e
because
t r a d i t i o n a l w o m e n ' s w o r k m o v e d into the l a b o
r m a r k e t a n d b e c a m e p a i d w o r k . H o w e v e r ,
this d e f i n i t i o n neglects the inescapable fact that w h e n w
o m e n h i r e o t h e r w o m e n at l o w
wages to do h o u s e w o r k , b o t h e m p l o y e e s a n d e m
p l o y e r s r e m a i n w o m e n . A s e m p l o y e r s ,
w o m e n c o n t i n u e d to accept r e s p o n s i b i l i t y f o r
h o u s e w o r k e v e n if they s u p e r v i s e d d o m e s t i c s
w h o p e r f o r m e d the a c t u a l labor. . . .
A l t h o u g h the s y s t e m of gender d o m i n a t i o n places
the b u r d e n of h o u s e w o r k o n w o m e n ,
m i d d l e - c l a s s w o m e n h a v e f i n a n c i a l r e s o u r
c e s to escape the d r u d g e r y of h o u s e w o r k by
p a y i n g s o m e o n e else to do h e r w o r k . . . . T h u s , m
i d d l e - c l a s s A m e r i c a n w o m e n a i m to
" l i b e r a t e " t h e m s e l v e s by e x p l o i t i n g w o m e n
o f c o l o r — p a r t i c u l a r l y i m m i g r a n t s — i n the
u n d e r g r o u n d e c o n o m y , f o r l o n g h o u r s at r e l a
t i v e l y l o w w a g e s , w i t h n o benefits.
PHYSICAL LABOR
O n the s u r f a c e , the i d e a of h i r i n g a n o t h e r p e r s
o n to p e r f o r m the h o u s e w i f e ' s p h y s i -
c a l l a b o r a p p e a r s f a i r l y s t r a i g h t f o r w a r d . H
o w e v e r , it is c o m p l i c a t e d by the f a c t t h a t
e m p l o y e r s h i r e p e r s o n s to r e p l a c e l a b o r at o n
c e c o n s i d e r e d d e m e a n i n g a n d c l o s e l y i d e n -
t i f i e d w i t h f a m i l y r o l e s o f m o t h e r s a n d w i v e
s . A s e m p l o y e r s , h o u s e w i v e s d e c i d e w h a t
aspects o f t h e i r p h y s i c a l l a b o r t h e y n o l o n g e r w
a n t to p e r f o r m , a n d i n d o i n g so t h e y

d e t e r m i n e the e m p l o y e e ' s w o r k . T h e needs f u l f
i l l e d t h r o u g h d o m e s t i c s ' p h y s i c a l l a b o r
s t r u c t u r e the w o r k : t h u s s o m e e m p l o y e r s c h o
o s e to i n c l u d e tasks t h a t they f e e l are
d e m e a n i n g , o t h e r s a d d n e w tasks a n d m e t h o d s
o f h o u s e k e e p i n g t h a t they t h e m s e l v e s
n e v e r engage i n , a n d s t i l l o t h e r s are m o r e i n t e r
e s t e d i n h a v i n g t h e i r status a f f i r m e d a n d
e n h a n c e d t h a n i n h a v i n g t h e i r f l o o r s s c r u b b
e d . . . . T h e l i s t o f p h y s i c a l l a b o r r e p o r t e d by
h o u s e h o l d w o r k e r s i n c l u d e d h o u s e c l e a n i n
g , l a u n d r y , s e w i n g , g a r d e n i n g , b a b y s i t t i n g
, a n d
c o o k i n g . . . .
I n t h e i r e f f o r t s to escape the d i f f u s e duties of t h e i
r h o u s e w i f e r o l e s , e m p l o y e r s do n o t
a c k n o w l e d g e w o r k b o u n d a r i e s . E v e n w h e n
the w o r k e r ' s tasks w e r e agreed u p o n i n a v e r b a l
c o n t r a c t , e m p l o y e e s f r e q u e n t l y r e p o r t e d
that e m p l o y e r s requested a d d i t i o n a l d u t i e s . F o r
i n s t a n c e , h o u s e h o l d w o r k e r s c o m m o n l y c o
m p l a i n e d t h a t e m p l o y e r s d i d n o t d i f f e r e n t i
a t e
b e t w e e n h o u s e w o r k a n d c h i l d c a r e . I n h e r i n
t e r v i e w s w i t h w o m e n h i r e d to d o c h i l d care i n
N e w Y o r k C i t y , K a t h y D o b i e f o u n d t h a t " m a n
y o f the w o m e n are h i r e d as n a n n i e s a n d t h e n
a s k e d i f they w o u l d n ' t m i n d s t r a i g h t e n i n g up
a bit. T h e y are a s k e d i f they w o u l d n ' t c l e a n ,
t h e n s h o p , then do the l a u n d r y , t h e n , e t c . " O n e
c h i l d care w o r k e r t o l d D o b i e :
I give her c o f f e e . I take c a r e o f S t e p h e n . I d o the l a
u n d r y . I go o u t a n d d o the s h o p -
p i n g . I b u y h e r b i r t h c o n t r o l t a b l e t s . I c o u l d

n ' t b e l i e v e that. . . . E v e n the l i g h t b u l b s
i n the c e i l i n g , I c h a n g e . E v e n h e r p a n t i e s , I p i
c k t h e m u p w h e n she d r o p s t h e m o n
the f l o o r .
. . . O n e o f the m o s t c o m m o n e x p e r i e n c e s r e p o r
t e d by w o m e n o f c o l o r i n r e f e r e n c e to
d i f f e r e n t s t a n d a r d s w a s the request to s c r u b f l o
o r s o n t h e i r h a n d s a n d k n e e s r a t h e r t h a n
s i m p l y m o p p i n g . M a g g i e H o l m e s s u m m e d up
the feelings of m o s t w o m e n o f c o l o r : " T h e y
[ w h i t e w o m e n e m p l o y e r s ] d o n ' t get o n t h e i r k
n e e s , but t h e y d o n ' t t h i n k n o t h i n ' about
a s k i n ' a b l a c k w o m a n . " . . .
194 I C L A S S I S M
EMOTIONAL LABOR
. . . D o m e s t i c s are h i r e d n o t o n l y f o r t h e i r p h y
s i c a l l a b o r but to do e m o t i o n a l l a b o r . . . . O n e
c l u e to the i m p o r t a n c e e m o t i o n a l l a b o r has f o r
the e m p l o y e r c a n be f o u n d i n a c c o u n t s
s h o w i n g the l a c k o f c o n c e r n o v e r the amount of h o
u s e w o r k c o m p l e t e d . . . .
W h e n I w e n t there they t o l d m e , " W e ' r e n o t p a y i n
g y o u to s c r u b f l o o r s , but p a y i n g y o u
just to ta ke c a r e o f the w o m a n , be a c o m p a n i o n - l i
k e " ; but I w o u l d d o i t a l l . I f she w a s
s i c k , I w o u l d stay n i g h t s . I n the s u m m e r we w o u
l d r e n t a s u m m e r cottage a n d I w e n t
there for f i v e y e a r s w i t h her.

O n e C h i c a n a I i n t e r v i e w e d e x p l a i n e d w h y
she c o n t i n u e d w o r k i n g f o r a s e v e n t y - e i g h t -
y e a r - o l d e m p l o y e r w h o l i v e d a l o n g distance f r
o m her, regardless o f the l o w w a g e s : " I
guess y o u c a n say she needs c o m p a n i o n s h i p . I feel s
o r r y f o r her, y o u k n o w , she is one o f
m y f a r t h e s t ones [ e m p l o y e r s ] . I go once a m o n t h
to her h o u s e . I l i k e to go e a r l y so I c a n
sit a n d t a l k to h e r . "
D o m e s t i c s a l m o s t i n v a r i a b l y f o u n d t h e m s e
l v e s c o u n s e l i n g a n d c o n s o l i n g t h e i r e m p l o y
-
ers. M r s . O k a m u r a d e s c r i b e d the f o l l o w i n g w o
r k s i t u a t i o n to G l e n n :
I ' d been w o r k i n g f o r a l a d y f o r t w o h o u r s a w e e
k f o r a l o n g t i m e , but she d i d n ' t e v e n
give m e a c h a n c e to w o r k . U p o n m y a r r i v a l , she k
e p t t a l k i n g a n d g o i n g o n a n d o n . F o r
m e , h o u s e w o r k w a s m u c h easier because e v e n t h o
u g h I d i d n ' t u n d e r s t a n d E n g l i s h w e l l ,
I s t i l l h a d to say, " I s t h a t s o ? " " n o " a n d " y e s . " .
. . T h e y just w a n t e d to c o m p l a i n a b o u t
t h e i r s o n or t h e i r s o n ' s w i f e .
G i f t - g i v i n g is d o m e s t i c w o r k e r s ' a l m o s t u n i
v e r s a l e x p e r i e n c e a n d stands as the m o s t
o b v i o u s s y m b o l o f e m p l o y e r s ' m a t e r n a l i s m
. S t r u c t u r a l l y , g i f t - g i v i n g o c c u p i e s an i m p
o r t a n t
p l a c e w i t h i n the u n d e r g r o u n d e c o n o m y , w h e
r e b y w o r k i n g - c l a s s w o m e n are o f t e n g i v e n
presents by m i d d l e - c l a s s e m p l o y e r s i n l i e u of h i
g h e r wages a n d benefits. C h i c a n a s r e p o r t e d
that C h r i s t m a s gifts to t h e m or t h e i r c h i l d r e n w e

r e m o r e c o m m o n than a n n u a l raises.
U n l i k e g i f t - g i v i n g i n o t h e r w o r k settings, gifts f
r e q u e n t l y r e p l a c e h i g h e r w a g e s , r a i s e s , or
o t h e r benefits. T h e f o l l o w i n g quote f r o m a d o m e s
t i c describes c o n d i t i o n s u n d e r w h i c h
the gift o c c u r s : " I ' m t r y i n g to s h o w y o u they w o u
l d do s o m e t h i n g nice f o r y o u w h e n
t h e y r e a l l y f e l t y o u n e e d e d i t . B u t they w o u l d
n ' t p a y y o u n o t h i n g but these m e n i a l w a g e s .
N o b o d y else p a i d m o r e , a n d n o b o d y w a n t e d to b
r e a k the s t a n d a r d . " . . .
E m p l o y e r s i n d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e c o m m o n l y r
e d e f i n e as gifts i t e m s t h a t w o u l d h a v e gone
to the S a l v a t i o n A r m y or the t r a s h . G l e n n f o u n d
that o l d clothes a n d other d i s c a r d e d i t e m s
w e r e the m o s t c o m m o n gifts g i v e n to J a p a n e s e A
m e r i c a n d o m e s t i c s . I f o u n d a s i m i l a r
case a m o n g C h i c a n a d o m e s t i c s . J u d i t h W a r n e
r a n d H e l e n H e n d e r s o n r e p o r t e d that s i x t y
p e r c e n t o f the 2 0 0 M e x i c a n i m m i g r a n t w o m e n
s u r v e y e d i n L a r e d o r e c e i v e d used c l o t h e s
f r o m t h e i r e m p l o y e r s . T h i s p r a c t i c e o f g i v i
n g o l d clothes w i t h i n a w o r k setting is u n i q u e to
d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e . I t is a l m o s t i n c o n c e i v a b l
e t h a t the same w o m a n w o u l d c o n s i d e r o f f e r i n g
h e r o l d l i n e n j a c k e t to her secretary.
S S I O N |
PURCHASING STATUS BY HIRING A WOMAN OF COLOR
T a k i n g a n i n n o v a t i v e r e s e a r c l i tack of a n a l y z

i n g f a m i l y p h o t o g r a p h s , [one r e s e a r c h e r ]
o b s e r v e d the i m p o r t a n c e of race a n d e t h n i c i t y
i n a f f i r m i n g e m p l o y e r s ' class a n d r a c i a l
status i n t h e i r c o m m u n i t i e s . I n her a n a l y s i s of e
m p l o y e r s ' f a m i l y a l b u m s , she o b s e r v e d that
" a n a t t r a c t i v e , w e l l - d r e s s e d b l a c k d o m e s t i
c s i g n i f i e d the f a m i l y ' s m e m b e r s h i p i n 'the
better
c l a s s ' i n the c o m m u n i t y . " I n subsequent i n t e r v i e
w s w i t h d o m e s t i c s , [she] a s k e d a b o u t their
i n c l u s i o n i n the e m p l o y e r s ' f a m i l y p o r t r a i t s
. T h e s e A f r i c a n A m e r i c a n w o m e n c o n f i r m e d
that " w h i t e s ' l i k e d to dress b l a c k s u p ' a n d sought
to s h o w that they h a d ' g o o d - l o o k i n g
s e r v a n t s . ' "
T h e p h y s i c a l a p p e a r a n c e s o f h o u s e h o l d w o r
k e r s c a n be f u r t h e r m a n i p u l a t e d to f u n c t i o n
as v i s i b l e signs of the h i e r a r c h i c a l status d i s t i n g
u i s h i n g d o m e s t i c s f r o m e m p l o y e r s . . . . W h i t
e
u n i f o r m s are used to d i s t i n g u i s h the m a i d f r o m f
a m i h e s a n d f r i e n d s , p a r t i c u l a r l y w h e n
e m p l o y e r s fear that o t h e r s m i g h t m i s t a k e the
reason for her p r e s e n c e . . . . " T h e m a i d puts
on a u n i f o r m w h e n there's c o m p a n y " ; o t h e r w i s e
she is a l l o w e d to w e a r jeans. M o s t p r i v a t e
h o u s e h o l d w o r k e r s r e p o r t that e m p l o y e r s
request a u n i f o r m to be w o r n o n p a r t i c u l a r
o c c a s i o n s , s u c h as s e r v i n g a s p e c i a l d i n n e r
or p a r t y or w h e n a c c o m p a n y i n g the f a m i l y o n
v a c a t i o n . M r s . N i s h i e x p r e s s e d her o p i n i o n
of the e m p l o y e r ' s request to G l e n n : " I h a d to
dress up i n the m a i d ' s o u t f i t w h e n they h a d d i n n e r
parties. I t w a s a l l p a r t of it a b o u t h o w
p h o n e y these people w e r e that I w o r k e d f o r . " . . .

PURCHASING DEFERENCE
C o n f i r m a t i o n of the e m p l o y e r ' s status is n o t a l w
a y s a c c o m p l i s h e d by the m e r e p h y s i c a l
pr esence of w o m e n of c o l o r or w h i t e u n i f o r m s ; it
f r e q u e n t l y r e q u i r e s d a i l y p r a c t i c e s o f
d e f e r e n t i a l b e h a v i o r that c o n t i n u a l l y a f f i r
m a n d e n h a n c e the d o m e s t i c ' s i n f e r i o r i t y . . . .
She [ e m p l o y e r ] w o u l d m a k e m e feel l i k e I w a s n
o t h i n g or l i k e I w a s d o i n g this [ d o m e s -
t i c s e r v i c e ] because I w a s so p o o r or because I w a s a
M e x i c a n . O n e day she said that
M e x i c a n p e o p l e are a l l v e r y p o o r . T h e y w e r e n
' t e d u c a t e d . A n d that d i d i t ! I d r o p p e d
w h a t I w a s d o i n g . I left it there a n d I s a i d , " h e r e
take this a n d s h o v e i t . I d o n ' t h a v e to
take this abuse f r o m y o u or f r o m anybody. I ' m M e x i c a
n , y e s , but I ' m p r o u d o f w h a t I
am a n d I ' m w o r k i n g . " I says, " E v e r y b o d y has a
job a n d I h a v e this as m y job a n d i f y o u
f e l t this w a y , y o u d i d n ' t h a v e to h i r e m e . " . . .
A n o t h e r c o m m o n a n d a l m o s t u n i v e r s a l p r a c t
i c e w a s to address d o m e s t i c s by t h e i r f i r s t
n a m e s a n d e m p l o y e r s by t h e i r last n a m e s . E m p
l o y e r E l i n o r B i r n e y r e v e a l e d the s i g n i f i c a n
c e
of the p r a c t i c e to S u s a n T u c k e r w h e n she e x p r e s
s e d her c o n c e r n o v e r her d a u g h t e r ' s r e f u s a l
to f o l l o w the c u s t o m : " T h e s e r v a n t calls the w o m
a n M a r y a n d M a r y calls the s e r v a n t by
h e r n a m e . N o w , I t h i n k y o u r e m p l o y e r - e m p l
o y e e r e l a t i o n s h i p s o m e t i m e s c o u l d get v e r y
s t i c k y i f y o u d o n ' t h a v e some s e p a r a t i o n . "

West I n d i a n d o m e s t i c s r e p o r t e d that e m p l o y -
ers i n N e w Y o r k used t h e i r f i r s t n a m e s but e x p e c
t e d to be addressed f o r m a l l y . L a u r i n o
r e m a r k e d o n the i r o n y o f the p r a c t i c e because a d
o m e s t i c w a s i n the p o s i t i o n of k n o w i n g
" t h e p e r s o n a l details of the e m p l o y e r ' s l i f e , yet
w i l l m o s t l i k e l y address her as M i s s or
M r s . — a n d i n r e t u r n , s h e ' l l be c a l l e d by her first
n a m e . "
C L A S S I S M
S e v e r a l C h i c a n a d o m e s t i c s s i m i l a r l y r e p o r
t e d that e m p l o y e r s r e f u s e d to p r o n o u n c e t h e i r
names c o r r e c t l y a n d e v e n t u a l l y A n g l i c i z e d t
h e m . O n the basis of the stereotype that a l l
M e x i c a n w o m e n are n a m e d M a r i a , w h i t e e m p l
o y e r s i n the S o u t h w e s t f r e q u e n t l y r e f e r to
a l l L a t i n a d o m e s t i c s as " M a r i a . "
D e f e r e n t i a l b e h a v i o r is also c o n s t r u c t e d t h r
o u g h eating a r r a n g e m e n t s . R a r e l y d i d
d o m e s t i c s eat i n the d i n i n g r o o m or i n the presence
of m i s t r e s s e s ' h u s b a n d s . M r s . G a r c i a
r e m e m b e r e d a n e m p l o y e r w h o t o l d h e r : " I f y
o u b r o u g h t y o u r l u n c h y o u w a i t out i n y o u r
c a r or i n the p a t i o or out i n the street or w h e r e e v e r .
" W e s t I n d i a n s i n N e w Y o r k C i t y
e m p l o y e d as l i v e - i n w o r k e r s f a c e d the a r c h e t
y p a l s i t u a t i o n o f the d o m e s t i c e a t i n g alone i n
the k i t c h e n . A s one w o m a n d e s c r i b e d , " I c o u l d
n ' t eat w i t h t h e m at the table. . . . I h a v e to
eat after they f i n i s h e a t i n g . . . . A n d t h e n I eat i n the
k i t c h e n . " A w a r e o f the status h i e r a r c h y

p r o d u c e d f r o m acts o f d e f e r e n c e , the w o m a n q u
o t e d above also c o m m e n t e d that " t h e r e are
p e o p l e w h o d o t h a t because they w a n t us to k n o w
that w e are n o t e q u a l . " A n o t h e r W e s t
I n d i a n w o m a n d e s c r i b e d the p u r p o s e o f d e f e r
e n t i a l e a t i n g a r r a n g e m e n t s as a w a y to create
s y m b o l s o f h e r i n f e r i o r i t y : " T h e f i r s t day I
got there [the e m p l o y e r ] t o o k o u t a f o r k a n d
a p l a t e a n d t o l d m e that this w a s m i n e to a l w a y s
use. T h e y gave m e the i m p r e s s i o n that I
w a s n ' t c l e a n e n o u g h . "
H o u s e h o l d - l a b o r n e g o t i a t i o n s f r e q u e n t l y
o c c u r w i t h i n the u n d e r g r o u n d e c o n o m y ; they
i n v o l v e f e w g o v e r n m e n t r e g u l a t i o n s . C o n s
e q u e n t l y , e m p l o y e r s h a v e e n o r m o u s l e e w a y
to d e t e r m i n e the w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s by setting
w a g e s , e s t a b l i s h i n g job d e s c r i p t i o n s , a n d
d e t e r m i n i n g the w o r k s t r u c t u r e . . . . E m p l o y e
r s decide w h e t h e r to give raises, a n d they u s u -
a l l y decide w h e t h e r soci al s e c u r i t y or benefits are o
b t a i n e d . D o m e s t i c s h a v e l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e
o v e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o n s outsi de the c h o i c e to
accept a job o r to q u i t . G i v e n the p o w e r
t h a t e m p l o y e r s e x e r t o v e r w o r k i n g c o n d i t i o
n s , d o m e s t i c s — m o r e t h a n o t h e r w o r k e r s — f
e e l
d e p e n d e n t o n a n d at the m e r c y o f t h e i r e m p l o y
e r s . S i n c e the m a j o r i t y o f h o u s e h o l d w o r k -
ers are not u n i o n i z e d , the struggle to i m p r o v e w o r k
i n g c o n d i t i o n s r e m a i n s a n i n d i v i d u a l
struggle.
T h e s ys tem of gifts a n d o b l i g a t i o n s i n d o m e s t i c
s e r v i c e tends to shape the p e r s o n a l i s m i n
the e m p l o y e e - e m p l o y e r r e l a t i o n s h i p i n t o a

strategy o f o p p r e s s i o n . R e d e f i n i n g w o r k o b l i g
a -
t i o n s as f a m i l y or f r i e n d s h i p o b h g a t i o n s
assures e m p l o y e r s access to both the e m o t i o n a l
a n d the p h y s i c a l l a b o r o f t h e i r e m p l o y e e s . P e
r s o n a l i s m c a m o u f l a g e s w o r k c o n d i t i o n s w h
i c h
b e c o m e d i s t o r t e d a n d u n i n t e l h g i b l e w i t h i n
the c o n t e x t of the i n t e r p e r s o n a l r e l a t i o n s h i p
s
b e t w e e n d o m e s t i c s a n d e m p l o y e r s . E m p l o y
e r s ' r e f u s a l to relate to d o m e s t i c s ' c o n c e r n s as
w o r k e r s ' r i g h t s d i s t o r t s the r e a l c o n d i t i o n s
of t h e i r i n t e r a c t i o n .
JUST LIKE ONE OF THE FAMILY
A l i c e C h i l d r e s s testi fi ed to the w a y that p e r s o n a l
r e l a t i o n s h i p s d i s t o r t w o r k i n g c o n d i -
t i o n s i n her essay o n the f a m i l y a n a l o g y i n Like
One of the Family: Conversations From
a Domestic's Life. T h e d o m e s t i c ' s v i e w o f the e m p l
o y e r ' s a t t e m p t to r e d e f i n e her as " o n e
o f the f a m i l y " r a t h e r t h a n as a d o m e s t i c w a s p r
e s e n t e d i n a n e x c h a n g e b e t w e e n the t w o .
M i l d r e d , the d o m e s t i c , o v e r h e a r d the e m p l o y
e r t e l l a f r i e n d :
" W e j u s t l o v e h e r ! S h e ' s like one o f the f a m i l y a n
d she ust adores o u r little C a r o l ! W e
d o n ' t k n o w what w e ' d d o w i t h o u t h e r ! W e d o n ' t
t h i n k o f h e r as a s e r v a n t ! "

S S I O N j
M i l d r e d r e s p o n d e d later to the e m p l o y e r ' s c h a r
a c t e r i z a t i o n by l i s t i n g the w a y s her i n t e r -
a c t i o n w i t h the f a m i l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d her as a n
o n m e m b e r , an o u t s i d e r w i t h i n f e r i o r status.
T h e f a m i l y eats i n the d i n i n g r o o m a n d I eat i n the
k i t c h e n . Y o u r m a m a b o r r o w s y o u r
lace table c l o t h f o r her c o m p a n y a n d y o u r son e n t e
r t a i n s h i s f r i e n d s i n y o u r p a r l o r ,
y o u r d a u g h t e r takes her a f t e r n o o n n a p o n the l i v
i n g r o o m c o u c h a n d the p u p p y sleeps
o n y o u r s a t i n s p r e a d . . . a n d w h e n e v e r y o u r h
u s b a n d gets t i r e d o f s o m e t h i n g y o u are
t a l k i n ' a b o u t he says, " O h , f o r Pete's s a k e , forget i t
. . . . " So y o u c a n see I a m not just
l i k e the f a m i l y .
A l t h o u g h the p h r a s e " o n e o f the f a m i l y "
represents " t h e e p i t o m e of the p e r s o n a l i z e d
e m p l o y e r - e m p l o y e e a s s o c i a t i o n , " d o m e s t
i c s ' use o f the f a m i l y a n a l o g y p o i n t s to aspects
o f the e m o t i o n a l l a b o r that s o m e w o r k e r s are w i
l l i n g to accept a n d those t h a t they reject.
O n the one h a n d , t h i s a n a l o g y suggests t h a t d o m e
s t i c s are engaged i n the e m o t i o n a l l a b o r
i n v o l v e d i n n u r t u r i n g a n d c a r i n g ; o n the other
h a n d , it suggests that d o m e s t i c s are treated
w i t h respect a n d are n o t f o r c e d i n t o d o i n g the e m
o t i o n a l l a b o r r e q u i r e d to create d e f e r e n c e .
THE BUSINESSLIKE RELATIONSHIP
E s t a b l i s h i n g a n d m a i n t a i n i n g a b u s i n e s s l i
k e r e l a t i o n s h i p is d i f f i c u l t i n m a n y respects.

V i r t u a l l y a l l c o n t e m p o r a r y jobs are s t r u c t u r e
d to i n c l u d e b r e a k s . H o w e v e r , r e g u l a r m o r n -
i n g a n d a f t e r n o o n b r e a k s are aspects o f w o r k c u l
t u r e absent f r o m d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e . . . .
O n e of the biggest p r o b l e m s w i t h h o u s e h o l d w o r
k is that the e m p l o y e r s w o r k y o u too
h a r d . T h e y w a n t y o u to do e v e r y t h i n g i n one day.
T h e y a r e n ' t sensitive to y o u e v e n
t a k i n g a h a l f h o u r l u n c h b r e a k .
S t r u c t u r i n g b r e a k s a n d time o f f is a p a r t i c u l a
r l y s e r i o u s p r o b l e m f o r l i v e - i n d o m e s t i c s
because the h o u r s , tasks a n d o b l i g a t i o n s o f the job
are c o n s t a n t l y r e d e f i n e d . F u r t h e r m o r e ,
l i v e - i n w o r k e r s even f i n d it d i f f i c u l t to
guarantee t h e i r days off. . . .
T h u r s d a y w a s m y d a y off. B u t e v e r y T h u r s d a y
m o r n i n g , she w o u l d get u p as she d i d
e v e r y other m o r n i n g a n d give m e s o m e t h i n g to d
o . A n d u s u a l l y she w o u l d say y o u c a n
leave after y o u d o so a n d s o . W e l l , o f t e n by the time I
f i n i s h e d the task, or g i v i n g the
c h i l d r e n l u n c h it w a s u s u a l l y after 2 o ' c l o c k a n
d I h a d n o r e a l d a y off.
L i k e other e m p l o y e r s w h o h i r e w o r k e r s in the u n
d e r g r o u n d e c o n o m y , m i d d l e - c l a s s
h o u s e w i v e s s e l d o m s t r u c t u r e a regular r o u t i n
e f o r raises. T h e C h i c a n a s w h o w e r e i n t e r -
v i e w e d i n D e n v e r r a r e l y f o u n d e m p l o y e r s w
h o o f f e r e d raises a n n u a l l y or o n a n y r e g u l a r
basis. D o m e s t i c s g e n e r a l l y f e e l that d o m e s t i c s
e r v i c e is l i k e a n y o t h e r type o f job a n d t h a t
e m p l o y e r s s h o u l d thus u n d e r s t a n d t h a t raises

are p a r t o f h i r i n g w o r k e r s . . . .
I n t h e i r a c c o u n t s o f r e q u e s t i n g raises, s o m e d o
m e s t i c s e x p r e s s e d a n e e d to f o r c e e m p l o y -
ers to r e c o g n i z e that d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e is " r e a l
w o r k . " . . .
So one day I say to her, I say, " M i z B r o w n , " I s a i d , " t
h i n g s is h i g h n o w . " I say, " A n d
w h a t y o u pay f o r m e a t a n d b r e a d , " I say, " t h a t ' s
w h a t I h a v e to pay, t o o . " I say, " I been
w o r k i n g here f o r a l o n g t i m e . " I say, " I ' d h k e a r a
i s e . "
198 I C L A S S I S M
Wages are the tip of the iceberg. Benefits assumed i n other w o
r k i n g e n v i r o n m e n t s : o v e r t i m e ,
v a c a t i o n , sick pay, a health care p l a n , a n d any
procedures for redress of grievances, are r a r e l y
i f ever f o u n d i n domestic service. A t the same time,
negative sanctions against employees are
c o m m o n , domestics report that e m p l o y e r s e x p e c t
breakage costs to be borne by the w o r k e r s .
C o n s i d e r the f o l l o w i n g account by one of the C h i c a
n a s w h o m I i n t e r v i e w e d . A f t e r w a x i n g the
k i t c h e n floor, M r s . T a f o y a left an open c a n of floor
w a x on the d i n i n g r o o m table. W h i l e she
w a s upstairs v a c u u m i n g , her e m p l o y e r opened the
shding doors n e x t to the d i n i n g r o o m table
to let a breeze i n . T h e curtains f l e w u p , tipped the c a n ,
a n d spilled f l o o r w a x onto the table.
M r s . T a f o y a w a s h e l d f i n a n c i a l l y responsible f o
r h a l f of the cost of the repair. . . .

DISCUSSION
D e s c r i p t i v e a c c o u n t s o f f e r e d by w o m e n o f c
o l o r challenge m a n y p e r c e p t i o n s a b o u t the
f u n c t i o n o f d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e i n A m e r i c a n
society' today. E v e n t h o u g h e m p l o y e r s state t h a t
they h i r e d o m e s t i c s to escape the d r u d g e r y o f h o u
s e w o r k a n d to g a i n f r e e d o m to engage
i n other a c t i v i t i e s , d e s c r i p t i o n s o f w o r k i n g c
o n d i t i o n s r e v e a l a m o r e c o m p l e x set of needs.
I n t e r v i e w s w i t h e m p l o y e r s a n d e m p l o y e e s a
l i k e m d i c a t e that d o m e s t i c s e r v i c e s t i l l p e r f
o r m s
i m p o r t a n t f u n c t i o n s i n e n h a n c i n g the status of
m i d d l e - c l a s s h o u s e w i v e s a n d their f a m i l i e s .
M o r e o v e r , the a n a l y s i s of the s t r u c t u r e of paid h
o u s e w o r k reveals that the w o r k i n c l u d e s
b o t h p h y s i c a l a n d e m o t i o n a l labor, m u c h of i t
as s h a d o w w o r k a n d u n p a i d l a b o r .
T h e daily rituals a n d practices of domestic service reproduce
the systems o f gender, class,
a n d race d o m i n a t i o n . A l l o f the gender-specific
aspects of u n p a i d h o u s e w o r k — i d e n t i f i e d i n the
housewife e x p e r i e n c e — a r e also present in domestic
service. E v e n though domestics are p a i d
w o r k e r s , they do not escape the s e x i s m attached to h o u
s e w o r k but rather c a r r y the burden f o r
their middle-class w o m e n employers. T h e never-ending job
described by housewives is trans-
ferred to w o r k e r s e m p l o y e d by w o m e n w h o treat
domestic service as a n o p p o r t u n i t y to " h i r e
a w i f e . " E m p l o y e r s frequently disregard the c o n t r a
c u i a l or i n f o r m a l labor arrangement made
w i t h employees, constantly increasing the w o r k load a n d i

n c o r p o r a t i n g m o r e of their o w n
h o m e m a k i n g duties a n d obligations. H o u s e h o l d w o
r k e r s are faced w i t h tasks that both exceed
their job descriptions and are as emotionally a n d physically
burdensome as those completed
by housewives. T h e most c o m m o n v i o l a t i o n of the
original labor agreement is the practice of
adding c h i l d care to general housecleaning instead of keeping
the t w o jobs separate.
P a i d h o u s e w o r k t h a t is s t r u c t u r e d to r e p l i c a
t e the u n p a i d d o m e s t i c w o r k of the h o u s e -
w i f e i n c l u d e s p r a c t i c e s a f f i r m i n g w o m e n ' s
i n f e r i o r i t y . T h e s e x i s t d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r t h
a t
e x i s t s i n e m p l o y e r s ' h o m e s , a s s i g n i n g m o t h
e r s a n d w i v e s the d u t y o f w a i t i n g o n a n d s e r v i
n g
t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d c h i l d r e n , is passed o n to the d
o m e s t i c s . M i d d l e - c l a s s w o m e n e m p l o y e r s
w h o e x p e c t w o m e n h o u s e h o l d w o r k e r s to " p i
c k u p " after t h e i r h u s b a n d s a n d c h i l d r e n
r e p r o d u c e the d e m e a n i n g a n d s e x i s t aspects o f h
o u s e w o r k . R e j e c t i o n of s u c h s e x i s t p r a c -
tices is r e f l e c t e d t h r o u g h o u t the s e r v i c e sector w
h e n w o r k e r s refuse to " p i c k u p " after
o t h e r s by s a y i n g , " I a m n o t y o u r m o t h e r . " I n
the same v e i n , d o m e s t i c s resist p r a c t i c e s that
s t r u c t u r e p a i d h o u s e w o r k to a f f i r m s e x i s t c u
l t u r a l v a l u e s by r e q u i r i n g the e m p l o y e r to
c o n f r o n t h e r c h i l d r e n a n d h u s b a n d a b o u t l e a
v i n g t h e i r c l o t h e s a n d w e t t o w e l s o n the f l o o r
,
l e a v i n g dishes a n d glasses t h r o u g h o u t the h o u s e ,
a n d n o t t h r o w i n g t r a s h i n t o the garbage.
H o w e v e r , m a n y w o m e n e m p l o y e r s s i m p l y

perpetuate the s e x i s t d i v i s i o n o f l a b o r by pass-
i n g o n the m o s t d e v a l u e d w o r k in t h e i r l i v e s to
a n o t h e r w o m a n — g e n e r a l l y a w o m a n of
c o l o r . T h u s , w h i t e m i d d l e - c l a s s w o m e n
escape the stigma of " w o m e n ' s w o r k " by l a y i n g the
b u r d e n o n w o r k i n g - c l a s s w o m e n of c o l o r .
BECOMING AN ALLY
A m e r i c a n h o m o s e x u a l s o c c u p y in the gender s y
s t e m c a n p r o v i d e queer m e n w i t h a m e a n s
to c o n s t r u c t i d e n t i t i e s that alter p a t r i a r c h y a n
d create c o a l i t i o n s of change w i t h others.
T h e g e n d e r e d basis of L a t i n A m e r i c a n h o m o s e
x u a l i t y , h o w e v e r , m u s t be t e m p e r e d by the
p r o t e c t i o n of the i n d i v i d u a l that A m e r i c a n
gayness so h e a v i l y e m p h a s i z e s . B y e n s u r i n g
that i n d i v i d u a l s are a l l o w e d to d e v e l o p a n d c r e
a t i v e l y c o n s t r u c t their o w n i d e n t i t i e s , the
gen dered a r t i c u l a t i o n o f h o m o s e x u a l i t y i n L a
t i n A m e r i c a c a n become t r u l y e m a n c i p a t o r y .
T h i s mestizajo c o m b i n a t i o n is w h a t I seek to create
by h v i n g i t e v e r y d a y .
I recognize the p o t e n t i a l dangers of engaging in the
selective e x t r a c t i o n a n d m i x i n g of
elements f r o m d i v e r s e c u l t u r e s , b u t I beheve that
the need f o r n e w f o r m s of h o m o s e x u a l i -
ties ju s ti fi es t a k i n g those r i s k s . A p o l i t i c s of
mestizaje can p r o d u c e an i m p u r e queerness t h a t
is less about h o w e a c h i n d i v i d u a l i d e n t i f i e s , but
i n s t e a d focuses o n h o w i n d i v i d u a l s relate
to one a n o t h e r i n the p u r s u i t of j u s t i c e . C l a i m i
n g c o m m o n cause w i t h o t h e r s , that is b u i l d -

i n g a c o a l i t i o n a l c o m m u n i t y of change, is an u n e
v e n process that m u s t center n o t on the
i d e n t i t i e s p e o p l e w e a r a n d o w n , but i n s t e a d o
n the act of r e l a t i n g . W h o w e relate to a n d
h o w w e relate to t h e m is w h a t s h o u l d d e f i n e us as
queer. T h i n k i n g a b o u t queerness as a set
of r e l a t i o n s m o v e s i t f r o m the r e a l m of i n d i v i d
u a l s e x u a l i d e n t i t y t o w a r d s a w a y of b e i n g .
T h i s s h i f t sets queerness i n the r e a l m of gender, a n a l l
- e n c o m p a s s i n g s c r i p t that defines w h o
a n d w h a t w e are. Mestizaje opens u p the category of
gender, w h i c h is r i g h t f u l l y seen as a
l i m i t i n g f o r c e , i n t o a means to s t r u c t u r e the c o
n f l i c t i n g m i x t u r e of p r i v i l e g e a n d o p p r e s s i
o n
that defi n es m a n y queer m e n ' s m a s c u l i n i t i e s . . . .
L i k e the race m i x i n g that mestiza/o has
t r a d i t i o n a l l y r e f e r r e d to, I a m interested in c r e a t
i n g a gayness that is a m i x t u r e — i m p e r f e c t ,
a l w a y s in process of b e c o m i n g , y e t r e sist ing w i t h
a l l of its m i g h t . I t is t o w a r d s that e n d , that
I w r i t e these notes, t hem selves i m p e r f e c t a n d i n
process of a r t i c u l a t i o n . . . .
References
C a r r i l l o , H . ( 2 0 0 3 ) . " N e i t h e r M a c h o s n o r M
a r i c o n e s : M a s c u l i n i t y a n d E m e r g i n g M a l e H
o m o s e x u a l
I d e n t i t i e s i n M e x i c o . " I n M . C . G u t m a n n ( e d
. ) , Changing Men and Masculinities in Latin America.
D u r h a m , N C : D u k e U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s .
G u z m a n , M . ( 2 0 0 6 ) . Gay Hegemony/Latino
Homosexualities. N e w Y o r k : R o u t l e d g e .
M u n o z , J . E . ( 1 9 9 9 ) . Disidentifications: Queers of

Color and the Performance of Politics. M i n n e a p o -
l i s : U n i v e r s i t y of M i n n e s o t a P r e s s .
84
Becoming an Ally
A New Examination
Nancy J. Evans and Jamie Washington
W h a t does it m e a n to be an a l l y ? S t u d e n t s i n a
graduate p r o g r a m that p r e p a r e s student
a f f a i r s p r o f e s s i o n a l s i n h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n r
e s p o n d e d to this q u e s t i o n w i t h the f o l l o w i n g
r e f l e c t i o n s :
412 I H E T E R O S E X I S M
B e i n g a n a l l y is being s u p p o r t i v e of other p e o p l e
w h o are d i f f e r e n t t h a n y o u . . . . T h i s
s u p p o r t s h o u l d be f l e x i b l e a n d elastic so that it
does n o t d e f i n e a p e r s o n but r a t h e r the
person defines the needed s u p p o r t , (gay m a l e )
B e i n g a n a l l y is b e i n g o p e n to l e a r n i n g . I t is
essential to be o p e n to a d m i t t i n g y o u r
i g n o r a n c e i n o r d e r to grow. B e i n g a n a l l y also r e
q u i r e s a c o m m i t m e n t . . . . B e i n g an a l l y
r e q u i r e s an e x a m i n a t i o n of o u r o w n p r i v i l e g
e . I n o r d e r to be an a l l y w e h a v e to be able
to r e c o g n i z e h o w our p r i v i l e g e m i g h t play a r o l
e in the o p p r e s s i o n of the v e r y group/
i d e n t i t y w e w a n t to be an a l l y to. B e i n g an a l l y is

u s i n g y o u r p o w e r s f o r g o o d , (lesbian)
B e i n g an a l l y is being a w a r e of y o u r o w n i d e n t i t
i e s , a d v o c a t i n g f o r the r i g h t s of o t h e r s ,
s u p p o r t i n g a cause, a n d c h a l l e n g i n g the o p p r e s
s i o n that p a r t i c u l a r p o p u l a t i o n s face. I t
c a n m e a n l e n d i n g a s u p p o r t i v e h a n d to a peer. B
e i n g an a l l y is r e c o g n i z i n g the i n e q u a l -
ity a n d i n e q u i t y that e x i s t s i n societ)', p e r s i s t e n
c e , l e a r n i n g a n d t e a c h i n g , ( h e t e r o s e x u a l
w o m a n )
B e i n g an a l l y is l i s t e n i n g to other v i e w s a n d ideas
w i t h o u t j u d g m e n t ; p u t t i n g y o u r s e l f
i n s o m e o n e else's shoes; r e s p e c t i n g people f o r w h o
they a r e ; a d v o c a t i n g f o r r e s o u r c e s ,
respect, equal t r e a t m e n t , l a w s ; c h a l l e n g i n g y o u
r p r e v i o u s p e r s o n a l beliefs a n d ideas;
w o r k i n g w i t h u n d e r r e p r e s e n t e d p o p u l a t i o
n s to better u n d e r s t a n d t h e m a n d t h e i r
u n i q u e n e e d s ; w a n t i n g to l e a r n h o w to h e l p ,
even i n the little t h i n g s ; u s i n g n o n -
d i s c r i m i n a t i n g l a n g u a g e ; [it is] i m p o r t a n t to
the c a m p u s c l i m a t e a n d o v e r a l l s t u d e n t
d e v e l o p m e n t ; [it is] d i f f i c u l t a n d can have b a c k
l a s h . [ A n a l l y ] m u s t be c o m m i t t e d a n d
ready, ( h e t e r o s e x u a l m a l e )
A n a l l y l o o k s d i f f e r e n t to e v e r y o n e . S o m e t i
m e s an a l l y is a l i s t e n i n g ear a n d a s h o u l d e r
to c r y o n . S o m e t i m e s an a l l y is a fighter, f i g h t i n g
the p o w e r s to see justice d o n e , (het-
e r o s e x u a l w o m a n )
B e i n g an a l l y is c o n f u s i o n , h a r d , being y e l l e d
at, l e a r n i n g , a c c e p t a n c e , f i g h t i n g to
c h a n g e , a n d l e a r n i n g y o u d o n ' t h a v e to be r i g
h t . . . . A n a l l y can be the scapegoat i n
the r o o m . B e i n g a n a l l y is k n o w i n g that y o u h a v

e p r i v i l e g e a n d o p p r e s s i o n s a n d y o u
can use b o t h . S o m e t i m e s it is being c a l l e d out a n d t
r y i n g to realize y o u can l e a r n f r o m
that. L e a r n i n g w h e n y o u can t e l l a s t o r y a n d l e a
r n i n g w h e n y o u c a n ' t e x p l a i n n o matter
w h a t a n d to just shut u p . ( q u e s t i o n i n g w o m a n )
A s these students suggest, being an a l l y is a d i f f i c u l t a
n d c o m p l e x role that can take
on m a n y m e a n i n g s a n d r e q u i r e a w i d e v a r i e t y
o f a c t i o n s , m a n y of w h i c h are c h a l l e n g i n g .
W h a t it m e a n s to be an a l l y o f t e n depends o n w h o
one asks a n d the p a r t i c u l a r s i t u a t i o n
a n d c o n t e x t i n w h i c h one is i n v o l v e d . I n this
essay, w e e x a m i n e v a r i o u s d e f i n i t i o n s of
ally, e x p l o r e factors associated w i t h b e c o m i n g an
ally o f L G B T i n d i v i d u a l s , i n c l u d i n g the
i m p o r t a n c e of r e c o g n i z i n g h e t e r o s e x u a l p r
i v i l e g e , m o t i v a t i o n s f o r b e c o m i n g an ally, the
p r a c t i c e o f advocacy, w h a t an a l l y s h o u l d k n o w ,
a n d p o s i t i v e a n d negative consequences
o f a d v o c a c y . T h i s essay is a r e v i s e d a n d u p d a t e
d v e r s i o n of a c h a p t e r that a p p e a r e d i n the
b o o k . Beyond Tolerance: Gays, Lesbians and Bisexuals on
Campus.
DEFINITIONS
A s m o s t w r i t e r s a n d s c h o l a r s i n the a r e a of o p p
r e s s i o n a n d m u l t i c u l t u r a l e d u c a t i o n w i l l
c o n c u r , o u r language is i m p e r f e c t a n d i n h e r e n t
l y " i s m " - l a d e n or o p p r e s s i v e . T h e r e f o r e ,
c l a r i f y i n g the m e a n i n g of the t e r m , " a l l y , " is i
m p o r t a n t . A c c o r d i n g to Webster's New
World Dictionary of the American Language, an a l l y is " s o
m e o n e j o i n e d w i t h a n o t h e r f o r

a c o m m o n p u r p o s e . " T h i s d e f i n i t i o n serves as a
s t a r t i n g p o i n t f o r d e v e l o p i n g a w o r k i n g
d e f i n i t i o n of ally as this t e r m relates to issues of o p p r
e s s i o n . I n o u r e a r l i e r w o r k , w e
BECOMING AN ALLY I 413
d e f i n e d a l l y as " a p e r s o n w h o is a m e m b e r of the
' d o m i n a n t ' or ' m a j o r i t y ' g r o u p w h o
w o r k s to e n d o p p r e s s i o n i n his or her p e r s o n a l a
n d p r o f e s s i o n a l life t h r o u g h s u p p o r t of,
a n d as a n a d v o c a t e w i t h a n d f o r , the oppressed p o p
u l a t i o n . " M o r e recently, B r o i d o d e f i n e d
a l l i e s as " m e m b e r s o f d o m i n a n t s o c i a l g r o u p
s (e.g., m e n . W h i t e s , h e t e r o s e x u a l s ) w h o are
w o r k i n g to e n d the s y s t e m o f o p p r e s s i o n t h a t
gives t h e m greater p r i v i l e g e a n d p o w e r based
o n t h e i r s o c i a l g r o u p m e m b e r s h i p " ( 2 0 0 0 ) .
W h i l e s i m i l a r to o u r e a r h e r d e f i n i t i o n , B r o i
d o
h i g h l i g h t e d that a l l i e s m u s t w o r k at the s y s t e m
i c l e v e l , as w e l l as the i n d i v i d u a l l e v e l , a n d
m o r e c l e a r l y d e f i n e d w h a t it means to be a m e m b
e r of a d o m i n a n t g r o u p i n terms o f access
to p r i v i l e g e a n d p o w e r .
B o t h d e f i n i t i o n s stress that a l t h o u g h an o p p r e s
s e d p e r s o n c a n c e r t a i n l y be a s u p p o r t e r
a n d a d v o c a t e f o r h i s or her o w n g r o u p , the i m p a
c t a n d effect of s u c h a c t i v i t y are d i f f e r -
ent f o r the d o m i n a n t g r o u p , a n d are o f t e n m o r e p
o w e r f u l w h e n the s u p p o r t e r is n o t a
m e m b e r of the o p p r e s s e d p o p u l a t i o n . U n d e r s
t a n d i n g this n o t i o n is a n i m p o r t a n t f i r s t step

t o w a r d b e c o m i n g an a l l y f o r a n y " t a r g e t e d "
or o p p r e s s e d g r o u p . M e m b e r s o f the L G B T
c o m m u n i t y w i l l s o m e t i m e s argue t h a t they c a n
be a l l i e s f o r o t h e r m e m b e r s o f the c o m m u -
nity, since " t h e c o m m u n i t y " is a n u m b r e l l a g r o u
p t h a t i n c l u d e s m a n y d i f f e r e n t s u b g r o u p s ,
e.g., l e s b i a n s , gay m a l e s , b i s e x u a l s , t r a n s g e n
d e r e d i n d i v i d u a l s , a n d o t h e r p o p u l a t i o n s t
h a t
m i g h t choose to i d e n t i f y w i t h the L G B T c o m m u n
i t y ( p a n s e x u a l , q u e s t i o n i n g , e t c . ) . W e
c e r t a i n l y a c k n o w l e d g e that w i t h r e g a r d to d i
m e n s i o n s o f i d e n t i t y other than s e x u a l identity,
m e m b e r s of oppressed g r o u p s c a n be alhes to o t h e r o
p p r e s s e d g r o u p s . F o r e x a m p l e , a gay
m a n c a n be a n a l l y to a lesbian w o m a n w i t h r e g a r d
to gender o p p r e s s i o n . W i t h r e g a r d
to sexual identit)', h o w e v e r , b o t h are o p p r e s s e d . G
i v e n the d e f i n i t i o n s n o t e d a b o v e , o n l y
h e t e r o s e x u a l i n d i v i d u a l s can serve as ahies of l e
s b i a n , gay, a n d b i s e x u a l p e o p l e .
HETEROSEXUAL PRIVILEGE
T h e i n d i v i d u a l w h o decides to u n d e r t a k e the a l l
y r o l e m u s t r e c o g n i z e a n d u n d e r s t a n d the
p o w e r a n d p r i v i l e g e s t h a t one r e c e i v e s ,
accepts, a n d e x p e r i e n c e s as a h e t e r o s e x u a l p e r
s o n .
A c c o r d i n g to J o h n s o n , w h o d r e w o n the w o r k o
f Peggy M c i n t o s h , " p r i v i l e g e e x i s t s w h e n
one g r o u p has s o m e t h i n g of v a l u e that is d e n i e d
to o t h e r s s i m p l y because o f the g r o u p s
they b e l o n g to, r a t h e r t h a n because of a n y t h i n g t h
e y ' v e done or f a i l e d to d o " ( 2 0 0 6 , 2 1 ) .
M c i n t o s h noted that p r i v i l e g e c o m e s i n t w o f o r

m s : " u n e a r n e d advantages a n d c o n f e r r e d
d o m i n a n c e , " w i t h the f o r m e r b e i n g things of v a l
u e f r e e l y g i v e n to m e m b e r s of one g r o u p
b u t a r b i t r a r i l y d e n i e d to a n o t h e r g r o u p , a n d
the latter r e f e r r i n g to p o w e r g i v e n to one
g r o u p o v e r a n o t h e r . D e v e l o p i n g a w a r e n e s s
o f one's p r i v i l e g e is often the m o s t p a i n f u l p a r t
o f the process o f b e c o m i n g an ally.
S o m e o f the p o w e r s a n d p r i v i l e g e s h e t e r o s e x
u a l s g e n e r a l l y h a v e that gay a n d l e s b i a n ,
a n d i n some cases b i s e x u a l a n d transgender, p e r s o n s
do not h a v e i n c l u d e :
• F a m i l y m e m b e r s h i p s to h e a l t h c l u b s , p o o l s
, a n d o t h e r r e c r e a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s
• T h e r i g h t to l e g a l i z e d m a r r i a g e
• T h e a b i l i t y to p u r c h a s e p r o p e r t y as a c o u p l e
• T h e o p t i o n to file j o i n t i n c o m e t a x r e t u r n s
• T h e a b i l i t y to a d o p t c h i l d r e n as a c o u p l e
• H e a l t h i n s u r a n c e f o r one's l i f e p a r t n e r
• T h e r i g h t to m a k e d e c i s i o n s o n h e a l t h - r e l a t
e d issues as they relate to one's l ife p a r t n e r
• T h e a s s u m p t i o n that one is p s y c h o l o g i c a l l y h
e a l t h y
414 I H E T E R O S E X I S M
I n a d d i t i o n to s u c h tangible p r i v i l e g e s of the h e t
e r o s e x u a l p o p u l a t i o n , t her e are a great
m a n y other, n o t so tangible, p r i v i l e g e s . O n e i m p o
r t a n t i n t a n g i b l e p r i v i l e g e is l i v i n g one's
life w i t h o u t fear t h a t p e o p l e w i l l f i n d o u t that w
h o one fails i n l o v e w i t h , d r e a m s a b o u t ,

or m a k e s l o v e to is s o m e o n e of the same s e x or that
they w e r e n o t a l w a y s the gender
w i t h w h i c h they n o w i d e n t i f y . T h e s e fears affect
the l i v e s of gay, l e s b i a n , b i s e x u a l , a n d
transgender p e r s o n s f r o m the d a y they f i r s t begin to h
a v e " t h o s e f u n n y f e e l i n g s " u n t i l the
d a y they d i e . A l t h o u g h m a n y L G B T p e r s o n s o v
e r c o m e these fears a n d t u r n the fear i n t o
a p o s i t i v e c o m p o n e n t of t h e i r l i v e s , they have s
t i l l been a f f e c t e d , a n d those w o u n d s , e v e n
after h e a l e d , can be easily r e o p e n e d .
C o m i n g to t e r m s w i t h the v e r y fact that " a s a h e t e
r o s e x u a l I do n o t e x p e r i e n c e the
w o r l d i n the same w a y as L G B T people d o " is an i m p
o r t a n t step i n b e c o m i n g a n ally. T h i s
a w a r e n e s s begins to m o v e the h e t e r o s e x u a l f r o
m being a c a r i n g , l i b e r a l p e r s o n w h o feels
that w e are a l l created e q u a l a n d s h o u l d be t r e a t e d
as s u c h , t o w a r d b e i n g an a l l y w h o begins
to r e a l i z e that a l t h o u g h e q u a l i t y a n d eq u i ty are
goals that have not yet been a c h i e v e d , they
can have a role i n h e l p i n g to m a k e these goals r e a l i t i
e s .
M o h r i n t r o d u c e d a m o d e l of h e t e r o s e x u a l i d
e n t i t y d e v e l o p m e n t , a process that he s a w
as r e l a t e d to the d e v e l o p m e n t o f L G B T - a f f i r m
a t i v e attitudes. T h i s m o d e l focuses o n the
d e v e l o p m e n t of a w a r e n e s s of h e t e r o s e x u a l p
r i v i l e g e . M o h r suggested that f o u r " w o r k i n g
m o d e l s of s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n " e x i s t . S i m i l a
r to H e l m s ' s c o n t a c t status of w h i t e r a c i a l i d e n t
i t y
d e v e l o p m e n t i n w h i c h i n d i v i d u a l s see th ems el
v es as c o l o r - b l i n d , i n the f i r s t w o r k i n g m o d e l

p r o p o s e d by M o h r , democratic loeterosexuality, h e t e r
o s e x u a l s " t e n d to v i e w p e o p l e of a l l
s e x u a l o r i e n t a t i o n s as essentially the s a m e " ( 2 0 0
2 , 5 4 0 - 5 4 1 ) . I n d i v i d u a l s u s i n g this m o d e l
* r a r e l y t h i n k about s e x u a l i d e n t i t ) ' issues a n d c
o n s i d e r t h e m u n i m p o r t a n t . Compulsory
i heterosexuality, the second w o r k i n g m o d e l , is u n d e r
s c o r e d by a belief that h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y
is the o n l y acceptable f o r m of s e x u a l i d e n t i t y a n d
that i n d i v i d u a l s w h o i d e n t i f y as L G B T
are s i c k , p e r v e r t e d , a n d deserve to be o p p r e s s e d
. I n d i v i d u a l s w h o base their beliefs o n the
t h i r d w o r k i n g m o d e l , politicized heterosexuality, r e c
o g n i z e the p r i v i l e g e associated w i t h
h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y a n d e x p e r i e n c e the e m o t i o n
s of g u i l t , sadness, a n d s h a m e n o t e d e a r l i e r that
c o m e w i t h this a w a r e n e s s . T h e y m a y also ideahze
L G B T p e o p l e r a t h e r t h a n seeing t h e m
as i n d i v i d u a l s w h o l ead c o m p l e x l i v e s t h a t are
n o t s o l e l y c e n t e r e d a r o u n d t h e i r s e x u a l a n d
gender i d e n t i t i e s . I n the f o u r t h w o r k i n g m o d e l
, integrative heterosexuality, i n d i v i d u a l s are
c o g n i z a n t of the s y s t e m of o p p r e s s i o n that e x i s
t s r e l a t e d to gender a n d s e x u a l i d e n t i t y a n d
the w a y s i n w h i c h this s y s t e m affects a l l p e o p l e ,
regardless of their s p e c i f i c identity.
W h e n h e t e r o s e x u a l p e r s o n s f i r s t l e a r n that t h
e i r l e s b i a n , gay, b i s e x u a l , or t r ansge nde r
f r i e n d s are t r u l y m i s t r e a t e d o n the basis of s e x u
a l or gender ident it y, they o f t e n feel anger
t o w a r d h e t e r o s e x u a l s a n d gu i l t t o w a r d th ems
elve s f o r being m e m b e r s of the same g r o u p .
T h i s process can o n l y h a p p e n , h o w e v e r , i f i n d i v

i d u a l s h a v e p r o g r e s s e d at least to M o h r ' s
t h i r d w o r k i n g m o d e l , w h e n p e r s o n s h a v e a n u
n d e r s t a n d i n g of s e x u a l a n d gender i d e n t i t y
a n d do n o t see i t as g r o u n d s f o r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n
, v i o l e n c e , or abuse. T h e s e f e e l i n g do n o t
o c c u r w h e n the p e r s o n s t i l l believes that l e s b i a n ,
gay, b i s e x u a l , or t r ansgende r p e r s o n s are
s i c k s i n n e r s w h o e i t h e r n e e d to have a g o o d s e x
u a l r e l a t i o n s h i p w i t h a p e r s o n o f the other
s e x or see a p s y c h o l o g i s t or a s p i r i t u a l l eader so
that they can be c u r e d . S u c h p e r s o n s , w h o
m i g h t be c l a s s i f i e d as being i n M o h r ' s s e c o n d w
o r k i n g m o d e l , are n o t y e t r e a d y to start
d o w n the a l l y r o a d .
MOTIVATIONS FOR BECOMING AN ADVOCATE
W h a t m o t i v a t e s h e t e r o s e x u a l s to become L G B
T r i g h t s advocates? T h e r e are c e r t a i n l y m o r e
p o p u l a r a n d less c o n t r o v e r s i a l causes w i t h w h i
c h one can become i n v o l v e d . G o o d m a n
B E C O M I N G AN ALLY | 415
n o t e d that s u p p o r t of s o c i a l j u s t i c e i n g e n e r a l
is r e l a t e d to empathy, m o r a l a n d s p i r i t u a l
v a l u e s , a n d sel f-i nterest. S i n c e i n v o l v e m e n t i n
L G B T r i g h t s a d v o c a c y is o f t e n d e e m e d a
m o r a l issue, m o r a l d e v e l o p m e n t t h e o r y suggests
some possible u n d e r l y i n g reasons f o r s u c h
a c t i v i t y . L a w r e n c e K o h l b e r g h y p o t h e s i z e
d that m o r a l r e a s o n i n g d e v e l o p s t h r o u g h three
l e v e l s : p r e c o n v e n t i o n a l , c o n v e n t i o n a l , a n
d p o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l . A t the p r e c o n v e n t i o n a l

l e v e l ,
m o r a l d e c i s i o n s are based o n w h a t is g o o d f o r the
i n d i v i d u a l . Persons f u n c t i o n i n g at this
l e v e l m a y choose to be i n v o l v e d i n gay r i g h t s
issues to p r o t e c t t h e i r o w n interests or to get
s o m e t h i n g out o f s u c h i n v o l v e m e n t (e.g., i f this
issue is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t to a s u p e r v i -
sor w h o s e a p p r o v a l is s o u g h t ) . A t the c o n v e n t i
o n a l l e v e l , K o h l b e r g i n d i c a t e d that d e c i s i o n
s
a r e m a d e that c o n f o r m to the n o r m s o f o n e ' s g r o
u p o r society. I n d i v i d u a l s at t h i s l e v e l m a y
w o r k f o r L G B T rights i f they w i s h to s u p p o r t f r i e
n d s w h o are gay, l e s b i a n , b i s e x u a l , o r
t r a n s g e n d e r or to u p h o l d an e x i s t i n g i n s t i t u t
i o n a l p o l i c y of n o n d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . K o h l b e r
g ' s
t h i r d l e v e l of r e a s o n i n g i n v o l v e s d e c i s i o n m
a k i n g based o n p r i n c i p l e s o f j u s t i c e . A t this
l e v e l the i n d i v i d u a l takes a n a c t i v e role to create p
o l i c i e s that assure t h a t a l l p e o p l e are
t r e a t e d f a i r l y a n d b ecomes i n v o l v e d i n L G B T r
i g h t s a d v o c a c y because it is the r i g h t t h i n g
to d o .
W h i l e K o h l b e r g f o c u s e d o n justice as the basis o f
m o r a l d e c i s i o n m a k i n g , C a r o l G i l h g a n
use d the p r i n c i p l e of care as the basis of h e r m o d e l o
f m o r a l r e a s o n i n g . H e r three l e v e l s
o f r e a s o n i n g are (1) t a k i n g care of oneself, (2) t a k i n
g care of others, a n d ( 3 ) s u p p o r t i n g
p o s i t i o n s t h a t take i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n the i m p
a c t both on self a n d o t h e r s . U s i n g this m o d e l ,
i n d i v i d u a l s at the f i r s t l e v e l b e c o m e a d v o c a t
e s to m a k e t h e m s e l v e s l o o k g o o d to o t h e r s or
to p r o t e c t t h e m s e l v e s f r o m c r i t i c i s m f o r n o t

getting i n v o l v e d . A t the s e c o n d l e v e l , i n d i -
v i d u a l s r e a s o n that they s h o u l d " t a k e care o f " L
G B T p e o p l e . T h e f i n a l p e r s p e c t i v e leads
i n d i v i d u a l s to beheve that e q u a l i t y a n d respect f o r
d i f f e r e n c e s create a better w o r l d f o r
e v e r y o n e , a n d that these are w o r t h w h i l e goals.
O n e c o u l d argue t h a t the latter p o s i t i o n i n e a c h
scheme is the e n l i g h t e n e d p e r s p e c t i v e
t h a t a n y a d v o c a t e needs to espouse. W e s h o u l d , h o
w e v e r , be a w a r e that n o t e v e r y p e r s o n
is f u n c t i o n i n g at a p o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l o f
m o r a l r e a s o n i n g , a n d that a r g u m e n t s designed
to e n c o u r a g e p e o p l e to c o m m i t t h e m s e l v e s to
L G B T rights a d v o c a c y n e e d to be targeted
to the l e v e l that the i n d i v i d u a l c a n u n d e r s t a n d a
n d accept. K o h l b e r g i n d i c a t e d that active
i n v o l v e m e n t i n a d d r e s s i n g m o r a l issues is a n i
m p o r t a n t f a c t o r i n f a c i l i t a t i n g m o r a l d e v e l
o p -
m e n t a l o n g h i s stages. W e c a n , t h e r e f o r e , e x p e
c t t h a t as p e o p l e b e c o m e i n v o l v e d i n L G B T
r i g h t s issues, t h e i r l e v e l s o f r e a s o n i n g m a y m o
v e t o w a r d a p o s t c o n v e n t i o n a l l e v e l .
I n s o m e w a y s p a r a l l e l i n g o u r a n a l y s i s o f the
m o r a l r e a s o n i n g that m a y be i n v o l v e d i n
a d v o c a c y , E d w a r d s i n t r o d u c e d a c o n c e p t u a
l m o d e l of a l l y i d e n t i t y d e v e l o p m e n t . H e sug-
gested that sel f-i nterest, a l t r u i s m , a n d a desire f o r s o
c i a l justice can a l l m o t i v a t e p o t e n t i a l
a l l i e s . Aspiring allies for self interest w o u l d take a c t i o
n w h e n an L G B T p e r s o n they care
a b o u t is i n danger o f b e i n g h u r t . T h e y act o n b e h a
l f o f s p e c i f i c i n d i v i d u a l s to stop s p e c i f i c
a c t i o n s t h a t are h a r m f u l or d i s c r i m i n a t o r y a n

d d o n o t u n d e r s t a n d or c a r e about the larger
s y s t e m of o p p r e s s i o n that affects L G B T people as a
g r o u p . E d w a r d s n o t e d that a s p i r i n g
alhes f o r s e l f - i n t e r e s t o f t e n t h r i v e on the
feelings of p o w e r that c o m e w i t h " r e s c u i n g " t h e i
r
f r i e n d a n d b e i n g seen as a h e r o , thus p e r p e t u a t i
n g the s y s t e m of o p p r e s s i o n that creates the
p r o b l e m i n the f i r s t place.
E d w a r d s suggested that as i n d i v i d u a l s become a w a r
e o f the p r i v i l e g e they e x p e r i e n c e ,
t h e y c a n b e c o m e m o t i v a t e d to be a l l i e s to
assuage the guilt they f e e l . W h i l e aspiring allies
for altruism w o u l d see the issues that c o n f r o n t L G B T i
n d i v i d u a l s as a g r o u p , they w o u l d
be l i k e l y to place the blame f o r o p p r e s s i o n on other h
e t e r o s e x u a l i n d i v i d u a l s r a t h e r t h a n
seeing that they also benefit f r o m a n o p p r e s s i v e s y s t
e m . T h e y w o u l d be l i k e l y to e x h i b i t a
p a t e r n a l i s t i c attitude as t h e y seek to c o m e to the a i
d o f the o p p r e s s e d L G B T p o p u l a t i o n
a n d , c o n s c i o u s l y or u n c o n s c i o u s l y , e x p e c t
r e c o g n i t i o n a n d p r a i s e f o r the w o r k they d o o n
b e h a l f of t h i s g r o u p .
416 j H E T E R O S E X I S M
T h e f i n a l type o f allies that E d w a r d s discussed is allies
for social justice. T h e s e allies
" w o r k with those f r o m the oppressed g r o u p i n c o l l a b
o r a t i o n a n d p a r t n e r s h i p to end the
system of o p p r e s s i o n " ( 2 0 0 6 , 5 1 ) . T h e y w o u l d
be a w a r e that a c t i n g to e n d o p p r e s s i o n

of L G B T people i n the e n d benefits h e t e r o s e x u a l s
as w e l l . T h u s , t h e i r goal i n w o r k i n g
to address the issue of o p p r e s s i o n w o u l d be to a c h i e
v e a just society r a t h e r t h a n to g a i n
r e c o g n i t i o n f o r t h e i r e f f o r t s .
E d w a r d s a c k n o w l e d g e d that i n d i v i d u a l s m a y
e x p e r i e n c e each of these m o t i v a t i o n s for
a l l y w o r k d e p e n d i n g o n the s p e c i f i c s i t u a t i o
n in w h i c h they f i n d t h e m s e l v e s . H e also stated
that " t h e A l l y f o r S o c i a l J u s t i c e status is an a s p i
r a t i o n a l i d e n t i t y one m u s t c o n t i n u o u s l y
w o r k t o w a r d s " ( 5 3 ) . H e a r g u e d that u n d e r s t a
n d i n g e a c h m o t i v a t i o n c a n lead to the d e v e l -
o p m e n t of m o r e c o n s i s t e n t a n d effective a l l y b e
h a v i o r s .
ADVOCACY IN ACTION
A d v o c a c y can take a n u m b e r of d i f f e r e n t f o r m s
a n d target v a r i o u s a u d i e n c e s . H e t e r o s e x u a l
s u p p o r t e r s m a y f o c u s s o m e of t h e i r energy t o w
a r d L G B T i n d i v i d u a l s t h e m s e l v e s . A t other
t i m e s the target m a y be other h e t e r o s e x u a l s , a n d o
f t e n strategies d e v e l o p e d for college a n d
u n i v e r s i t y c a m p u s e s are f o c u s e d on the c a m p u
s c o m m u n i t y as a w h o l e .
A d v o c a c y w i t h L G B T p e o p l e i n v o l v e s
acceptance, s u p p o r t , a n d i n c l u s i v e n e s s . E x a m p
l e s
o f acceptance i n c l u d e h s t e n i n g i n a n o n j u d g m e n
t a l w a y a n d v a l u i n g the u n i q u e qualities
of each i n d i v i d u a l . S u p p o r t i n c l u d e s s u c h b e
h a v i o r s as c h a m p i o n i n g the h i r i n g of L G B T
staff; p r o v i d i n g an a t m o s p h e r e i n w h i c h L G B T

issues can be discussed i n t r a i n i n g or p r o -
g r a m m i n g ; or a t t e n d i n g events s p o n s o r e d by L
G B T s t u d e n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s . I n c l u s i v e n e s s
i n v o l v e s a c t i v i t i e s s u c h as the use of n o n e x c l u
s i o n a r y l a n g u a g e ; p u b l i c a t i o n s , f l i e r s , a n
d
h a n d b o o k s that take into a c c o u n t s e x u a l a n d
gender i d e n t i t y d i f f e r e n c e s ; a n d s e n s i t i v i t ) '
to
the p o s s i b i l i t y that n o t e v e r y o n e i n a s t u d e n t o
r g a n i z a t i o n or w o r k setting is h e t e r o s e x u a l .
B e i n g a n a d v o c a t e a m o n g other h e t e r o s e x u a l
s is o f t e n c h a l l e n g i n g . S u c h a p o s i t i o n
i n v o l v e s m o d e h n g advocacy, s u p p o r t , a n d c o n f
r o n t i n g i n a p p r o p r i a t e b e h a v i o r . I n this c o n -
t e x t , h e t e r o s e x u a l s u p p o r t e r s m o d e l n o n h e
t e r o s e x i s t b e h a v i o r s s u c h as being e q u a l l y p h
y s i -
c a l w i t h m e n a n d w o m e n , a v o i d i n g j o k i n g or
teasing s o m e o n e for n o n t r a d i t i o n a l gender
b e h a v i o r s , a n d a v o i d i n g m a k i n g a p o i n t of
being h e t e r o s e x u a l . A l h e s are s p o k e s p e r s o n s
for
a d d r e s s i n g L G B T issues p r o a c t i v e l y i n p r o g r
a m a n d p o l i c y d e v e l o p m e n t . C o n f r o n t i n g s u
c h
b e h a v i o r s as h e t e r o s e x i s t j o k e t e l l i n g ; the e
x c l u s i o n of L G B T people either i n t e n t i o n a l l y
or by u s i n g language that assumes h e t e r o s e x u a l i t y ;
d i s c r i m i n a t o r y h i r i n g p r a c t i c e s ; or the
e v a l u a t i o n of staff based o n f a c t o r s related to t h e i r
s e x u a l or gender i d e n t i t i e s is also p a r t
of the role of the a d v o c a t e .
A d v o c a c y in the i n s t i t u t i o n i n v o l v e s m a k i n g

Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education

Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education

Recommended

Recommended

More Related Content

Similar to Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education

Similar to Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education (20)

More from florriezhamphrey3065

More from florriezhamphrey3065 (20)

Recently uploaded

Recently uploaded (20)

Helping Students With Disabilities Finance Higher Education