2. Tromboembolismo: di
che cosa stiamo
parlando?
• Nel sistema venoso
– Trombosi venosa profonda
• con o senza embolia polmonare
• Nel sistema arterioso
– Embolia cerebrale
– Embolia periferica
4. Precisiamo: Sesso o Genere?
definizione OMS
• Sesso: classificazione di maschio o femmina in relazione
alle funzioni riproduttive, si basa sulle caratteristiche
biologiche che definiscono uomo o donna
• Genere : comprende comportamenti, attività e attributi
che una società considera specifici per l’uomo e per la donna,
e il modo di vedersi come maschio o femmina anche in
relazione al proprio ruolo sociale
5.
6. Rudolf Virchow 1821-1902
• Rallentamento del
flusso
• Lesione endoteliale
• Alterazioni della
coagulazione
7.
8. Tromboembolismo venoso (TEV)
entità del problema
• Nord America e Europa incidenza annua
– TVP 160/100.000
– EP sintomatica non fatale 20/100.000
– EP fatale (autopsia) 50/100.000
– S. Postflebitica con ulcere (prev.)75/100.000
13. Sex Difference in Risk of Second but Not of First
Venous Thrombosis
Paradox Explained
Rachel E.J. Circulation. 2014;129:51-56
When female reproductive risk factors are taken into account, the risk of a first
venous thrombosis is twice as high in men as in women.
ORaggiustato*conIC95%
*aggiustato per IMC e fumo
8
6
4
2
0
OR=1
14.
15.
16. 0.0 0.5 1.0
USA
Danimarca
Inghilterra
Francia
Cina
Differenze di genere per le malattie autoimmuni
Prevalenza relativa fra i sessi del Lupus Eritematoso Sistemico
Femmine Maschi
S.T. Ngo et al. / Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology 35 (2014) 347–369
17. Fattori associati alla trombofilia
con meccanismo noto
Perdita di funzione Aumento di funzione
Antitrombina III Fattore V di Leiden
Proteina C Protrombina G20210A
Proteina S Aumento fattore VIII
18.
19.
20.
21. ASSOCIAZIONE FRA DIFETTI TROMBOFILICI
E CONTRACCETTIVI ORALI
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
CO
FV LEIDEN
--
--
+
--
--
+
+
+
RischioRelativo
(Vandenbroucke et al, Lancet 1996)
22. Screening for Factor V Leiden Mutation
• Not cost effective
• Adverse
psychological and
insurance effects
8000 Screened
400 FVL
1 DVT
More than 500,000 women would need to
be screened to prevent 1 death from PE
23. THROMBOPHILIA
AND VENOUS THROMBOEMBOLISM
International Consensus Statement
Guidelines According to Scientific Evidence
• TEV non provocato (spontaneo)
• TEV età<50 fattore predisponente transitorio
• TEV in corso di CO, terapia estrogenica sostitutiva , gravidanza
• TEV ricorrente
• Tromboflebile superficiale ricorrente in assenza di cancro e vene varicose
• TV in sede insolita (arti superiori, mesenteriche, seni cerebrali)
• Necrosi cutanea indotta da warfarin
• Parerenti asintomatici di trombofilici sintomatici
• 2 aborti consecutivi o 3 non consecutivi o una morte fetale
• Grave pre-eclampsia
• TEV in bambini
Int Angiol 2005;24:1-26
24. Martinelli, I. et al. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 11, 140–156 (2014); published online 14 January 2014; doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2013.211
25. Martinelli, I. et al. Nat. Rev. Cardiol. 11, 140–156 (2014); published online 14 January 2014; doi:10.1038/nrcardio.2013.211
26. USA 1960: la FDA approva la
commercializzazione di Enovid®
con
indicazione contraccettiva.
EUROPA 1961 Anovlar®
F.M. Primiero, 2012F.M. Primiero, 2012
150 mcg di mestranolo
9,85 mg di noretinodrel
norethindrone acetate 4 mg +
ethinyl estradiol 50 µg
27.
28. Generazioni di contraccettivi orali
combinati
I generazione II generazione III generazione IV generazione
Norethisterone
o Norethindrone
(e.g. Loestrin®
)
Levonorgestrel
(e.g. Microgynon®
)
Desogestrel
(Mercilon®
, Marvelon®
)
Drospirenone
(Yasmin®
)
29. Rischio di trombosi in rapporto al
Progestinico
(30-40 μg di Etinil Estradiolo)
Progestinico Rapporto fra tassi di
incidenza rispetto a
levonorgestrel
Levonorgestrel (II g) 1,00
Noretisterone (I g) 0,98
Norgestimate 1,19
Drospirenone (IV g) 1,64
Desogestrel (III g) 1,82
Gestodene (III g) 1,86
Ciproterone acetato 1,88
BMJ 2009;339:b2890
30. Likelihood of developing a blood clot
(number of women with a blood clot
per 10,000 women-years).
http://www.fda.gov/Drugs/DrugSafety/ucm299305
31. This guideline focuses on the risk factors unique to women, such as
•reproductive factors,
and those that are more common in women, including
•migraine with aura,
•obesity,
•metabolic syndrome, and
•atrial fibrillation.
http://stroke.ahajournals.org/content/early/2014/02/06/01.str.0000442009.06663.48
35. Prevalence of Risk Factors
Women are older at stroke onset1-7
and more likely to have:
Atrial fibrillation4,5,8,9
Hypertension2,3,5,9
Dementia2
Congestive heart failure3
1. Appelros et al. Stroke 2009, 40:1082-1090
2. Eriksson M et al. Stroke. 2009;40:909-914
3. Niewada M et al. Neuroepi. 2005;24:123–128.
4. Silva GS et al. Cerebrov Dis 2010;30:470–475
1. Petrea RE et al. Stroke 2009;40;1032-1037
2. Kapral MK et al. Stroke 2005;36;809-814
3. Gargano JW et al. Stroke 2008;39;24-29
4. Reid JM et al. Stroke 2008;39;1090-1095
5. Di Carlo A et al. Stroke 2003;34;1114-1119
36. Effects of Stroke Risk Factors: Sex Related
Women with DM have greater stroke risk compared to men with DM1
MetS: doubles stroke risk in women but not in men2
Migraines: 2-fold increased risk of stroke in women
Even higher in women >45 years and those on OCP3
Atrial fibrillation
Women with AF have a two-fold greater risk of stroke than men
with AF4
1. Almdal et al. Arch Int Med. 2004;164:1422–26.
2. Boden-Albala et al. Stroke. 2008;39:30–35.
3. Etminan M et al. BMJ 2005;330;63.
4. Wang TJ et al. JAMA 2003;290;1049-1056
37. Gender differences in the risk of stroke and peripheral
embolism in AF: the ATRIA study
RR = 1.6 (1.3-1.9)
RR = 1.6 (1.0-2.3)
RR = 1.8 (1.4-2.3)
AnnualThromboembolismRate(%)
Fang MC, et al. Circulation 2005;112:1687-91
41. Outcomes at 6 months
• 676 consecutive admissions to teaching hospital
• Female sex: independent predictor of poor outcome at 6
mo: 1.57, 95% CI 1.03–2.36, p=0.04
Silva GS et al. Cerebrovasc Dis 2010;30:470–475
42. Perché l’ictus cardioembolico ha una
prognosi severa?
• Più grave all’inizio
• Assenza di circoli di compenso e lesioni
multiple
• Alto rischio di recidiva
• Alto rischio di trasformazione emorragica
43. CHADS2 -> CHA2DS2VASc
CHA2DS2-VASc
Risk
Score
CHF or LVEF <
40%
1
Hypertension 1
Age > 75 2
Diabetes 1
Stroke/TIA/
Thromboembolism
2
Vascular
Disease
1
Age 65 - 74 1
Female 1
CHADS2 Risk Score
CHF 1
Hypertension 1
Age > 75 1
Diabetes 1
Stroke or TIA 2
From ESC AF Guidelines
http://www.escardio.org/guidelines-surveys/esc-
guidelines/GuidelinesDocuments/guidelines-afib-FT.pdf
44. • Oral anticoagulation in women aged ≤65
years with AF alone (no other risk
factors; women with CHADS2=0 or
CHA2DS2-VASc=1) is not recommended
(Class III; Level of Evidence B).
Antiplatelet therapy is a reasonable
therapeutic option for selected low-risk
women (Class IIa; Level of Evidence B).
• New oral anticoagulants are a useful
alternative to warfarin for the prevention of
stroke and systemic thromboembolism in
women with paroxysmal or permanent AF and
prespecified risk factors (according to
CHA2DS2-VASc) who do not have a prosthetic
heart valve or hemodynamically significant
valve disease, severe renal failure (creatinine
clearance 15 mL/min), lower weight (<50 kg),
or advanced liver disease (impaired baseline
clotting function) (Class I; Level of Evidence A).
45. Gravidanza e ictus
• 34 ictus per 100.000 parti
– (III trim e post partum)
• vs 21 ictus per 100.000
• Stasi,
• Edema
• Ipercoagulabilità
– Resistenza alla PC
– Bassi livelli di Proteina S
– Aumento del fibrinogeno
46. Pregnancy Complications and the
Long-term Risk of Stroke
• An expanding body of research has
shown that complications of pregnancy
– preeclampsia,
– gestational diabetes,
– pregnancy-induced hypertension
• are associated with higher risk for future
CVD and stroke beyond the childbearing
years than among women without these
disorders
VTE causing deep vein thrombosis (DVT) or
pulmonary embolism (PE) is a major international
health problem. At one extreme, PE can be fatal.
In North America and Europe, the annual incidence
is approximately 160 per 100 000 for DVT,
20 per 100 000 for symptomatic non fatal PE and
50 per 100 000 for fatal autopsy-detected PE.7-11
Often, overlooked is the fact that DVT can lead to
post-thrombotic deep venous reflux or obstruction
causing leg skin changes and ulceration, which
adversely impacts on quality of life and escalates
health care costs. The prevalence of venous ulceration
is at least 300 per 100 000 and approximately
25% are due to DVT.12, 13 The annual cost resulting
from venous ulceration has been estimated to
be £ 400 to 600 million for the UK 14, 15 and more
than $ 1 billion for the US.16, 17
VTE should be an appealing target for maximum
prophylaxis, but it has been difficult to
Age-specific incidence rates of venous thromboembolism in siblings.
More than 500,000 women would need to be screened to prevent 1 death from PE
The first case of thrombosis associated with HC occurred in 1961 when a nurse taking a high-dose estrogen OCP developed a pulmonary embolism. Myocardial infarction and stroke were reported in OCP users during the following years and were associated with older women who smoke and use HC. These early reports seemed to suggest that the thrombotic potential of the OCP was related to its relatively high estrogen content of 50 µg or more.
Evitare COC di III e IV generazione in caso di trombofilia ereditaria o acquisita
Tenere conto dell’età e del fumo
Tenere conto che la gravidanza indesiderata si associano a rischio tromboembolico elevato
Flow and Intracardiac Thromboembolism
Rheological factors may be important in pathogenesis of
atrial thrombosis, which occurs in low-shear areas in dilated
fibrillating atria. Such areas are visualised by &quot;spontaneous
echo contrast&quot; at echocardiography, which is associated
with increased risk of thromboembolic stroke as well as
increased circulating markers of haemostatic activation
[18]. Valvular thrombosis is favoured by high shear stresses
through the valve, followed by areas of flow separation;
while left ventricular mural thrombus occurs after myocardial
infarction on damaged endothelium in areas of reduced
contractility with flow separation [19].
Flow and Intracardiac Thromboembolism
Rheological factors may be important in pathogenesis of
atrial thrombosis, which occurs in low-shear areas in dilated
fibrillating atria. Such areas are visualised by &quot;spontaneous
echo contrast&quot; at echocardiography, which is associated
with increased risk of thromboembolic stroke as well as
increased circulating markers of haemostatic activation
[18]. Valvular thrombosis is favoured by high shear stresses
through the valve, followed by areas of flow separation;
while left ventricular mural thrombus occurs after myocardial
infarction on damaged endothelium in areas of reduced
contractility with flow separation [19].
Female sex is an independent predictor of stroke in patients
with AF.379–383 This has been incorporated into other risk stratification
tools used in the decision making for anticoagulation
prophylaxis.380
The CHA2DS2-VASc score can be considered an extension
of the CHADS2 with extra points added for female sex
(1 point), previous MI, peripheral arterial disease or aortic
plaque (1 point), and age 65 to 74 years (1 point) or ≥75 years (2
points). The American College of Cardiology/AHA/European
Society of Cardiology guidelines included similar risk stratification
strategies as CHADS2, with the inclusion of left ventricular
ejection fraction &lt;35% in the high-risk category. The
CHA2DS2-VASc score has been recommended recently by the
European Society of Cardiology for risk classification.368,384–387