COMMENTARYVirtual Boundaries Ethical Considerations for.docx

COMMENTARY
Virtual Boundaries: Ethical Considerations for
Use of Social Media in Social Work
Ericka Kimball and JaeRan Kim
S
ociety has become more interactive through
increased access and use of the Internet and
social media tools. Web 2.0 moved the
Internet beyond information storage to a place
where discourse takes place (Sawmiller, 2010).
Social media, Internet tools that facUitate online
interactions, have the potential to further expand
such discourses. Social networks (for example,
Facebook, Google + , Linkedin), blogs (for exam-
ple, Wordpress, Typepad), and microblogs (for
example. Twitter, Tumblr) are types of social
media tools that allow people to connect and share
infomiation in an onhne space. People use social
media tools to report information, present opin-
ions, and solicit convenation through their own
domains or dedicated websites. All of this online
interaction, enabled further by increases in smart-
phone and networked tablet devise usage, poses
the potential for personal and professional lives to
cross in social media spaces.
Existing literature has focused on the ethical
challenges of social media in professional practice

with clients, use of social media as an expansion of
research, and for online learning (Eccles, 2010;
Giffords, 2009; NASW & Associarion of Social
Work Boards [ASWB], 2005). However, the con-
versation around ethical use of social media, out-
side the client—professional relationship, is missing.
Areas in which greater discussion is needed include
advising students and setting agency pohcies on
ethical uses of social media and on the effects of
personal use of social media among professional
relationships.
This article is about creating virtual boundaries—
the limits social workers place to guide their social
media use—to create intentional online personas
and about the effects of social media use in the
intemiingling of personal and professional lives.
Social workers need to be aware of the identities
they create and maintain in the realm of social
media because of ethical codes and policies. The
various forms and uses of social media are discussed
to provide an understanding of the benefits and
consequences of social media. An overview of eth-
ical considerations is presented along with recom-
mendations on creating virtual boundaries for
personal and professional use of social media.
FORMS AND USES OF SOCIAL MEDIA
Although the forms and uses of social media are
constantly changing, blogs, microblogs, and social
networking sites have proved to be some of the
more popular social media tools over the last sev-
eral years. Other social media tools, such as virtual
world games, photo sharing, and information
management sites, may be lesser-used tools but are

StiU important to consider when setting virtual
boundaries.
Blog and Microblog
A blog (or Weblog) is defined as an online journal of
personal reñections, opinions, and comments.
Microblog content may also include personal reflec-
tions, opinions, and comments but in a condensed
format. Twitter, for example, limits content to
140-character posts and focuses on real-time inter-
actions with others in users' networks. Blogs are used
professionally and personally to express personal
opinions, market products and services, provide
pohtical commentary, or share and disseminate
infomiation for educational purposes (Qian & Scott,
2007). Blogs can be made pubhc or private to select
people or groups. The author or authors of the blog
may use their real names or pseudonyms.
Social Network
A social network site (SNS) is an online space where
people build a personal profile allowing them to
doi: 10.1093/sw/swt005 © 2013 National Association of Sociai
Workers 185
share content and build cotmections (Boyd &
Ellison, 2007). SNS sites such as Facebook or
Google+ facilitate the opportunity for networking
by exposing a user to broader networks and creating
connections that may not otherwise occur. Until
recendy, networking within an SNS was mosdy
limited to predetermined relationships rather than
building new networks with strangers because peo-

ple have to invite or accept requests to connect
networks (Boyd & Ellison, 2007).
Other Social Media Tools
Many other tools that social workers and others
use to interact via the Internet exist. To describe
them all would be beyond the scope of this article,
so a few tools are highlighted to provide additional
depth in understanding the extent of social media
tools in creating interactive communities. Interac-
tive games such as Second Life provide virtual
worlds where people interact and build communi-
ties. These virtual worlds are often open, and large
social networks may be created. Photo-sharing
sites such as Flickr allow people to post and share
pictures. Photos can be shared broadly or only
with specific people. Social bookmarking sites
such as Diigo and Evemote allow people to store
and share favorite websites or other materials in a
restricted or larger social network.
ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Social media tools allow social workers to continu-
ally build social networks. Online networks often
include colleagues, former classmates, friends, and
family. In real life, these networks may be separate,
but online these worlds collide in unforeseen ways
(see Figure 1) (Houghton &Joinson, 2010). This
is especially true with sites such as Facebook or
Twitter, which were created to integrate social
networks. Therefore, social workers are in need
of policies and guidelines that assist in the ethical
use of social media tools, including interactions
with clients in social network arenas.

The NASW Code of Ethics (2008) does not
include guidance on the use of technology. In
2005, the NASW and the ASWB published stan-
dards specifically to guide the use of technology in
social work practice, highlighting the importance
of maintaining knowledge and understanding of
how technology may aiFect social workers' service
provision to clients (NASW & ASWB, 2005).
This guide provides a starting point in considering
Figure 1: The Way Networks Intersect to
include Professional and Personal
Connections
Virtual Boundary
Note: This diagram shows the Viiay sociai media integrate
isoiated sociai networks t o
connect vt/ork or schooi coileagues, famiiy and friends, and
community contacts.
ethical guidelines for the use of social media in
professional contexts but lacks guidance on the
effects of personal use of technologies within the
professional community. Given the rapid growth
of personal use of social media tools since 2005, in
particular with the increased use of smartphones
and tablet devices, there is a need for further devel-
opment of personal and professional considerations
in technology use.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Social media are being used within various social
work circles (that is, personally and professionally).

Organizations—including academia—need to be
proactive in setting acceptable use policies for
social media to prevent ethical and legal violations.
One common response is to ban social media use
within an agency, a practice that creates obstacles if
the agency later wants to create a social network
profile to promote its services. Policies and guide-
lines must be more nuanced than a straight yes or
no to social media use within the agency or organi-
zation. A committee of social media users, rather
than top-level administrators who may not under-
stand the nuances of social media, should help cre-
ate policies and guidelines. In addition to social
media users, it is important to have information
technology specialists, legal representatives, and
human resources involved in shaping social media
use policies (Schwartzman, 2010).
The Sodal Media Governance Web site provides
various templates and examples to help organizations
186 Social Work VOLUME 58, N U M B E R 2 APRIL 2013
create social media policies (http://www.socialmedia
govemance.org). When setting policies and guide-
lines, it is important to clearly identify the difference
between personal and professional representadon of
your organizadon. One strategy is to use disclaimer
language stating whether you are represendng your-
self or your organization. It is also important to be
clear about expectadons of the NASW Code of Ethics
and other organizational policies when setting rules
regarding the types of material that can be posted.
This includes clearly written language about the

incorporadon of clients into social networks. There
are some areas of social work pracdce in which it
may be perfecdy acceptable to engage clients
through social media, yet it is important to make a
clear distincdon between personal and professional
representadon.
Many social workere underetand the ethical con-
siderations around protecting client confidentiality,
but the guidelines around respecting colleagues,
the social work profession, and other professional
relationships are less stressed in ethics trainings.
In addidon, concerns about setting boundaries
regarding clients' personal social media sites exist.
For example, social workers maintaining public
blogs or microblogs such as Twitter wül need to
decide whether and how they respond to com-
ments written by cHents on their sites.
The following five questions provide a guide for
social work professionals when making decisions
about sharing information on their social network-
ing sites:
1. Wliat information do you want to share? U s e
the inherent reflective nature of social work
to think about the information you are put-
ting forward. Is this information important,
hannful, protected, and so forth?
2 . Why do you ivant to share this information?
Reflect on the purpose of sharing this infor-
madon. What are the benefits of sharing? Is
there an expected outcome from sharing this

information?
3. Who needs to see this information? After consid-
ering the puipose of sharing this infonnation,
think about the role of your audience. W h o
are the people who will benefit or need to
know about this information? WOl clients see
this information?
4. Where do I want to share this information? After
determining who needs to see this informarion,
the quesdon of where to share this informadon
follows. There are various social media tools
that may have different or overlapping pur-
poses. Where you share information depends
on your answers to the three preceding
questions.
5. How does the NASW Code ofEthia or other orga-
nizational policies gtiide sharing this itiformation?
After determining that you are going to share
this information, examine and reflect on the
NASW Code of Ethics and other policies that
may affect the sharing of this infonnation.
For example, if you want to share an action alert
about domestic violence policy to raise awareness
in the general popularion, you may post such an
item to Twitter with an understanding of the
NASW (2008) Code of Ethics Ethical Standard 6:
Social Workers' Ethical Responsibihty to the
Broader Society, which specifically calls on social

workers to promote social justice by shaping public
policies and engaging in social and political action
(NASW, 2008). However, when participating in
online political organizing and advocacy, caution
should be taken to do so in a respectful manner.
A contentious political atmosphere may disrupt
professional and pereonal relationships. In addition,
as professional and pereonal circles are increasingly
overlapping in SNS, complaints about your work-
day or clients may be seen by colleagues and may
jeopardize your professional reputation.
SUMMARY
In real ufe, we often use physical cues to help us
identify our role and put the appropriate boundaries
in place, but online it is more difficult to determine
where our boundaries lie. This article provides an
overview of various social media tools and uses
along with pereonal and professional consideradons
to help in guiding the ethical use of social media
tools. As the use of social media continues to grow,
the importance of virtual boundaries wül also rise.
Therefore, proacdve consideradons that include
policies and guidelines that encourage responsible
and ethical use of social media are needed to help
social workere mediate pereonal and professional
boundaries,
REFERENCES
Boyd, D. M., & Ellison, N . B. (2007). Social network sites:
Definition, history, and scholarship. Joiíníii/ of
Computer-Mediated Communications, 13, 210—230.
KiMBALL AND K I M / Virtual Boundaries 187

Eccles, A. (2010). Ethical considerations around the imple-
mentation of telecare technologies. Jonma/ of Technol-
ogy in Human Services, 28, 44—59.
Giffords, E. D. (2009). The Internet and social work:
The next generation. Families in Society, 90, 413—419.
Houghton, D. J., &Joinson, A. N. (2010). Privacy, social
network sites, and social relations. JoHma/ of Technology
in Human Services, 28, 78—94.
National Association of Social Workers. (2008). Code of eth-
ics of the National Association of Social Workers. Retrieved
from http : //virww.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/
default.asp
National Association of Social Workers & Association of
Social Work Boards. (2005). Standards for technology and
social work practice. Retrieved from http://www.
socialworkers.org/practice/standards/
NASWTechnologyStandards.pdf
Qian, H., & Scott, C. R. (2007). Anonymity and self-
disclosure on wehlo^. Journal of Computer-Mediated
Communication, 12, 1428—1451.
SawmiUer, A. (2010). Classroom blogging: What is the role
in science learning? Clearing House, 83(2), 44—48.
Schwartzman, E. (2010). Social media policy template.
Retrieved from http://encschwartzman.com/pr/
schwartzman/social-media-poHcy-template.aspx
Ericka Kimball, PhD, MSW, is assistant professor, Augsburg

Gollege, 2211 Riverside Avenue, Minneapolis, MN 55454,
e-mail: [email protected] JaeRan Kim, MSW, is a doc-
toral candidate. University of Minnesota-Tunn Gities, St. Paul.
Originai manuscript received November 29, 2011
Finai revision received January 31, 2012
Accepted February 2, 2012
Advance Access Publication March 27, 2013
LETTERS
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Econocide
Elimination of the Urban Poor
Alice Skirtz
Econocide: Eliminaiion of the Urban Poor tells the storyof how
an overweening focus on economic
development, in concert witli biased housing poli-
cy practices, and a virtual abandonment of civic re-
sponsibility, has forsaken tlie urban poor in Cincin-
nati, Ohio. Alice Skirtz shows how the city has used
legislation and die administration of public policy
to serve the ends of privatizing public assets and

displacing people who are perceived as undesirable
because they lack economic power and privilege.
Skirtz argues diat enactment and implementa-
tion of legislation grounded in contempt for
economically disadvaiitaged and schemes com
to keep añbrdable housing off tlie market and
reduce or devolve essential social services have re-
sulted in gross economic inequities, manifest in a
collectivity she identifies as "economic others."
ISBN: 978-0-87101-424-5 2012 Item #4245^
182 pages $24.99
1-800-227-3590 www.naswpress.org
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Week 1 Guidance
To fully understand organizational behavior, we have to

understand the people within the organization. As part of that,
we will study leaders, followers, motivation, development, and
many other topics in this course.
As we begin our course, it is a good idea to see where the study
of leadership has brought us through history. Leadership theory
has changed and evolved. Leadership theorists have conflicting
views on the traits of effective leaders and what followers need
from them. Leadership theorists also often disagree on the
definition of leadership. For example, Bergmann (1999) defined
leadership as “challenging accepted wisdom, making
independent decisions on individual assessments, taking risks,
and being vigilant in helping an organization reach its goals”
(¶9). Harrison (1999), however, defined leadership as “the
reciprocal process of mobilizing, by persons with certain
motives and values, various economic, political, and other
resources, in a context of competition and conflict, in order to
realize goals independently or mutually held by both leaders
and followers” (¶1). Kouzes and Posner offered yet another
definition of leadership—namely, as “a reciprocal relationship
between those who choose to lead and those who decide to
follow” (as cited in Harrison, 1999, ¶1). Drath and Paulus, on
the other hand, argued that leadership “is not the behavior of a
person at all, but rather a property of a social system or a
community of practice” (as cited in Vail, 1996, p. 121).
Leadership among humans has existed since the beginning of
time. Men have led each other through war, development, and
world discovery. Management and leadership are different but
complementary concepts. Changes in technology and industry
made the formal study of management necessary. Through the
last one hundred years, formal management and leadership
theories have evolved from the basis of Hebrew biblical theory
and Greek philosophy to the works of Taylor, Fayol, Drucker,
and many others (Wren, 2005). The traits and skills of both
leadership and management are critical to the success of a

detachment commander. It is for that reason that the literature
reviewed traces the history and evolution of leadership and
management theories.
As the study of leadership and management evolved, we began
to learn more about human behavior. One very crucial study is
the Hawthorne Studies. Hawthorne taught us that people are
motivated by more than money. We are motivated by social
interactions, peer loyalty, and job satisfaction (Baack, 2012).
Hawthorne’s study was the first big study that opened the door
to the humanism study of management. In that era we find
people like Maslow and others that looked beyond the actions of
the workers but what motivates them to improve their
productivity and creativity.
I find this early time in our field as fascinating. I hope you do
as well!
References
Baack, D. (2012). Organizational behavior. San Diego, CA:
Bridgepoint Education, Inc.
Bergmann, H. (1999). Introducing a grass-roots model of
leadership. Strategy & Leadership, 27(6), 15. Document ID:
176521041
Desanto, B., & Moss, D. (2004). Rediscovering what PR
Managers do: Rethinking the measurement of managerial
behavior in the public relations context. Journal of
Communication Management, 9(2), 179-196. Document ID:
774562431
Harrison, B. (1999). The nature of leadership: Historical
perspectives & the future. Journal of California Law

Enforcement, 33(1), 24-30. Document ID: 5416564
Wren, D. (2005). The Evolution of Management Thought. New
York: John Wiley and Sons.
Vaill, P. (1996). Learning as a way of being: Strategies for
survival in a world of permanent white water. San Francisco:
Jossey Bass.
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2Organizational Culture and
Diversity
Hero Images Inc./Hero Images/SuperStock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter and studying the
materials, you should be able to:
Explain the nature of organizational culture.
Identify ways to integrate new employees into an organization's
culture.
Discuss methods for building a more ethical culture and
effectively adapting or modifying a
culture when necessary.
Evaluate the effects of the increasing level of diversity in
today's business environment.

12/31/2018 Print
Honest Tea was founded in 1998.
ManuHK/iStock/Thinkstock
2.1 Understanding Organizational Culture
In the 1980s, many Japanese companies began making serious
inroads into U.S. markets, especially in the automotive and
electronics industries. A variety of
factors helped explain the change, including historical events,
economic conditions, the legal environment, competitive
circumstances, and the quality of the
products sold by �irms such as Honda, Toyota, and Sony.
Additional speculation began to emerge, suggesting that
somehow the Japanese culture was part of the
picture. The Japanese culture included elements of loyalty and
shared commitment between companies and employees.
Lifelong employment contracts were
common. Many workers experienced a sense of "honor" from
being true to the organization, regardless of status in the
organizational hierarchy or the actual
tasks performed. This common bond created a competitive
advantage in terms of product quality and worker productivity.
Consequently, in the United States, organizational behavior and
management researchers started studying the role that culture
plays in the business community.
The investigation led to some confusion. Some believed that the

national culture of Japan was the driving force behind the
competitive successes of businesses in
that country. To others, however, it was the cultures of speci�ic
companies that created the advantage.
The �irst distinction to be made when studying culture is the
level of analysis—in a nation versus within a speci�ic
company. This chapter examines culture at the
company level. Organizational culture consists of a set of shared
meanings and values held by a set of members in an
organization that distinguish it from
others. An organization's culture determines how members
perceive and react to the larger environment (Becker, 1982;
Schein, 1996). Culture determines the
nature of an individual's experience in for-pro�it companies,
nonpro�it, and governmental entities.
An organization's culture normally develops over a long period
of time. Many times, it begins with what has been termed a
"founder story" regarding the
individual who created or started the organization. Examples
include J.C. Penney, Sam Walton (Walmart), or more recently,
Steve Jobs (Apple Computer). A
founder espouses certain values and expresses the way he or she
wishes to operate. Members follow, and the culture begins to
develop (see OB in Action: Honest
Tea for another example).
Over time, a culture may evolve as organizational leaders
respond to the need for external adaptation and survival
methods while at the same time coping with
problems associated with internal integration (Schein, 1996).
Patterns of behavior develop within the organization including
what to wear, the type of language
(formal, informal) used when addressing those of higher rank,
the conduct of performing the actual task or job, and numerous

other facets of organizational life
that re�lect and express the values of the founder and those
who follow.
Culture becomes a relatively �ixed organizational element
re�lecting the organization's history. Top managers who
understand the importance of a culture enjoy
a major competitive advantage. Airbnb's co-founder and CEO
Brian Chesky stated,
The thing that will endure for 100 years, the way it has for most
100 year companies, is the culture. The culture is what creates
the foundation for all
future innovation. If you break the culture, you break the
machine that creates your products. (ReferralCandy, 2016, para.
5)
OB in Action: Honest Tea—A Strong Culture
from the Beginning
Honest Tea began as a collaboration between co-founders Seth
Goldman and Barry Nalebuff. Both had an interest in
refreshment products that were less
sweet than traditional drinks such as Coke or Pepsi. Tea
provided a natural alternative. Nalebuff visited India, where he
learned that the major teas sold
for bottling by American companies were often brewed using
the dust and fannings left after the quality tea leaves were used.
Nalebuff and Goldman
concluded that tea brewed with actual tea leaves would taste
better and enjoy a natural advantage in the marketplace. The
name Honest Tea resulted
from the idea that bottled teas brewed with real tea leaves had a
better, more genuine (or honest) taste (Honest Tea, 2016).
From the beginning, the company based operations on a passion

both cofounders held
regarding social responsibility. The company's mission
statement is "Honest Tea creates
and promotes delicious, truly healthy, organic beverages. We
strive to grow with the same
honesty we use to craft our products, with sustainability and
great taste for all." The
concept drives every company activity, from the manufacturing
process to marketing
programs, biodegradable tea bags, organic ingredients, and
community partnerships.
Efforts to become more sustainable led to the development of
plastic bottles that are 22%
lighter than most versions, saving tons in waste.
Honest Tea's partnership programs seek out circumstances in
which an entrepreneur in a
struggling region can produce new �lavors and additives.
Contracts have been developed
with Native American groups in the United States and farmers
in Thailand who grow
mangosteen, an antioxidant ingredient. Goldman and Nalebuff
believe in helping others
through commerce.
The result, in terms of an organizational culture, is a company
�illed with employees who
are proud of what they do and how the organization operates.
Company involvements
include "plant a tree" efforts and support of the Susan G.
Komen cancer foundation. The
strong emphasis on sustainability, responsibility, and high-
quality products has taken this
small operation to a thriving and successful business across the
United States (Honest Tea, 2016).

In 2011, Honest Tea was acquired by Coca Cola. Conscious
Company Magazine (2016) noted that the organization
stayed true to its mission and values.
Further, Honest Tea has been left to operate largely as an
independent unit within the bigger corporation, thereby
supporting the company's original
mission and value statements, and maintaining the
organization's internal culture.
Re�lection and Application Questions
1. Can most companies develop a similar mindset regarding
social responsibility and succeed at the same high level?
2. What kinds of employees would naturally �it in the Honest
Tea organization?
3. Can you think of situations that might threaten the culture of
Honest Tea? If so, what are they?
Culture consists of the symbols, rituals, language, and social
dramas that highlight organizational life, including myths,
stories, and jargon (Smircich, 1984).
Symbols include the golden arches at McDonald's, the Intel tune
played in commercials, a Star of David in a synagogue, or the
Republican elephant. Rituals
include joining ceremonies and commencement activities, such
as the Doctorate of Hamburgerology granted to graduates of the
McDonald's manager training
12/31/2018 Print

Organizations that have strong cultures tend to have
employees who identify with the organization's mission
and with each other, potentially leading to higher
productivity.
Jacob Ammentorp Lund/iStock/Thinkstock
program, Hamburger University. Language includes company-
speci�ic acronyms and terms: In the world of Disney, a crowd
at a theme park is an "audience" and
a work shift is a "performance." Social dramas emerge from
promotion decisions, termination decisions, and disciplinary
actions.
Culture also consists of shared meanings associated with these
elements. For instance, the term "no rules" has a shared
meaning among employees at Outback
Steakhouse. The organization emphasizes having fun and
creating a positive and pleasant environment in which customer
needs come �irst (no rules about
altering the menu choices, for example). Further, shared
meaning arises from consistently mentioned themes of
inclusivity, diversity, team trust, and
communication (Bloominbrands.com, 2016; Sullivan, 2005).
Culture combines the philosophy of the founder of the �irm
with beliefs, expectations, and values
shared by members.
Organizational culture has several dimensions. These include
dominant cultures and subcultures, strong (and weak) cultures,
along with other functions and
layers.
Dominant Cultures and Subcultures

In nearly every society, a dominant culture guides the daily
activities of citizens. The same holds true for individual
companies. The dominant culture
articulates the core values shared by a majority of an
organization's members. When the company interacts with the
public, the dominant culture is often readily
noticeable. As an example, the dominant culture at Southwest
Airlines leads employees to cooperate with one another and to
have fun while doing so. The
Outback Steakhouse chain tried to instill the same type of
shared values using the "No Rules" motto for many years. In
essence, the dominant culture becomes
the organization's personality.
As a company grows in size, subcultures often emerge. A
subculture (a culture that differentiates a subgroup from the
larger group to which it belongs), in an
organizational context, arises from the common problems,
situations, and experiences that a set of members face. In a
freethinking and fun-loving company such
as Nintendo, which develops handheld games, the dominant
culture extends to every member. One department in the
company, quality control, still must adhere
to carefully managed production techniques or the games will
have defects and will not work. It would not be surprising to
�ind that members of the quality
control department have an additional set of values that differ
somewhat from the overall organization.
Many times, subcultural values mesh with or contribute to those
of the dominant culture. A subculture should not automatically
be considered as a negative
force, or counter-position to the dominant culture. In the case of
Nintendo, for example, stricter adherence to safety and quality
protocols supports the delivery
of the fun-loving games others create.

At the other extreme, there may be times when an "us versus
them" mentality emerges as the subculture becomes more
established and some values con�lict
with those professed in the dominant culture. Such may be the
case when a subculture emerges around a new technology that
may change the entire
organization but cost some members in terms of position and
power, leading to resistance from some and support from others.
Managers are advised to monitor
the relationships between the dominant culture and any
subculture that arises over time.
Strong Cultures
Some dominant cultures are more pervasive than others. A
company with a strong culture features members who
intensely hold and readily share the
organization's core values. Strong cultures are readily evident in
military and religious organizations with rich histories and
traditions.
Strong, dominant cultures may even be found in Internet
companies. The rapidly growing Internet company Zappos.com
provides training focused on the �irm's
10 core values, which include "Deliver WOW," "Pursue
growth," "A little weirdness," "Be passionate," and "Be
humble." Founder and former CEO Tony Hsieh
would seek out individuals with a passion to provide quality
customer service. To create and maintain that culture, the
workplace includes free food, substantial
interactions between employees, and constant encouragement to
have fun. New employees begin their training in the call center
serving customers, even when
the worker will eventually play a different role, such as order
ful�illment, inventory control, or �inance and accounting.

During the training sessions, Hsieh offered
to "buy out" anyone who did not believe he or she would �it
with the company. Payments, which were rarely accepted,
ranged up to $2,000 (Durst, 2006).
In organizations such as Zappos.com and Honest Tea, a strong
dominant culture generates
several bene�its. Members of these companies often express
high levels of agreement with and
commitment to the organization's mission. Employees and
employee groups are often tightly
knit and cohesive and remain loyal to the organization. In
practical terms, companies with
strong cultures often exhibit lower levels of turnover (few
people quit or are �ired); the
employees offer statements of loyalty to other employees and to
people outside of the
company. The net results can be improved productivity and a
positive, social work
atmosphere, which in turn may entice quality individuals to
seek employment with the
company.
By inference, other organizations would have what might be
characterized as "weak" cultures.
Employees or members may not be made aware of key
organizational values or may simply
not buy into those values. Some researchers conclude that a
weak culture may be associated
with a lack of employee focus and lower organizational
performance (Gordon & DiTomaso,
1992); however, others suggest an overly dominant culture can
make an organization less
democratic and more inclined to mind guarding against
dissenting opinions or approaches
(Parker, 2000).

Managers should be aware of the potential negative effects of a
culture that has become too
strong as to be overwhelming, or one that is too weak to
generate some of the potential
bene�its a culture can offer.
Functions of Culture
Organizational culture can play a key role in an organization's
well-being. It can improve the organization's functioning as
well as enhance the employment
experiences of individual workers. Several potentially positive
functions may be played by an organization's culture.
Culture Makes the Organization Distinct
Culture creates distinctions between organizations. These
unique features attract some people to join a company and
encourage others to go elsewhere. They
extend to customers, other organizations, and even the
government. In the insurance industry, A�lac developed a
highly visible reputation for being family
friendly and welcoming to members of minority groups. The
company's culture sets it apart from other insurers.
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Company Values: Zappos
Zappos CEO Tony Hsieh discusses the company's top values

and how the leadership ensures that those values are
represented in the company's workforce.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Should new employees be given time to adjust to
company culture, or do you agree that those who do
not embody the culture ought to be eliminated early
on?
2. Do Hsieh's methods/values differ from your current
or past workplace cultures? If so, how?
Culture Creates a Sense of Identity
If you speak to a person in uniform and refer to him or her as a
"soldier," there will be instances in which you will be quickly
corrected with, "I'm a Marine."
Marines view themselves as different from "ordinary" soldiers.
The same sense of identity can be found in a variety of
organizations. Stronger cultures lead
people to incorporate the organization's core values into their
own personal value systems.
Culture Builds a Strong Social System
Culture has been compared to social glue holding an
organization together. When people join companies, they learn
how to promote themselves and become
more fully aware of how an organization operates. The social
system explains the "rules of the game," including what are
acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.
Social dramas occur when norms and rules have been violated.
Norms are the rules of behavior that guide members of an
organization. Norms apply to levels of
effort given on the job, to the willingness to share information
and help others, to manner of dress, and even to language.

Rewards and promotions accumulate to
those who follow the rules and play the game as expected
(O'Reilly & Chatman, 1996).
Culture Helps Employees "Fit In"
By comprehending how a culture operates, an employee who
wishes to remain will seek to �it in. The person will learn
company lingo and, over time, more
strongly accept the organization's core values. Culture plays a
major role in guiding the behaviors of members of a company.
Understanding and adapting to a
culture can assist in building a successful career.
Layers of Culture
Just as people have layers in their personalities, layers may be
found in the culture of an organization. Some of the
characteristics of an organization's culture can
be readily observed, while others remain subtle or hidden. Three
levels of culture interact with one another and in�luence
behaviors in organizations: observable
artifacts, espoused values, and enacted values.
Observable Artifacts
Artifacts include the physical signs of an organization's
dominant culture. A company such as Walmart that refers to
employees as "associates" on name tags
states a value. Other expressions of observable culture include
displays of awards such as "employee of the month," specially
designated parking spaces, the
manner of dress exhibited by employees, and company
ceremonies. A color associated with a company (IBM as "big
blue") is an observable artifact, as are items
such as the mouse ears found in Disney operations.
The University of Hawaii football team under former head

coach June Jones exhibited traditional elements of culture and a
unique set of observable artifacts.
Traditional cultural elements included trophies on display for
individuals and teams in the training facility, signs on display
stressing the importance of
teamwork, and practice rituals that are the same for football
teams across the country. The team's observable artifacts are
found in its inclusion of Hawaiian
culture. The coaches wear Hawaiian shirts during games to
re�lect the local culture.
Espoused Values
Most organizations have guideposts that express the primary
beliefs of the leadership group.
Espoused values are the explicitly stated values and norms that
are found in organizations.
The espoused values of Honest Tea include an emphasis on
sustainability and a commitment to
helping communities. Espoused values are aspirations rather
than outcomes. At times, the
ambitions are not achieved. When a company's leadership team
expresses the desire to hire,
train, and promote a more diverse workforce, an espoused value
exists. When the same
company does not follow through with hiring decisions
dedicated to that value, it remains
simply an aspiration.
Enacted Values
The values and norms exhibited as employee and managerial
behaviors are enacted values, or
readily observable acts that re�lect the organization's culture.
As an example, customer service
phone representatives at Zappos.com receive constant reminders
about the value of a quality
interaction with the company. As a result, when a customer

calls looking for a speci�ic pair of
shoes, and Zappos.com does not have the item in stock, the
service representative provides the
names of other companies that might have a pair. CEO Tony
Hsieh (2010) believed that, even
though a sale has been lost by not trying to entice the customer
to switch to a different pair of
shoes, the long-term loyalty will be worth far more. Employees
that enact that value achieve
access to greater rewards in the Zappos.com system.
The combination of observable artifacts, espoused values, and
enacted values can create role
clarity for an employee. Role clarity exists when a person has a
clear understanding of his or
her function in the organization and how to complete all
assigned tasks. Role clarity means, "I
know what I'm supposed to be doing." The reminders that come
from seeing observable
artifacts, hearing espoused values, and carrying out enacted
values generates a greater sense of
clarity.
Bene�its of Positive Cultures
Company leaders enjoy distinct advantages when an
organization exhibits a positive culture. Positive cultures are
democratic and progressive. They nurture
and value the contributions of members. Positive cultures tend
to be more �lexible and adaptable, making the organization
better able to meet the challenges of a
dynamic world (Benn, 2011). Organizational leaders have
vested interests in trying to build positive cultures over time.
This is especially true in dynamic
industries, such as high-tech, entertainment, services, and
others.

Some studies suggest that culture can play a larger role in
employee motivation than pay (Gifford, Zammuto, Goodman, &
Hill, 2002). Organizational culture can
help managers reach their goals while helping employees adapt
to company life. The bene�its of a positive culture include
stability, employee self-management,
Company Values
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A positive work culture provides employees with a
sense
of comfort and security that promotes stability and
successfulworking relationships.
Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
and assistance in integrating new employees into the workplace.

Stability
In a positive culture, certain elements remain constant and
reliable even in an ever-changing
world. Sprint and Verizon operate in a rapidly changing and
evolving industry. A positive
culture within these corporations, which emphasizes
interdependence of various locations
along with a sense of belonging, might be helpful in such a
turbulent environment.
Employee Self-Management
In a positive culture, members may be willing to set aside
personal interests to help the
organization succeed. Self-management originates at two levels.
First, strong, positive
cultures create certain norms. Failure to follow these norms
results in social pressure to
conform; those who do are accepted and those who do not might
encounter caustic comments
or ostracism from peers. If the norm imposes a ban on profanity,
for example, someone who
constantly violates the rule faces rejection by peers.
The second level of self-management comes from within the
person. Most people have a
natural desire to be accepted by coworkers. Many go a step
further and wish to please others.
Abiding by cultural constraints can help achieve these goals.
The bene�its to managers include less time enforcing the
company's discipline system. It becomes easier to complete
performance appraisals in a positive
fashion, by concentrating on work-related behaviors rather than
social activities. A positive environment in which employees
exhibit self-management also
invites better relationships between supervisors and

subordinates.
Integrating New Employees
Positive cultures often mean that workers feel comfortable and
secure. The "new guy" is not threatening; thus, incoming
employees are more readily accepted
and trust can be built more quickly. The bene�it to management
will be less time training and socializing new workers. The
bene�it to the worker will be a much
more comfortable and pleasant transition into the new
workplace role. This bene�it receives greater attention in the
next section of this chapter.
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With leadershipthat places employees �irst,
customers
second, and shareholders third, Southwestis a
primary
example of an organization that is team oriented.
age fotostock/age footstock/SuperStock
2.2 Transmitting Culture
Culture is transmitted in a variety of ways. Meetings, mailings,
and other communications express cultural values, such as the
statement "Quality is Job 1," a

pervasive phrase repeated in Ford Motor Company paperwork.
Role modeling and coaching processes instruct employees about
the �irm's core values. One
viewpoint of culture suggests that seven characteristics, as a
group, express the essence of an organization's culture
(O'Reilly, Chatman, & Campbell, 1991):
1. Degree of encouragement of innovation and risk-taking.
2. Attention to detail and precision.
3. Outcome orientation.
4. People orientation.
5. Team orientation.
6. Level of aggressiveness and competitiveness.
7. Emphasis on stability and the status quo.
The degree of encouragement of innovation and
risk-taking identi�ies an organization's leadership
philosophy regarding such activities. In companies where risk-
taking is punished or ignored, the culture takes on a different
hue from one in which innovative successes are hailed and even
failed attempts receive
reassurance and recognition. Consequently, the roles played by
members of an organization that does not embolden innovation
will be different from the roles
played by members of an organization that encourages original
thinking and actions. The organization's reward system
normally re�lects which approach �its
with its culture.
Attention to detail and precision is re�lected by
management's attitudes toward methods used to complete tasks.
As a simple example, the degree of tolerance for
defects and returned goods in�luences supervisory processes
and worker attitudes as items are made or services are rendered.
A company that provides
painting and other interior work might emphasize low-prices in

bids and the buyer might expect lesser quality as a result. This
in turn would affect how
employees perform their jobs and feel about company
expectations.
Outcome orientation refers to a focus on results rather than
methods. For example, salespeople may be encouraged to
"aggressively" attract new customers;
however, the actual methods individuals chose to achieve that
goal may differ. In essence, attention is given to the outcome
rather than any speci�ic process or
technique.
People orientation appears when organizational leaders make
it clear that valuing employees
is a key part of the company's culture. Employees quickly pick
up on situations in which
management's appreciation of them is genuine and those in
which they and their work are
only paid lip service. In �irms where management truly places
value on employees, those
seeking to move up in the ranks quickly learn that such an
orientation is necessary and will be
noticed.
A team orientation will also be transmitted by those in charge
and at higher ranks. Firms such
as Zappos.com, Southwest Airlines, and Costco make it clear
that not only are individual
people respected, but also that teamwork is expected and
rewarded. Consequently, cultural
norms regarding team-oriented behaviors emerge, such as
"pitching in" and helping in
dif�icult situations and �inding ways to place the good of the
group above one's own interests.
Further, doing so will be noticed and rewarded by higher level

managers.
Aggressivenessand competitiveness dominate the cultures of
some organizations. Many legal
�irms, for example, have been shown to favor the most
aggressive and competitive lawyers
when offering partnership and other bene�its. A competitive
culture does not necessarily
mean that managers will always fail to recognize and appreciate
employees and team-related
efforts. An individual can be competitive and a team player at
the same time. Conversely, an
overly-aggressive individual who hurts the team and the overall
organization will also be
noted by management and often counseled that such behaviors
do not �it with the company's
goals.
A cultural emphasis on stability and the status quo may favor
some organizations and work against the interests of others. For
many years, the banking industry
was typi�ied by a strong emphasis on the appearance and
maintenance of the status quo, with impressive buildings and
well-dressed employees inside. When
pressures from competitive forces through products such as
online banking and other sources emerged, the priority of
maintaining the status quo may have
slowed the ability of some banks to effectively respond.
In all these instances, cultural transmission takes place as part
of the socialization process when an employee or person joins
and learns about a company or
organization. Organizational stories and other activities help
transmit and reinforce culture to members over time. Managers
reinforce cultural values through
public statements, through advice and counsel to individual

workers, via performance appraisal ratings, and through the
formal and informal organizational
reward systems.
Socialization Phases
Within the �ield of organizational behavior, socialization is the
process of learning, internalizing, and assimilating an
organization's values. Part of socialization
includes learning the organization's culture. Socialization
programs range from simple interactions between employees to
highly developed systems. For
example, Sanyo's orientation program places new employees
into circumstances in which they live and eat together for 5
months at a company-sponsored resort.
Among the items new workers learn are how to dress, speak,
and even groom themselves. The company intends to develop
kaisha senshi, or corporate warriors,
through these efforts (Frujstuck, 2007).
The organizational socialization process includes three phases
(Feldman, 1984), which are displayed in Table 2.1. The �irst,
anticipatory socialization, involves
the learning that takes place prior to joining an organization.
The �irst stage may also be referred to as pre-arrival. Potential
applicants may learn about a
company from members of their families, from encounters at
school, from social media, or from visits with members of a
profession. After receiving negative
publicity following the sale of tainted food items, the leadership
of the Chipotle restaurant chain responded by enacting an active
program to emphasize careful
purchasing programs for food items and cleanliness by all
employees and managers (Vinjamuri, 2015). This emphasis
takes place during recruiting and selection
processes for new employees, or during the pre-arrival stage.

The second stage of organizational socialization, the encounter,
takes place as the individual learns more about the company.
The worker begins to compare his
or her expectations about the �irm's culture with reality.
Employee training programs are available to emphasize new
aspects of a culture as workers learn their
jobs. Training extends to the supervisor in charge as well as the
human resource department.
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The third stage, change and acquisition, also called the
metamorphosis stage, occurs as the employee masters the skills
and role performance needed to
succeed in the organization. The change may include moving
personal values and working methods closer to those imposed
by the organization. At that time,
observance of role models and coaches becomes a powerful
in�luence. Zappos.com CEO Tony Hsieh had his of�ice cubicle
strategically placed at the center of the
work zone. The message was clear: He valued his peers and
wished to be accessible. Top managers can seek to change a
culture by providing visible messages
about what must be done.
Table 2.1: Stages of organizational socialization
Stage New employee action or evaluation
Anticipatory socialization Anticipating new employer

expectations
Anticipating employer needs for skills and abilities
Anticipating employer's sensitivity to one's needs and values
Encounter Seeking role clarity
Managing group interactions
Balancing life and work
Change and acquisition Completing role demands as required
Mastering tasks
Internalizing cultural norms and values
Forms of Socialization
Individual companies have personalities, and each responds to
its environment in different ways. Internal functions are
managed in various ways as well.
Company leaders can proactively create and �ine-tune the
socialization process. Doing so involves a series of decisions
about how to engage with new employees
(Van Maanen, 1978; Schein, 1990).
Formal Versus Informal Socialization
Formal socialization involves a new employee engaging in a
clearly designated, separate socialization program. Normally
formal socialization and learning take
place somewhere away from the job; as part of orientation or
new employee training systems. Informal socialization and
learning occur as the employee receives
attention from coworkers and supervisors. Questions are
answered and suggestions are given as to how the new employee
can effectively �it in. Formal and
informal socialization and learning do not present an either–or
scenario. Both can occur as the person enters the organization.
IndividualVersus CollectiveSocialization

Individual socialization takes place as a person receives private
instruction or training. Collective socialization occurs in
groups. The bene�it of individual
attention will be personalized instruction tailored to the person's
unique needs. The advantage of collective socialization can be
that new employees reinforce
each other as the program proceeds.
Fixed- Versus Variable-Advancement Socialization
Fixed-advancement socialization involves all employees
spending the same amount of time on each stage of training.
Promotions or advancements to additional
new stages occur on a �ixed timetable. Variable-advancement
socialization tends to be goal- or objective-based. After an
employee completes a stage of training
and adjustment to the company, the individual moves on to the
next goal. Variable-advancement socialization works well when
training individuals who require
additional or special attention. Fixed-advancement systems are
used in circumstances in which all employees are expected to
learn and adjust in comparable
time frames.
Serial Versus Random Socialization
Serial socialization places employees with various staff
members for speci�ic training programs. That way, the new
workers learn from experts. Random
socialization occurs when new employees are not paired with
speci�ic staff members. Instead, individuals seek advice and
training as they see �it. Serial
socialization will be used when speci�ic skill sets or knowledge
bases are required. In that way, the company has greater
assurance that new employees have
received proper training. Random socialization matches
employees with generalists who perform numerous tasks or
carry out a variety of activities.

Divestiture Versus Investiture Socialization
Divestiture socialization requires "unlearning" of personal
characteristics and habits to �it in with others in the
organization. Military training involves the classic
divestiture approach. Investiture socialization assumes the
individual possesses unique traits and characteristics that may
be of value to the organization. One
can inject his or her own personality into the job.
Some of the aforementioned forms of socialization do not
represent mutually exclusive approaches. Formal and informal
socialization can both take place.
Employees can be socialized individually at times and
collectively at others. Socialization can occur serially and
randomly.
Two of the methods listed above involve choices. Employees
can receive either �ixed or variable socialization programs.
Employees will be socialized either
through divestiture or investiture.
As most human resources managers will attest, �irst
impressions matter. New employees will quickly discover
whether they have made appropriate work
choices. Some will discover the �it cannot and will not exist.
They can then move on to more favorable working situations.
Mentoring and Socialization
A mentor is an individual who assists a less-seasoned employee.
Mentoring involves several activities, including listening to and
reviewing ideas, introducing the
mentee or protégé to key individuals who might offer help,
showing the person how to act and perform the job, and
providing emotional support. Mentoring
systems can be formal or informal. Formal systems assign

mentors to individuals. Informal approaches allow the
relationships to form naturally.
A portion of mentoring involves interpreting the organization's
culture to the protégé. Other activities include providing
exposure and visibility to the mentee,
protecting the individual from internal threats and competitors,
helping with assignments, and providing friendship.
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Learning a company's stories can help employees
become
familiar with aspects of the company's culture,
such as
dualities, equalities and inequalities, and events.
Hero Images Inc./Hero Images/SuperStock
Individuals with mentors have an important career advantage.
Some sources suggest developing sets of mentors, or mentor
networks. To do so involves taking
the time to develop close relationships with diverse
organizational members who can offer assistance and guidance.
Showing appreciation for the counseling
and support given helps continue a strong mentor– protégé
relationship.
The socialization process represents a key opportunity to
develop quality employees. It can also be used to support

organizational change and a more ethical
culture, as will be discussed later in this chapter. Effective
managers pay attention to all aspects of the socialization
process.
The Role of Stories
One important way members (especially managers) transmit
culture is through stories and
organizational myths. As noted earlier, culture often begins
with and relies on stories and
myths about the company's founder and its current leading
�igures—the �irm's heroes and
heroines (Gordon, 1993; Schein, 1985). As part of the recruiting
process, prospective
employees are often told about the organization's philosophy,
which—as is the case with
Honest Tea, Walmart, Southwest Airlines, and other
companies—can include the
organization's origin story.
Stories can also take shape in the answers employees hear to
their questions. As one begins
working in a company, asking questions about the organization
is common. Many of the
questions will be about cultural issues, including what is
important and why. Some of the
more common questions new employees ask include the
following:
Which rules are important?
What will get me �ired?
Will the company help me if I must move?
How does the company view risk taking?
Can the little person rise to the top?
Is the big boss human?

Obviously, the questions will probably not be stated in these
exact words, but in general, employees want to know if top
management is approachable. They want
to understand the discipline system and where the "line" is
regarding termination. They ask about the amount of support
they will receive and whether the
company regards fairness and equality as important values. The
answers they receive take the form of stories, which serve
several purposes.
Stories Explain Dualities
Stories present the most positive and negative versions of
answers to questions about culture. When questioning whether
the leaders at the top are
approachable (Is the big boss human?), a new employee might
receive two answers at either end of the spectrum:
One person's account: "I saw this guy say 'hello' to the CEO,
and he bit his head off!"
Another person's account: "I saw this guy in the parking lot
with a �lat tire, and the CEO stopped, took off his suit coat,
and helped him put on the spare."
Both stories may be true. In the �irst instance, the CEO was in
a bad mood and in a hurry. The storyteller may not know that
the CEO later found the same
employee and apologized profusely.
Stories Explain Equality and Inequality
Stories also explain perceived issues of equality and inequality.
When new employees ask whether there is room for growth in
the organization, they may again
receive two entirely different responses, depending on whom
they ask:

"Sheila has been our best accountant for the past 10 years.
Three different times she applied for the accounting manager
job and got passed over. Some guy
always ended up getting the job."
"Jose Morales is such a cool dude. Everyone likes him. No one
was surprised when he got promoted, even though he had only
been here a couple of years."
Stories are used to explain when employees have been treated
fairly and when they have not.
Stories Explain Company Events and the Past
Stories explain social dramas, such as why someone was
terminated. A story has been told about the president of a small
university in the Midwest, who, despite
warnings by several people, including a weather expert, decided
to hold graduation ceremonies outdoors. As the commencement
program began, a massive
rainfall, complete with powerful lightning, interrupted the
proceedings and drenched the entire audience. The next day the
Board of Regents terminated the
president. As the story goes, "He was �ired for holding
graduation in a thunderstorm." In truth, the story provides a
portrayal of an authoritarian leader who
wouldn't listen to good advice.
Stories Create and Emphasize Heroes and
Heroines
Founding stories create mythologies about the entrepreneur that
began the company. An organizational hero or heroine provides
the ultimate role model for
employees to follow. A common hero story told about Walmart
founder Sam Walton focuses on his "everyman" characteristics.
Walton was famous for driving to

stores in an old pickup truck and pitching in to help associates
unload delivery trucks and stock shelves. As the years unfold,
undoubtedly hero stories will be
told about Mark Zuckerberg's Facebook founding adventure as
well as Twitter's Biz Stone, Jack Dorsey, Evan Williams, and
Noah Glass.
Stories Help Identify Cultural Forms
Studies of organizational culture suggest that four categories
may exist. Each one dictates differing behaviors to members.
The four forms are displayed in Table
2.2. Stories told within the organization help transmit these
characteristics to new members. Outside observers may also be
able to somewhat understand the
culture present in the organization, which might in turn
in�luence the decision to apply for a position with the
company.
Table 2.2: Forms of culture
Name Characteristics
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Clan Internally focused, family-type, high levels of
collaboration, emphasis on involvement, commitment,
consensus, decentralized
management
Hierarchy Internally focused, driven by strong control
mechanisms, standardized rules, formal procedures, centralized

management, stable,
in�lexible
Adhocracy Externally focused, values �lexibility, emphasis on
innovation, encourages risk taking, decentralized management
Market Strong external focus, driven by competition, values
stability and control, customer-centered, centralized
management
Source: Adapted from K. S. Cameron, R. E. Quinn,
J. Degraff, & V. Thakor (2006). Competing
values leadership. Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar.
Employees in a clan culture, such as Southwest Airlines, enjoy
positive relationships with peers. Employees in a hierarchy
culture, such as a police force, quickly
learn that rules and procedures are important. In an adhocracy
culture, trying something that doesn't work out will have
different consequences than it would in
other companies. Many Silicon Valley companies exhibit
adhocracy cultures. In a market culture, such as automobile or
insurance sales, pay raises, promotions,
and rewards are likely to be based on visible performance
measures related to sales and customer service.
Over time, employees learn about their company's culture based
on what is rewarded, and what is punished. Questions, answers,
myths, stories, and jargon all
become part of the organizational experience. When the person
matches the organizational type, the �it produces the best
chances for individual success.
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Token=9471ae7c-c… 10/23
Despite many public scandals, academic institutions
across the country struggle to adequately address
sexual harassment and assault claims.
Sbhaumik/iStock/Thinkstock
2.3 Changing an Organization's Culture
"We need to change the culture around here." This type of
statement is often made when a new CEO or president arrives.
Declarations such as these are more
common during a transition in which a crisis has occurred or is
taking place. Classic stories of cultural change include the
efforts of Lee Iacocca at Chrysler in the
1980s and Jack Rowe at Aetna in the early 2000s. Iacocca had
to convince an entire corporation to overhaul all of its product
lines by eliminating nearly 500
Chrysler products while designing new types of cars featuring
front-wheel drive and a smaller chassis to meet the needs of a
changing automotive environment.
Rowe had to make peace with a series of frustrated health care
providers and restore morale in a company that was losing
money every day. Both succeeded by
changing the cultures of their organizations.
Two sets of circumstances typically demand cultural change.
The �irst is when an organization has engaged in irresponsible
or illegal activities and a more
ethical culture must be built. The second type of pressure for
cultural change results when a crisis of some sort, including a

dynamic marketplace, a major error,
or damage caused by an uncontrollable force, such as an
economic crisis, takes place.
The following OB in Action box describes how an unethical
culture creates signi�icant problems for individual employees,
the overall institution, and even the
larger society in which the organization operates.
OB in Action: Sexual Harassment in Academia
Unethical cultures may be found in areas other than a for-pro�it
workplace. A CNN report
(Ganim, 2016) examined instances of sexual harassment in the
academic world,
particularly in the �ield of astronomy. Alessondra Springmann,
a rocket scientist at the
University of Arizona, noted that sexual harassment extended
beyond her own �ield:
We see it in anthropology, we see it in
philosophy, we see it in physics, we see it
in the
humanities, we see it in the social sciences.
We see it in engineering in particular.
Astronomy just happened to be, sort of, the �irstto
get attention. (para. 5)
Apparently, the problem remains pervasive. A survey indicates
that 71% of respondents
reported they had been sexually harassed while engaged in
�ield work, and 25% said they
had been sexually assaulted. U.S. Rep. Jackie Speier of
California sponsored legislation
that would force institutions receiving federal grant money to
report harassment

investigations. She argued that such a move is necessary
because university leaders
continue to fail to report the actions of their faculties.
These cultures create extra hardships for female students and
faculty. A woman who
accuses a male faculty member of such an unethical act would
likely have to abandon her
research and years of hard work. As one person noted in the
report, doing so can derail a
career before it even starts.
Unfortunately, the cultures of many institutions tend to protect
older, tenured male
faculty members, even when younger, brilliant females report
incidents. Over time, this can drive women away from careers in
STEM (science, technology,
engineering, and mathematics). This cultural problem can be
made worse by institutional factors, such as tenure, which make
it dif�icult to terminate a
predator, especially one who has received substantial funding
for research grants. Without an institutional response, this
tragic problem may continue to
remain unresolved.
Re�lection and Application Questions
1. How might this institutional cultural problem be transmitted
to new male and female students and faculty?
2. What potential long-term effects might result if such a hostile
environment culture continues to persist at a university?
3. How could university governance (president, regents, faculty
senate) work to change this cultural �law?
Building a More Ethical Culture

The past two decades have witnessed numerous dramatic
episodes of unethical individual and corporate activities. The
2008 Bernie Madoff Ponzi scheme
scandal, the unethical activities in �inancial markets, the car
safety concerns from unexpected acceleration in Toyota
automobiles, and the 2016 Wells Fargo
scandal regarding employees creating false accounts serve as
examples of the devastating impact of short-sighted, unethical
actions.
Many company leaders have concluded that an ethical culture
provides guidance to employees and managers that will keep a
company on a better course.
Socially responsible and ethical companies minimize negative
actions such as cheating on taxes, selling defective products,
discriminating against various
employee groups, and breaking other laws. Socially responsible
and ethical companies engage in positive actions including fair
treatment of workers, community
relations efforts, and other altruistic activities.
The bene�its of ethical cultures include employee loyalty and
commitment, a better standing in the community, and greater
compassion from customers and the
government. For these reasons, organizational change dedicated
to building an ethical culture and environment is a worthwhile
managerial goal. Many of the
methods to change a culture overlap with tactics used to build
an ethical culture.
Visible Statements of Commitment
To build a more ethical culture, leaders must put the goal in
writing. Many organizations have updated company mission
statements to include clauses about the
importance of social responsibility, ethical behaviors, and
closely associated goals such as sustainability. Such

pronouncements deserve highly visible platforms,
so that employees and outside publics are made well aware of
the intention to change or improve the company's ethical
culture. Two examples include the
following:
"We are committed to offering high-quality, ethically purchased
and responsibility produced products." — Starbucks
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"We envision a community of responsible and educated citizens
who are environmentally conscious, practice social
responsibility in their daily lives and inspire
others to do the same." — Shangri-La Hotels and Resorts
Establish Ethical Expectations
An organizational code of ethics provides one venue for clearly
communicating ethical guidelines. The standards can be based
on those established in
professional ethical codes, such as those followed by
physicians, accountants, and academics. Company codes should
spell out key values and ethical rules
speci�ic to the type of organization. The AT&T code of ethics
contains the following elements, which are common to many
such documents:
Values statement prioritizing honest and ethical conduct
Con�licts of interest statement
Disclosure requirements

Compliance requirements
Reporting and accountability statement
Corporate opportunities statement
Fair dealing commitment
Guidelines outlining the protection and proper use of corporate
assets
Provide a Positive Role Model
Company executives are closely watched by members of the
organization. Those who cut corners and become involved in
questionable actions set a standard of
behavior that will be detrimental to the organization. Open lines
of communication and transparent management practices
communicate the importance of
ethical actions.
Cultural role modeling takes place when leaders address both
internal and external publics. These individuals overtly or
subtly indicate the values of the
organization to which they subscribe. As an example, consider
the public persona of Indra Nooyi, CEO of PepsiCo. She has
achieved substantial recognition for
her caring attitude, her insistence on diversity in the
organization, and her willingness to innovate. All the while, she
occasionally wears traditional Indian attire
to work and encourages employees to participate in "bring your
child to work"-type company events. Her new interests in
sustainability as well as turning a
"snack food" company into one offering healthy alternatives for
snacking has continued to resonate with a wide audience
(Useem, 2008; Snyder, 2015).
Reward Ethical Acts and Punish Unethical Acts
Ethical and unethical actions take place at the individual and
group levels. At the individual level, the performance appraisal
process provides the opportunity to

offer feedback about a person's conduct. Rewards including pay
raises and bonuses for meeting ethical standards encourage
continued positive behavior.
Punishments, which can range from sanctions such as �ines to
being sent home without pay, or termination in extreme cases,
send a powerful message.
Groups engage in unethical activities such as collaboration on
padding expense accounts and mileage vouchers, harassing or
hazing targeted employees, and
"time theft," where goo�ing off or sur�ing the Internet are
viewed as acceptable activities. To combat such problems,
groups may be sanctioned as a whole, with
each member receiving a punishment commensurate with the
person's involvement. Groups that continue to violate ethical
codes should be broken up, or their
leaders may need to be terminated.
Provide Help
Many organizations provide ethical counselors to handle
inquiries. Employees must not fear retribution for approaching
these individuals. Smaller companies
can offer access to what are essentially ethics hotlines, where
employees can present ethical dilemmas and seek advice.
Lighthouse Services, The
CorporateCounsel.Net, and NAVEX Global, among others,
provide ethics hotlines.
As with any other aspect of culture, breaking down what was
presented and building in something new will take time. Top-
level managers that truly want an
ethical company must remain committed to these actions to
create cultural change.
The Role of Human Resources
As has been shown already in this chapter, the socialization

process begins prior to a person joining an organization.
Consequently, the role of the human
resource (HR) department becomes a key element in
maintaining the culture and attracting the best individuals to
join. The transmission of culture takes place
in recruiting programs, job descriptions, and other informational
programs (public relations efforts, for example) that can and
should transmit what an
individual might expect when seeking employment with or
joining a company or organization. It continues as the person
goes through the selection process,
where effective HR managers once again signal what to expect
from the culture of the organization. Then, as the individual
receives on- and off-the-job training
for a job or role, socialization moves into a more prominent
position. Consequently, the top-level management team receives
bene�its when it clearly and
consistently establishes cultural expectations to the HR
department, which in turn passes those values along to
applicants and new employees.
Tactics for Changing a Culture
Changing a culture takes time and a great deal of deliberate
effort. Top managers can utilize a series of tactics in the
attempt to alter a culture. Each can be
designed to "upset the applecart," or change the status quo.
Note that changing a culture will be extremely dif�icult and
cannot be accomplished overnight. It will
take time and persistent managerial efforts to succeed.
Top Management Pronouncements
Cultural change often begins with a major announcement.
Company leaders can express a new organizational philosophy,
revise the �irm's mission statement, or
incorporate new values. Walmart's leadership had always

emphasized the belief that employees or associates represented
the most important constituency. For
many years, the organization enjoyed an untarnished image and
was featured in a variety of textbooks as a quality model to
follow. In the 2000s, circumstances
changed as the company was charged with discrimination
against female employees and other unfair management
practices. To combat the allegations,
Walmart's leadership stressed positive examples of employment
experiences and undertook other projects designed to emphasize
that the company sought to
be a good citizen in the community, including scholarship
programs and neighborhood cleanup events.
Heidi Roizen, CEO of software company Broderbund (formerly
T/Maker), recently stated,
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Though culture changes can happen organically,
pronouncements can also be triggered by public
scandals.
Mitrija/iStock/Thinkstock
How you act—and how you reward or punish the actions of
others—will determine how
everyone else in the company will act. And that in turn will set
the culture—honest or
cheating, respectful or disrespectful, friendly or mean, trusting

or mistrustful.
(ReferralCandy, 2016, para. 39)
Therefore, words, while important, are not the entire story.
Managerial behaviors are what
employees see. They will have a strong impact on any attempt at
modifying or changing a
culture.
Company Language
Company language can be an effective method for changing
corporate culture. Many years
ago, in the 1980s, Ford's executive team needed to respond to
declining sales and foreign
competition in the U.S. automobile market. They decided it was
important to demonstrate a
renewed emphasis on quality. Thus, Ford adopted the motto
"Quality is Job 1." When a
manager can discover the right phrase or acronym, it can serve
as a beacon guiding cultural
change. Part of language change will be to defuse negative
commentary about the company
and its future.
Workplace Redesign
In the 1990s, many of the "dot-com" companies began moving
to open of�ice designs featuring
employee spaces that could be personalized. While not every
original Internet company
succeeded, it became clear that the design of the work space can
be altered to change the
culture of an organization. Removal of walls and other barriers
encourages collaboration but
decreases privacy. The highly successful Google organization
continues to take advantage of
an open work space and features a variety of bene�its,

including exercise rooms, free food, and
even a massage program. These perks provide tangible evidence
of the value placed on
innovation and employee loyalty that meshes with the design of
the of�ice. A hierarchical
organization seeking to encourage greater innovation might
follow suit.
Reward System Changes
Altering the reward system can provide the most immediate
incentives for changing
behaviors. Companies often change performance standards to
re�lect new circumstances. When a company offers a new
product, typical sales goals include
identifying and capturing accounts; and pioneering selling
techniques (making contacts, creating new accounts) receive the
greatest rewards (commissions and
pay raises). Should a company's new product succeed and
become established in the marketplace, the culture might shift
to greater expectations regarding
relationship maintenance, such as tending to returned
merchandise, answering customer complaints, and keeping in
personal contact with key people in
customer companies.
The HR department, working in conjunction with the
marketing/sales department, will often modify indicators of
successful performance and reward those
people who meet new requirements. The same will be true in
many international expansions. Salespeople must recognize that
foreign partners want to establish
trust prior to any business transaction. Therefore, the reward
system will require adjustment to this new reality.
Managers are advised to remember that shifting performance

criteria and the rewards that follow may be met with resistance.
High performers receiving the
biggest rewards under the prior system will be among the �irst
to become upset. It takes time and training to effectively install
a revised reward system.
Training Programs
To effect change through training programs, goals should be
aligned with the desired cultural shift. Many company
executives have pushed for a renewed
emphasis on customer service. Firms including Enterprise Rent-
A-Car, Whole Foods, L.L. Bean, Olive Garden, and Nordstrom
enjoy reputations as being
customer-friendly and consistently outperform competitors as a
result. A �irm known for indifferent service could repair its
reputation by emphasizing the
importance of customers in the initial stages of employee
training, thereby changing perceptions of customers in the
company's culture.
Role modeling and coaching can then reinforce training
messages. When successful and higher-ranking employees
display the behaviors that match the new
cultural feature, others will follow. By connecting the reward
system to such behaviors, the impact increases.
Systems and Procedures
Cultural change can be encouraged by altering work systems. A
hierarchical company seeking to become more �lexible can
introduce �lextime work schedules to
allow employees freedom to come and go as needed. The
Zehnder advertising agency in New Orleans has installed a
policy called VAN, which stands for
"vacation as needed." Owner Jeff Zehnder explains that his idea
of a strong culture is one in which people are treated as adults.
So long as the work is completed

on time, he trusts that his employees know how to best use their
talents and energies (J. Zehnder, personal communication,
February 17, 2010).
Goal-Setting
Goals direct activities. The automobile companies Subaru and
Mazda recently shifted goals toward a greater emphasis on
quality dealerships, and employees
were at the forefront of the changes. Company leaders believed
that a more pleasant shopping environment would boost sales.
The organizations spent a great
deal of money improving showrooms and other elements of the
dealerships (Greenberg, 2004) to assist salespeople in providing
quality purchasing experiences.
Toyota shifted its goals toward better serving the needs of
women visiting dealerships. Children's play areas were added,
restrooms were upgraded, and the
company established coffee bar areas (Voight, 2006). The sales
force was retrained to provide improved service to female
customers. Company leaders changed
the culture to recognize that both men and women buy cars.
Subaru, Mazda, and Toyota all enjoyed increases in sales and
customer loyalty.
In summary, changing a culture or creating a more ethical
culture takes time. Managers must be committed to the change.
Employees that respond positively
should be rewarded and serve as role models.
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SUBMITSUBMITSUBMIT
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As workplaces become progressively more diverse,
managers must utilize strategies to accommodate an
array
of people and experiences.
Rawpixel/iStock/Thinkstock
2.4 Diversity and Diversity Management
Diversity describes a wide spectrum of differences between
people and that applies to individuals, groups, and
organizations. At the individual level, for
example, a disability sets a person apart in one sense from
others, as does sexual orientation. Groups and categories
include those associated with age, race, and
gender, as well as political af�iliation, religion, and occupation
(Gomez-Mejia, Balkin, & Cardy, 2005).
In the study of diversity, care must be taken to avoid assuming
that group averages or
characteristics apply to every individual or group. Differences
between groups are normally
smaller than differences within groups. Stereotyping occurs
when all persons with one
common characteristic, such as Hispanic origin or Jewish

religious af�iliation, are incorrectly
assumed to have a set of common characteristics. When leaders,
managers, or coworkers
make these false and racist generalizations, the workplace
becomes divisive and unpleasant.
In the world of business, typical groupings used to describe
diversity include gender, age,
racial identity, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, and
physical disabilities.
Gender
Women compose more than half the workforce in the United
States. In addition to single
working women, over 50% of the U.S. workforce consists of
employees from two-income
families in which both spouses work (United States Department
of Labor, 2011). Issues of
marriage, child raising, career development, and work–life
balance persist for both men and
women.
In the United States, many women postpone marriage to begin
careers. Numerous careers are
interrupted by either having children or deferring to a spouse's
career path. Some companies
have responded to these challenges by offering on-site day care,
job sharing, and other
programs; however, most companies do not.
One of the more commonly noted problems, the glass ceiling,
continues in many companies
and industries. The glass ceiling refers to a barrier that prevents
women from advancing to top level executive positions. In some
circles the glass ceiling is often
referred to as the cement ceiling—especially for non-white

women. This issue arises when men dominate the agenda of an
organization, including promotion
decisions. The social network systematically excludes women
from moving up. Mentoring programs and other systems have
been designed to reduce the
problem; however, evidence suggests that perceptions play a
key role in maintaining the glass ceiling, especially when top
executives view the barriers to
advancement in ways that are different from the women seeking
to break through to higher levels (Ragira, Townsend, & Mattis,
1999).
Age
By 2015, the average age of the United States workforce had
reached 42 (U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2015). The trend
toward an increasingly older work
population will begin to decline in this decade, as members of
the Baby Boomer generation retire. In 2011, 13% of the U.S.
population was over the age of 65. By
2030, the �igure will be 18%. The 2008 economic downturn
combined with better health and increased life expectancy has
slowed the number of older workers
who wish to stop working, further complicating the workplace
environment (Stibich, 2011).
Age differences can complicate the manager's role. Senior
workers hold the greatest level of experience and can teach and
mentor younger employees. The U.S.
economy is driven by a large services sector, where physical
strength and endurance are not required. Senior workers in these
occupations are able to remain on
the job for longer periods of time. Some company executives
have concluded that lower-level managers should receive
training in methods to assist new workers
and younger employees and help integrate them into the

organization through socialization processes. Many companies
now include senior employees in formal
mentoring programs and strategy sessions (Cadrain, 2008).
Age may not be respected equally in every company or in every
country. While age may be revered in many parts of the world,
the traditional view that
employees become more valuable as they continue their careers
faces skepticism in many countries, including the United States.
This conclusion, called ageism,
dominates cultures in many companies.
Commentaries suggest that companies employing large numbers
of senior workers will experience rising health insurance costs.
The same workers may have
accumulated longer vacation packages and sick leave days.
Longer vacations and days set aside for a lengthy recovery from
a medical issue remove the employee
from the workplace, requiring others to pick up the slack. Some
managers might notice resentment toward those who are away
for longer periods of time.
Age diversity also affects younger workers. Some may become
frustrated by the inability to move up the chain of command,
because senior managers stay on the
job past the traditional retirement age. Younger employees
might express frustration that their newer, more cuttingedge
skills are not fully utilized. Managers
should monitor and respond to these potential rivalries.
Race and Ethnicity
Immigration into the United States has created both con�lict
and growth in the economy. Each generation of Americans has
experienced the in�lux of groups of
individuals from other countries. Diversity issues associated

with race have long existed.
Three of the largest non-white population segments in the
United States are Hispanics, African Americans, and Asian
Americans. In the United States, however,
statistical racial composition pro�iles are skewed, because
neither Hispanic nor Latino is considered to be a race. With that
caveat in mind, Figure 2.1 identi�ies
the overall composition of various groups in the United States.
Note that these three major racial/ethnic distinctions do not
constitute all categories of nonwhite employees. In many
organizations, persons of other
backgrounds, such as individuals from the Middle East and
Africa, are part of the work force. Many of the problems these
larger ethnic groups encounter are also
faced by those from other races or ethnic groups.
Figure 2.1: Composition of identi�iable groups in
the United States
According to the latest census, three of the largest population
segments in the United States are classi�ied as Hispanics,
African Americans, or Asian Americans.
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Source: U.S. Quick Facts from the Census Bureau,
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00
(https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00)

The future of the �ields of management and organizational
behavior undoubtedly will include great investigation into the
issues such individuals confront, as
well as managerial strategies designed to help fully integrate
them into an organization and take advantage of the unique
contributions they can make.
Hispanic Populations
The terms "Hispanic" and "Latino" do not represent speci�ic
racial groups. Instead, they apply to sets of individuals with
common characteristics, including
Spanish as a primary language (at least in the country of
origin), belonging to the Catholic religion, and ancestry in
former colonies of Spain. Spanish surnames
and customs are found in Spain, Mexico, Cuba, Central
America, and South America.
The Hispanic subset of U.S. citizens represents business
opportunities and speci�ic management needs. Approximately
770,000 Hispanic-owned �irms were
projected to exist by the year 2005 (Mendosa, 1996). The 2008
recession reduced that number; however, the majority of these
organizations remain. Companies
that conduct business with Hispanic-owned �irms enjoy a large
marketplace that can be reached through Spanish-language
media such as radio, newspapers,
and magazines. Many U.S. companies are starting to recognize
the potential purchasing power held by Hispanic and Latino
people. In more recent years, Latino-
owned companies, in particular, have been on the rise. CNBC
notes,
The State of Latino Entrepreneurship 2015 report revealed that
between 2007 and 2012, the number of [Latino-owned
businesses] grew by 46.9

percent compared to just 0.7 percent for non-Latino owned
businesses, an extraordinary level of entrepreneurship that
suggests Latinos play a
substantial role in local job creation and economic development.
(Porras, 2016)
Managers are challenged by certain issues related to the
Hispanic population as members of the workforce. One
challenge is language. An individual whose
primary language is Spanish often copes with
misunderstandings and other problems associated with English,
even when the individual speaks some English.
Supervisors who do not speak Spanish encounter a similar
dif�iculty. Bilingual managers are a valued resource in
companies in regions with signi�icant Hispanic
or Latino populations.
African Americans
Approximately 13% of the U.S. population is African American,
with ancestry of at least one parent originating in Africa.
Discrimination and stereotyping
continue to haunt this minority group. The election of President
Obama, while viewed as a positive step, has not solved the
problems associated with bigotry and
systematic exclusion of African Americans in many
organizations. The 2008–09 recession dramatically impacted
employment statistics of African Americans,
who suffered disproportionate job losses relative to the entire
population. Some view this as evidence that discrimination and
an unfair playing �ield still exist.
At the same time, African Americans are viewed by marketers
as a potentially valuable segment that can be reached via
speci�ic media, such as the BET cable
channel and magazines including Essence and Black
Enterprise.

In the business community, managers should be aware of racial
incidents. Progressive companies develop programs to recruit,
train, and promote minority
members, including African Americans. Working toward
equality and fair treatment of all remains an important ethical
objective for African Americans as well
as other minority groups.
Asian Americans
Asian Americans also originate from numerous countries. As a
group, Asian Americans constitute about 4% of the U.S.
population. These individuals encounter
different kinds of stereotypes and discriminatory practices than
do Hispanics and African Americans. One recent research report
suggests that nearly one-third
of Asian-American employees have been subject to workplace
discrimination (Montero, 2011), including unequal pay and
promotion decisions, favoritism
toward others by management, and incidents of stereotyping.
Promotion issues have led to the term "bamboo ceiling," and
"sticky �loors," which suggest Asian
Americans are often held to lower ranks in the organizational
hierarchy and cannot break through to top management (Fisher,
2005).
https://www.census.gov/quickfacts/table/PST045216/00
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Managers must take strides to promote a workplace

culture that is safe and comfortable for all.
MarcBruxelle/iStock/Thinkstock
Managers are advised to break down these perceptions and deal
with members of this group in the same ways as other American
minorities. The Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) recommended
the following steps to improve the employment circumstances of
Asian Americans in 2010:
Strengthen leadership and personal commitment to diversity
from top management in the private sector.
Strengthen commitment to diversity in U.S. employment
agencies.
Make certain the EEOC is fully accessible to Asian Americans.
Collaborate with Asian American community organizations.
Support Asian American employee groups.
Improve Asian American documentation and support for
promotions.
Religion
Matters of religion have affected interactions among citizens for
centuries. In the 1960s, concerns were expressed because
President John F. Kennedy was Roman
Catholic. The events of September 11, 2001, changed the
American perspective regarding religion. Speci�ically,
members of the Islamic faith became targets of
hostility in the media, in local communities, and in the
workplace. As time passes, the hope is that greater cultural
integration will include a reduction in
animosity toward some religions.
As a matter of law, employment discrimination based on a
person's religion is prohibited, as is discrimination based on

race, sex, age, or national origin. In
practical terms, a hostile workplace based on religion creates
similar discomfort to intolerance based on race and gender.
Ethical managers seek to reduce these
tensions and create understanding among employees with
diverse religious beliefs.
Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity
In 2010, the repeal of the "don't ask, don't tell" policy regarding
members of the military took
place in the context of a continuing national debate regarding
the rights of gays, lesbians, and
other groups. Contested issues included the right to marry and
live with the same civil rights
as heterosexual couples, including hospital visitation, access to
health insurance coverage, and
inheritance rights.
The 2015 Supreme Court decision regarding what has been
termed marriage equality has
dramatically shifted the landscape, as have the majority national
views of the issue. By 2016,
60% of U.S. respondents reported they support same-sex
marriage, which has implications for
a vast variety of companies, including insurance, health care,
and advertising (how ads are
prepared), and extending to HR departments, managers, and co-
workers across the country
(McCarthy, 2015).
Recently, legislation regarding transgender individuals has
resulted in controversy and
disagreement. In both Texas and North Carolina, state
legislators passed laws insisting
persons use bathrooms based on the gender they were assigned

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