UNIT 1 Network Design

1. NETWORK DESIGN

2. Advanced multiplexing – Code Division
Multiplexing, DWDM and OFDM – Shared media
networks – Switched networks – End to end
semantics – Connectionless, Connection
oriented, Wireless Scenarios –Applications,
Quality of Service – End to end level and
network level solutions. LAN cabling topologies
– Ethernet Switches, Routers, Firewalls and L3
switches – Remote Access Technologies and
Devices – Modems and DSLs – SLIP and PPP –
Core networks, and distribution networks.

3. Advanced Multiplexing

4. Frequency Division Multiplexing
• FDM
• Useful bandwidth of medium exceeds required
bandwidth of channel
• Each signal is modulated to a different carrier
frequency
• Carrier frequencies separated so signals do not
overlap (guard bands)
• e.g. broadcast radio
• Channel allocated even if no data

5. Frequency Division Multiplexing
Diagram

6. FDM System

7. FDM of Three Voiceband Signals

8. Analog Carrier Systems
• AT&T (USA)
• Hierarchy of FDM schemes
• Group
— 12 voice channels (4kHz each) = 48kHz
— Range 60kHz to 108kHz
• Supergroup
— 60 channel
— FDM of 5 group signals on carriers between 420kHz and 612
kHz
• Mastergroup
— 10 supergroups

9. Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
• Multiple beams of light at different frequency
• Carried by optical fiber
• A form of FDM
• Each color of light (wavelength) carries separate data
channel
• 1997 Bell Labs
— 100 beams
— Each at 10 Gbps
— Giving 1 terabit per second (Tbps)
• Commercial systems of 160 channels of 10 Gbps now
available
• Lab systems (Alcatel) 256 channels at 39.8 Gbps each
— 10.1 Tbps
— Over 100km

10. WDM Operation
• Same general architecture as other FDM
• Number of sources generating laser beams at different
frequencies
• Multiplexer consolidates sources for transmission over
single fiber
• Optical amplifiers amplify all wavelengths
— Typically tens of km apart
• Demux separates channels at the destination
• Mostly 1550nm wavelength range
• Was 200MHz per channel
• Now 50GHz

11. Dense Wavelength Division
Multiplexing
• DWDM
• No official or standard definition
• Implies more channels more closely spaced that
WDM
• 200GHz or less

12. Synchronous Time Division
Multiplexing
• Data rate of medium exceeds data rate of digital
signal to be transmitted
• Multiple digital signals interleaved in time
• May be at bit level of blocks
• Time slots preassigned to sources and fixed
• Time slots allocated even if no data
• Time slots do not have to be evenly distributed
amongst sources

13. Time Division Multiplexing

14. TDM System

15. TDM Link Control
• No headers and trailers
• Data link control protocols not needed
• Flow control
—Data rate of multiplexed line is fixed
—If one channel receiver can not receive data, the
others must carry on
—The corresponding source must be quenched
—This leaves empty slots
• Error control
—Errors are detected and handled by individual
channel systems

16. Data Link Control on TDM

17. Framing
• No flag or SYNC characters bracketing TDM
frames
• Must provide synchronizing mechanism
• Added digit framing
—One control bit added to each TDM frame
• Looks like another channel - “control channel”
—Identifiable bit pattern used on control channel
—e.g. alternating 01010101…unlikely on a data channel
—Can compare incoming bit patterns on each channel
with sync pattern

18. Pulse Stuffing
• Problem - Synchronizing data sources
• Clocks in different sources drifting
• Data rates from different sources not related by
simple rational number
• Solution - Pulse Stuffing
—Outgoing data rate (excluding framing bits) higher
than sum of incoming rates
—Stuff extra dummy bits or pulses into each incoming
signal until it matches local clock
—Stuffed pulses inserted at fixed locations in frame and
removed at demultiplexer

19. TDM of Analog and Digital
Sources

20. Digital Carrier Systems
• Hierarchy of TDM
• USA/Canada/Japan use one system
• ITU-T use a similar (but different) system
• US system based on DS-1 format
• Multiplexes 24 channels
• Each frame has 8 bits per channel plus one
framing bit
• 193 bits per frame

21. Digital Carrier Systems (2)
• For voice each channel contains one word of
digitized data (PCM, 8000 samples per sec)
—Data rate 8000x193 = 1.544Mbps
—Five out of six frames have 8 bit PCM samples
—Sixth frame is 7 bit PCM word plus signaling bit
—Signaling bits form stream for each channel
containing control and routing info
• Same format for digital data
—23 channels of data
• 7 bits per frame plus indicator bit for data or systems control
—24th channel is sync

22. Mixed Data
• DS-1 can carry mixed voice and data signals
• 24 channels used
• No sync byte
• Can also interleave DS-1 channels
—Ds-2 is four DS-1 giving 6.312Mbps

23. DS-1 Transmission Format

24. SONET/SDH
• Synchronous Optical Network (ANSI)
• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (ITU-T)
• Compatible
• Signal Hierarchy
—Synchronous Transport Signal level 1 (STS-1) or
Optical Carrier level 1 (OC-1)
—51.84Mbps
—Carry DS-3 or group of lower rate signals (DS1 DS1C
DS2) plus ITU-T rates (e.g. 2.048Mbps)
—Multiple STS-1 combined into STS-N signal
—ITU-T lowest rate is 155.52Mbps (STM-1)

25. SONET Frame Format

26. SONET STS-1 Overhead Octets

27. Statistical TDM
• In Synchronous TDM many slots are wasted
• Statistical TDM allocates time slots dynamically
based on demand
• Multiplexer scans input lines and collects data
until frame full
• Data rate on line lower than aggregate rates of
input lines

28. Statistical TDM Frame Formats

29. Performance
• Output data rate less than aggregate input rates
• May cause problems during peak periods
—Buffer inputs
—Keep buffer size to minimum to reduce delay

30. Buffer Size
and Delay

31. Cable Modem Outline
• Two channels from cable TV provider dedicated to data
transfer
— One in each direction
• Each channel shared by number of subscribers
— Scheme needed to allocate capacity
— Statistical TDM

32. Cable Modem Operation
• Downstream
— Cable scheduler delivers data in small packets
— If more than one subscriber active, each gets fraction of
downstream capacity
• May get 500kbps to 1.5Mbps
— Also used to allocate upstream time slots to subscribers
• Upstream
— User requests timeslots on shared upstream channel
• Dedicated slots for this
— Headend scheduler sends back assignment of future tme slots
to subscriber

33. Cable Modem Scheme

34. Asymmetrical Digital
Subscriber Line
• ADSL
• Link between subscriber and network
—Local loop
• Uses currently installed twisted pair cable
—Can carry broader spectrum
—1 MHz or more

35. ADSL Design
• Asymmetric
—Greater capacity downstream than upstream
• Frequency division multiplexing
—Lowest 25kHz for voice
• Plain old telephone service (POTS)
—Use echo cancellation or FDM to give two bands
—Use FDM within bands
• Range 5.5km

36. ADSL Channel Configuration

37. Discrete Multitone
• DMT
• Multiple carrier signals at different frequencies
• Some bits on each channel
• 4kHz subchannels
• Send test signal and use subchannels with
better signal to noise ratio
• 256 downstream subchannels at 4kHz (60kbps)
—15.36MHz
—Impairments bring this down to 1.5Mbps to 9Mbps

38. DTM Bits Per Channel
Allocation

39. DMT Transmitter

40. xDSL
• High data rate DSL
• Single line DSL
• Very high data rate DSL

41. Required Reading
• Stallings chapter 8
• Web sites on
—ADSL
—SONET

42. Introduction 42
Connection-oriented versus
Connectionless 1/2
•Connection-oriented
Setup data transfer ahead of time (through handshaking)
Internet’s connection-oriented service is TCP (Transmission
Control Protocol) [RFC 793]. It provides
reliable, in-order byte delivery
flow control
congestion control.
Applications using TCP: Email (SMTP), web browsing
(HTTP), and file transfer (FTP)

43. Introduction 43
Connection-oriented versus
Connectionless 2/2
•Connectionless
Internet’s connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram
Protocol) [RFC 768] . It provides
unreliable data transfer
no flow control
no congestion control
Applications using UDP: streaming media, video
conferencing, and IP telephony

44. Introduction 44
Network Protocols
•Applications to communicate across a computer network
Invent a protocol (an agreement how will communicate)
Which application is expected to initiate communicate and
when responses are expected
Syntax: format of data
Semantics: meaning of each section of bits (How it is
interpreted and what action (s) to be taken)
Timing: when data should be sent and how fast?
•Example: Web Server and Web client
•Other examples? Other modes of communication?

45. Introduction 45
Protocol “Layers” 1/2
•Used in daily life!  2 friends communicating through the mail
(sender, receiver, and a carrier)
•Sender side
Layer 1: Write letter, insert letter in envelope, write sender and
receiver address, drop letter in mailbox
Layer 2: letter picked up by carrier and delivered to post office
Layer 3: letter stored at post office, a carrier transports the letter
•On the way  Letter on the way to recipient’s local post office
(maybe through a central office), transported by truck, train, airplane,
boat, or a mix
•Receiver Side  Layer3, then Layer 2, then Layer 1

46. Introduction 46
Protocol “Layers” 2/2
•Characteristics
Each layer implements a service
Via its own internal-layer actions (a layer is a black-box)
Relying on services provided by layer below
•Why layering?
explicit structure allows identification, relationship of complex
system’s pieces (modular approach)
layered reference model for discussion
modularization eases maintenance, updating of system
change of implementation of layer’s service transparent to
rest of system
layering considered harmful?
Different layers may duplicate functionality
Different layers may need access to same information

47. Introduction 47
Internet Layers
Application
Transport
Network
Data Link
Physical
Supporting network applications (HTTP,
FTP, DNS, …)
Transporting application-layer messages
between client and server sides of an
application (TCP and UDP)
Routing datagrams from one host to
another (IP protocol: IPv4 and IPv6)
Move entire frames from one network
element to an adjacent network element
(Ethernet, PPP, …)
Move individual bits within the frame from
one network element to an adjacent network
element (coaxial cable, fiber optic, …)

48. Introduction 48
TCP/IP Data Packet Transmission
and Addressing

49. Introduction 49
Servers and Clients

50. Introduction 50
Multiple Layers of Network
Protocols
User process
Protocol stack
within kernel
Ethernet
Client and Server on same Ethernet

51. Introduction 51
Multiple Layers of Network Protocols
Client and server on different LANs connected through a WAN

52. Introduction 52
Layers in OSI Model and Internet
Protocol Suite
OSI: Open Systems Interconnection model for computer communications
ISO: International Organization for Standardization
User process, application details
kernel, communication details

53. Introduction 53
A look ahead
•How is data transferred thought the network?
Circuit switching versus packet switching
•How do end systems connect to an edge router?
•Physical Media

54. 54
LAN switching and Bridges
Relates to Lab 6.
Covers interconnection devices (at different layers) and the difference
between LAN switching (bridging) and routing. Then discusses LAN
switching, including learning bridge algorithm, transparent bridging, and
the spanning tree protocol.

55. 55
Outline
• Interconnection devices
• Bridges/LAN switches vs. Routers
• Bridges
• Learning Bridges
• Transparent bridges

56. 56
Introduction
• There are many different devices for interconnecting
networks
X.25
Network
Ethernet
Hub
Ethernet
Hub
Hosts Hosts
Router
Bridge
Token-
ring
Gateway

57. 57
Ethernet Hub
• Used to connect hosts to Ethernet LAN and to connect multiple Ethernet
LANs
• Collisions are propagated
IP
LLC
802.3 MAC
IP
LLC
802.3 MAC
Hub
Hub
Ethernet
Hub
Ethernet
Hub
Host
Host

58. 58
Bridges/LAN switches
• A bridge or LAN switch is a device that interconnects two or more Local
Area Networks (LANs) and forwards packets between these networks.
• Bridges/LAN switches operate at the Data Link Layer (Layer 2)
Bridge
IP
LLC
802.3 MAC 802.3 MAC 802.5 MAC
LLC
IP
LLC
802.5 MAC
LAN LAN
Token-
ring
Bridge

59. 59
Terminology: Bridge, LAN switch, Ethernet
switch
There are different terms to refer to a data-link layer interconnection
device:
• The term bridge was coined in the early 1980s.
• Today, the terms LAN switch or (in the context of Ethernet) Ethernet
switch are used.
Convention:
• Since many of the concepts, configuration commands, and protocols for
LAN switches were developed in the 1980s, and commonly use the old
term `bridge’, we will, with few exceptions, refer to LAN switches as
bridges.

60. 60
Ethernet Hubs vs. Ethernet
Switches
• An Ethernet switch is a packet switch for Ethernet frames
• Buffering of frames prevents collisions.
• Each port is isolated and builds its own collision domain
• An Ethernet Hub does not perform buffering:
• Collisions occur if two frames arrive at the same time.
HighSpeed
Backplane
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
Output
Buffers
Input
Buffers
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
CSMA/CD
Hub Switch

61. 61
Dual Speed Ethernet hub
• Dual-speed hubs
operate at 10 Mbps and
100 Mbps per second
• Conceptually these hubs
operate like two
Ethernet hubs
separated by a bridge
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
100 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
10 Mbps
Dual-Speed
Ethernet Hub

62. 62
Routers
• Routers operate at the Network Layer (Layer 3)
• Interconnect IP networks
IP network
IP network IP network
Router Router
Host Host
Application
TCP
IP
Network
Access
Application
TCP
IP
Network
Access
IP protocol
Data
Link
Network
Access
IP
Network
Access
Network
Access
IP
Network
Access
Data
Link
Data
Link
IP protocol
Router
Router Host
Host
IP protocol

63. 63
Gateways
• The term “Gateway” is used with different meanings
in different contexts
• “Gateway” is a generic term for routers (Level 3)
• “Gateway” is also used for a device that
interconnects different Layer 3 networks and which
performs translation of protocols (“Multi-protocol
router”)
SNA
Network
IP Network
X.25
Network
Gateway Gateway
Host Host

64. 64
Bridges versus Routers
• An enterprise network (e.g., university network)
with a large number of local area networks
(LANs) can use routers or bridges
— 1980s: LANs interconnection via bridges
— Late 1980s and early 1990s: increasingly use of routers
— Since mid1990s: LAN switches replace most routers

65. 65
Internet
A Routed Enterprise Network
Router
Hub
FDDI
FDDI

66. 66
Internet
A Switched Enterprise Network
Router
Bridge/
Switch

67. 67
Example: Univ. of Virginia CS
Department Network
• Design of the network architecture (Spring
2000)
• There is no router !
350T 350T 350T 350T
350T
350T
100/Giga
Ethernet Switch
Gigabit Ethernet
Switch
100 Mbps
Ethernet Switch
350T
350T 350T 350T 350T

68. 68
Interconnecting networks:
Bridges versus Routers
Routers
• Each host’s IP address must
be configured
• If network is reconfigured, IP
addresses may need to be
reassigned
• Routing done via RIP or OSPF
• Each router manipulates
packet header (e.g., reduces
TTL field)
Bridges/LAN switches
• MAC addresses of hosts are
hardwired
• No network configuration
needed
• Routing done by
— learning bridge
algorithm
— spanning tree algorithm
• Bridges do not manipulate

69. 69
Bridges
Overall design goal: Complete transparency
“Plug-and-play”
Self-configuring without hardware or software changes
Bridges should not impact operation of existing LANs
Three parts to understanding bridges:
(1) Forwarding of Frames
(2) Learning of Addresses
(3) Spanning Tree Algorithm

70. 70
Need for a forwarding between
networks
• What do bridges do if
some LANs are
reachable only in
multiple hops ?
• What do bridges do if
the path between two
LANs is not unique ?
LAN 2
Bridge 2
LAN 5
LAN 3
LAN 1
LAN 4
Bridge 5
Bridge 4
Bridge 3
d
Bridge 1

71. 71
Transparent Bridges
• Three principal approaches can be found:
—Fixed Routing
—Source Routing
—Spanning Tree Routing (IEEE 802.1d)
• We only discuss the last one in detail.
• Bridges that execute the spanning tree algorithm are called
transparent bridges

72. 72
(1) Frame Forwarding
• Each bridge maintains a MAC forwarding table
• Forwarding table plays the same role as the routing table of an IP router
• Entries have the form ( MAC address, port, age), where
MAC address: host name or group address
port: port number of bridge
age: aging time of entry (in seconds)
with interpretation:
a machine with MAC address lies in direction of the port number
from the bridge. The entry is age time units old.
MAC address port age
a0:e1:34:82:ca:34
45:6d:20:23:fe:2e
1
2
10
20
MAC forwarding table

73. 73
• Assume a MAC frame arrives on
port x.
(1) Frame Forwarding
Bridge 2
Port A Port C
Port x
Port B
Is MAC address of
destination in forwarding
table for ports A, B, or C ?
Forward the frame on the
appropriate port
Flood the frame,
i.e.,
send the frame on all
ports except port x.
Found?
Not
found ?

74. 74
• Routing tables entries are set automatically with a
simple heuristic:
The source field of a frame that arrives on a port tells which
hosts are reachable from this port.
(2) Address Learning (Learning
Bridges)
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
Port 4
Port 5
Port 6
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
Src=x, Dest=y
x is at Port 3
Src=y, Dest=x
Src=y, Dest=x
Src=x, Dest=y
y is at Port 4
Src=x, Dest=y

75. 75
Learning Algorithm:
• For each frame received, the source stores the
source field in the forwarding database together
with the port where the frame was received.
• All entries are deleted after some time (default is
15 seconds).
(2) Address Learning (Learning
Bridges)
Port 1
Port 2
Port 3
Port 4
Port 5
Port 6
x is at Port 3
Src=y, Dest=x
Src=y, Dest=x
y is at Port 4

76. 76
Example
Bridge 2
Port1
LAN 1
A
LAN 2
C
B D
LAN 3
E F
Port2
Bridge 2
Port1 Port2
Consider the following packets:
(Src=A, Dest=F), (Src=C, Dest=A), (Src=E, Dest=C)
What have the bridges learned?

77. 77
• Consider the two LANs that are connected
by two bridges.
• Assume host n is transmitting a
frame F with unknown destination.
What is happening?
• Bridges A and B flood the frame
to LAN 2.
• Bridge B sees F on LAN 2 (with
unknown destination), and copies
the frame back to LAN 1
• Bridge A does the same.
• The copying continues
Where’s the problem? What’s the
solution ?
Danger of Loops
LAN 2
LAN 1
Bridge B
Bridge A
host n
F
F F
F
F
F F

78. 78
Spanning Tree Protocol (IEEE
802.1d)
• The Spanning Tree Protocol (SPT) is a
solution to prevent loops when
forwarding frames between LANs
• The SPT is standardized as the IEEE
802.1d protocol
• The SPT organizes bridges and LANs as
spanning tree in a dynamic
environment
— Frames are forwarded only along
the branches of the spanning tree
— Note: Trees don’t have loops
• Bridges that run the SPT are called
transparent bridges
• Bridges exchange messages to
configure the bridge (Configuration
Bridge Protocol Data Unit or BPDUs) to
build the tree.
LAN 2
Bridge 2
LAN 5
LAN 3
LAN 1
LAN 4
Bridge 5
Bridge 4
Bridge 3
d
Bridge 1

79. 79
Configuration BPDUs
time since root sent a
message on
which this message is based
Destination
MAC address
Source MAC
address
Configuration
Message
protocol identifier
version
message type
flags
root ID
Cost
bridge ID
port ID
message age
maximum age
hello time
forward delay
Set to 0 Set to 0
Set to 0
lowest bit is "topology change bit (TC bit)
ID of root Cost of the path from the
bridge sending this
message
ID of port from which
message is sent
ID of bridge sending this message
Time between
recalculations of the
spanning tree
(default: 15 secs)
Time between
BPDUs from the root
(default: 1sec)

80. 80
What do the BPDUs do?
With the help of the BPDUs, bridges can:
• Elect a single bridge as the root bridge.
• Calculate the distance of the shortest path to
the root bridge
• Each LAN can determine a designated bridge,
which is the bridge closest to the root. The
designated bridge will forward packets towards
the root bridge.
• Each bridge can determine a root port, the
port that gives the best path to the root.
• Select ports to be included in the spanning tree.

81. 81
Concepts
• Each bridge as a unique identifier: Bridge ID
Bridge ID = Priority : 2 bytes
Bridge MAC address: 6 bytes
– Priority is configured
– Bridge MAC address is lowest MAC addresses of all ports
• Each port of a bridge has a unique identifier
(port ID).
• Root Bridge: The bridge with
the lowest identifier is the root of the spanning
tree.

82. 82
Concepts
• Root Path Cost: For each bridge, the cost of
the min-cost path to the root.
• Designated Bridge, Designated Port: Single
bridge on a LAN that provides the minimal cost
path to the root for this LAN:
- if two bridges have the same
cost, select the one with
highest priority
- if the min-cost bridge has two or
more ports on the LAN, select the port with
the lowest identifier

83. 83
Steps of Spanning Tree
Algorithm
• Each bridge is sending out BPDUs that contain
the following information:
• The transmission of BPDUs results in the
distributed computation of a spanning tree
• The convergence of the algorithm is very quick
root bridge (what the sender thinks it is)
root path cost for sending bridge
Identifies sending bridge
Identifies the sending port
root ID cost bridge ID port ID

84. 84
Ordering of Messages
• We define an ordering of BPDU messages
We say M1 advertises a better path than M2
(“M1<<M2”) if
(R1 < R2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 < C2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 < B2),
Or (R1 == R2) and (C1 == C2) and (B1 == B2)
ID R1 C1 ID B1
M1 M2
ID P1 ID R2 C2 ID B2 ID P2

85. 85
• Initially, all bridges assume they are the root bridge.
• Each bridge B sends BPDUs of this form on its LANs
from each port P:
• Each bridge looks at the BPDUs received on all its
ports and its own transmitted BPDUs.
• Root bridge is the smallest received root ID that has
been received so far (Whenever a smaller ID arrives,
the root is updated)
Initializing the Spanning Tree
Protocol
B 0 B P

86. 86
• Each bridge B looks on all its ports for BPDUs that are better than its
own BPDUs
• Suppose a bridge with BPDU:
receives a “better” BPDU:
Then it will update the BPDU to:
• However, the new BPDU is not necessarily sent out
• On each bridge, the port where the “best BPDU” (via relation “<<“) was
received is the root port of the bridge.
Operations of Spanning Tree
Protocol
R1 C1 B1 P1
M1
R2 C2 B2 P2
M2
R2 C2+1 B1 P1

87. 87
• Say, B has generated a BPDU for each port x
• B will send this BPDU on port x only if its BPDU
is better (via relation “<<“) than any BPDU
that B received from port x.
• In this case, B also assumes that it
is the designated bridge for the
LAN to which the port connects
• And port x is the designated port of that LAN
When to send a BPDU
R Cost B
Bridge B
Port A Port C
Port x
Port B
x

88. 88
Selecting the Ports for the
Spanning Tree
• Each bridges makes a local decision which of its
ports are part of the spanning tree
• Now B can decide which ports are in the
spanning tree:
• B’s root port is part of the spanning tree
• All designated ports are part of the spanning tree
• All other ports are not part of the spanning tree
• B’s ports that are in the spanning tree will
forward packets (=forwarding state)
• B’s ports that are not in the spanning tree will
not forward packets (=blocking state)

89. 89
Building the Spanning Tree
• Consider the network on the
right.
• Assume that the bridges have
calculated the designated ports
(D) and the root ports (P) as
indicated.
• What is the spanning tree?
— On each LAN, connect R ports
to the D ports on this LAN
LAN 2
Bridge
LAN 5
LAN 3
LAN 1
LAN 4
Bridge
Bridge
Bridge
d
Bridge
D
D
D
R
D
R
R
R
D

90. 90
Example
• Assume that all bridges send out their BPDU’s once per second, and
assume that all bridges send their BPDUs at the same time
• Assume that all bridges are turned on simultaneously at time T=0 sec.
Bridge
ID 1
Bridge
ID 3
Bridge ID 7 Bridge ID 5
Bridge ID 6
Bridge ID
2
port B
port C
port A
port A
port C
port B
port D
port A
port B
port A
LAN
port B
port A
port B
port C port A
port B
port C
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN

91. 91
Example: BPDU’s sent by the
bridges
Bridge 1 Bridge 2 Bridge 3 Bridge 5 Bridge 6 Bridge 7
T=0sec (1,0,1,port)
sent on ports:
A,B
(2,0,2,port)
ports
A,B
(3,0,3,port)
ports A,B,C
(5,0,5,port)
ports
A,B,C
(6,0,6,port)
ports
A,B,C,D
(7,0,7,port)
ports
A,B,C
T=1sec
(1,0,1,port)
A,B
(2,0,2,port)
A,B
(1,1,3,port)
A,C
(1,1,5,port)
B,C
(1,1,6,port)
A,C,D
(1,1,7,port)
A
T=2sec
(1,0,1,port)
A,B
(1,2,2,port)
none
(1,1,3,port)
A,C
(1,1,5,port)
B,C
(1,1,6,port)
D
(1,1,7,port)
none
In the table (1,0,1,port) means that the BPDU is (1,0,1,A) if the BPDU is sent on port A and
(1,0,1,B) if it is sent on port B.
At T=1, Bridge 7 receives two BPDUs from Bridge 1: (1,0,1,A) and (1,0,1,B). We assume
that A is numerically smaller than B. If this is not true, then the root port of Bridge 7
changes.

92. 92
Example: Settings after
convergence
Bridge
1
Bridge
2
Bridge
3
Bridge
5
Bridge
6
Bridge
7
Root Port - A B A B B
Designated Ports A,B - A,C B,C D -
Blocked ports - B - - A,C A,C
Bridge
ID 1
Bridge
ID 3
Bridge ID 7 Bridge ID 5
Bridge ID 6
Bridge ID
2
port B
port C
port A
port A
port C
port B
port D
port A
port B
port A
LAN
port B
port A
port B
port C port A
port B
port C
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
LAN
Resulting tree: