Line 97 a geology

1. 2002

5. Topics
• Strata – 1A, 1B, & 1C
• Erosion – 2A, 2B, 2C, & 2D
• Deposition – 3A & 3B
• Timing– 4A & 4B
• Dating – 5A & 5B
• Other evidence of major disturbances – 6A

6. What Stories Do The Story Tell ? (1A)
The layersof rockexposed by the Canyonseem unusually widespread andhorizontal.For instance, on the basis of
fossils andother characteristics, the Redwall Limestone, which forms the single steep cliff mentioned above, is
commonly divided into fourunits lying one above the other. Manyofthe other majorrock units aresubdivided into
widespread subunits. Clarence Dutton studied the Canyon district andcommented on this:
Thestrataofeach andeveryagewereremarkablyuniform oververylargeareas,andweredeposited verynearly
horizontally.Nowhere havewefoundthusfarwhatmaybecalledlocal deposits, orsuch asarerestricted toanarrow
beltorcontracted area
Some local deposits such as those mentioned above found at the topofthe Redwall Limestone have been described
since Dutton’s originalsurvey. This wouldbe moreconsistent with rapidwidespread catastrophic flooddeposition,
than with slow deposition over hundreds ofmillions ofyears. During such long periods, changing conditions such as
the postulated movements of the continent, including the uplift andsubsidence, which would bring about the many
advances andretreats ofthe sea postulated forthe area,would seem tofavormore local deposition.

13. Identify the Strata (1B)
Whenlooking attheflat-lyingPhanerozoiclayersofthe GrandCanyon,onedoesnotrealize
thataccordingtothe standardgeologic interpretation,majorpartsofgeologic column,
representing millions ofyears,aremissing between someoftheselayers.The wayonetells
thatthereisagap is thatthe missing parts(layers)ofthe geologic column,which containthe
appropriatefossils,arefoundin otherpartsofthe world.During thoseassumedgapsof
millions of yearswhen therewasnodeposition,one wouldexpecta lotoferosion, forming
gullies, valleys,andcanyons.If thereisdeposition,thentherewouldbenogap in thegeologic
column.Butifthereisno deposition,wewouldexpectsignificanterosion over suchlong
periodsoftime, andthe layersofthe GrandCanyonshouldnotappearsoparallel.The
Canyonitself well illustratesthe dramaticeffectsoferosion. Thediscrepancybetween the
expectederosion over thepostulatedmillions ofyears,wherepartsofthe geologic column
aremissing, andwhatisseen, suggeststhatthosemillion ofyearsnever tookplace.Whatis
seen seems tofavorthe rapiddepositionexpectedduringthe biblicalflood.

20. Missing Strata (Paraconformities) (1C)
Paraconformitiesaregapsin thegeological layerswherethereisnosubstantialerosional
surfaceatthegaps andthe beds belowandabovethegaps aremoreorless parallel.Theyare
abundantthroughoutthe sedimentarylayersofthe earth.Wearedealing herewith
paraconformitieswherepartsofthe geologic column aremissing. Theselocalities arehardto
detect because(1) the layersaremissing and(2) thelayersaboveandbelowthe gapsare
parallellike manysedimentarylayers.Thewaytheyareidentified isbynothingthata partof
the standardgeologic columnis missing between thelayersbelowandabovethegaps.In
otherwords,wherewefindthesegaps,therearepartsofthegeologic column in otherparts
ofthe worldthatrepresentthe missing layersandassumed time.Paraconformitiespresenta
changein depositionalenvironment andarerelatedtoone ofthe followingclimate changes,
tectonicchanges,andcatastrophicchanges.Identificationofthe layersis basedmainlyon
theirfossilcontent,however thekind ofrocksassociatedwiththem isalsoimportant.The
sequenceoutlined belowis assumedtohavetakensome60 million years.

22. Causes of Erosion (2A)
Thereareonlya fewrecordsof ratesof erosionduringstormsin thegeological literature.
KanabCreek in thevicinity ofthetownofKanab,Utah,is anexample.KanabCreek flows
fromheredue southsome80km (50 mi) tojoin theColoradoRiverin theGrandCanyon.The
areaoccupiedbythe creek is said tohavebeen mostlyawillow-studdedmeadowbeforethe
flood.Cuttingis throughpoorlyconsolidatedalluvial deposits.The steep slopes whichthese
depositscanupholdis alsoofinterest.Gregory (1917) reportsthatthe floodof29July 1883
andhigh watersin 1884and1885cutdownKanabCreekabout18.3 m (60 ft)foradistance
of24 km(15 mi) andwidened itto 21.3m (70 ft). Anotherexample ofrapiderosionis the
1976TetonDamdisasterwherewaterbehind thedamerodedthroughthe 91m (300 ft)
newlycompleted earthendamin less thanone hour.Fortunately,becauseofearlywarning,
only11peopledied; however, some3700homesweredamagedor destroyed.

23. Examples: Cliffs & Crumbles (2B)
Examplesoferosionofharderrocksduringcatastrophicconditionsarerare.One ofthe
outstandingexamplesis theprehistoricSpokaneFlood,orpossibly4-7floods.The lastwas
the mostdramatic.It strippedthesoutheastquarterofthe StateofWashington,eroding into
the widespreadbasalticlavaflows.Thepatternandforcesinvolved havebeen carefully
reconstructedbygeologists andrepresent oneofthetriumphsofcatastrophism.The breaking
ofanice damreleased waterattherateof40 km3/hr(10 mi3/hr),traveling overthe areaat
ratesupto100 km/hr(60 mi/hr), moving basaltboulders10m (30 ft) in diameter.
Conservativeestimateswouldsuggest erosionofthe basaltlayersattherateof100 m (300ft)
in afew weeks.Less conservativeestimateswouldputthisin a fewdaysorless. Three
processeshavebeen consideredresponsiblefortherapiderosionof hardrockduringthe
SpokaneFlood(Baker 1981):1) plucking ofbasaltblocksby thefast-flowingwater;2) lifting
ofthe basaltblocksbyatypeof largevorticecalled a“kolk”(a Dutchterm);and3) cavitation
causedbythe collapseofsmall vaporbubblesafew mm in diameterin thefast-flowingwater.
Formationofthe bubblesis byasuddendropin pressureandcollapsebyanincreasein
pressure.Collapsecauseslocalpressure ashigh as30,000atmospheres(400,000lbs/in2)
(Barnes 1956).The collapseof thebubbleseitherbydirectcontactor shockwavesare
capableofshatteringthesurfaceofnearlyanysolid material.Cavitationis importantonlyin
waterflowingfasterthan8m/sec(18 mi/hr).

27. Canyons (2C)
Most geologists believe thatthe rocklayersof theGrandCanyon,andmostothermajor
sedimentarylayersof theEarthwereformedover manymillions ofyears.Forinstance,the
strikinglyhorizontallayersofthe Phanerozoicofthe Canyonarecommonlyrepresentedas
having takenmorethan300million yearsfortheirformation.Theselayershavebeen
extensively studiedandthe geologic literaturecovering themis vast.One ofthemoststriking
rockunitsofthe Canyonis thelight-coloredCoconinoSandstonefoundnear thetopofthe
Canyon.From thetopofthe CoconinoSandstoneto therim ofthe Canyonthelayersare
thoughttohavebeen depositedover millions ofyearsin a marineornear marinetypeof
environment. Accordingto standardgeologic interpretationthe Canyonitself wascut byslow
erosionalprocessesover onetoseveral million years.

31. Great Denudation(2D)
If onelooks to the north when ascending the north flank of the Kaibab
Plateau, onesees the various units up the “Giant Staircase”, where Mesozoic
and Cenozoic formations display from bottom to top the Shinarump cliffs
(thin buff color), theVermillion Cliffs (Kayenta, and lower Navajo),the White
Cliffs (mainly Navajo), the Gray Cliffs (Wahweap-Straight Cliffs), and the Pink
Cliffs at the top (Wasatch-Claron).

34. Causes (Pg. 23) (3A)
The Upper Jurassic Morrison
Formation is most famous
for its dinosaur remains. Its
variegated (multicolored)
mudstones and white, tan,
and gray sandstones are
characteristics. It can reach
up to 450 m (1500’) in
thickness, although through
most of its expanse it is
more like 100 m (300’)
thick. It is spread over
1,000,000 km2 (400,000
mi2) (Fig.2).

35. Causes (Pg. 24) (3A)
This Lower Cretaceous
formation is very thin, often
around 30 m (100’) thick,
with a maximum up to 220
m (700’). It is very
widespread (Fig. 3),
extending from Iowa to
Arizona and from Montana
to New Mexico, covering
some 815,000 km2 (315,000
mi2). It is a mixed marine-
and-land formation
containing a great variety of
fossil types such as leaves,
coal, wood, dinosaurs,
mammals, sharks and
invertebrates.

37. Examples (3B)
Thetwo formations discussed below are so widespread that they can be
viewed from many localities in the western United States. The location for
Figure 1 below is from an exposure along U.S.Highway 191 about 8 miles
north of the junction with U.S.Highway 666 in Monticello, Utah. Hereboth
the Morrison and Dakota formations are exposed due to erosion of the great
Sage Plain. Both formations are exposed inthe Escalante State Park region of
Utah.

39. Sequences of Events (Pg.55)(4A)
Thedifferences between the scientific evolutionary model andthe biblical
creationmodel are striking, and could hardly be more different. This is notjust
about dinosaurs dying. The evolution model processes that life originated
thousands of millions of years ago by itself, and then evolved into more and
more advanced forms eventually producing man.The creation model, as given
in the Bible, proposes that God created the main forms of life, including man, a
few thousand years ago. How weinterpret the arrangement of the fossils in
what wecall the geologiccolumnhas much to say about these two models.
Moreimportantly, these models can profoundly affect ourworld-view.

41. Anomalies (Tracks) (4B)
Erosion ofthe lower land areas of the preflood continents would bring about
deposition of Upper Paleozoic land derived (terrestrial) sediments and
organisms. Thesedimentary layers of the Plateau alternate between marine
and land derivedsources many times as one ascends the geologic column of
the area.This would havebeen brought about byalternation ofland and
ocean sources for the sediments. Erosion of the land derived source areas
would reach well down into uplifted Precambrian sediments. Towards the
end of the flood, there would be an abundance of finesediments suspended
in the floodwaters. These would serveas a source for the abundant shales
found in the region near the top of the geologic column.

43. Anomalies (Cracks) (4B)
As is the case for the long geologic ages model, therewould belocal uplifts hereand there, and there
would bethe major Laramide Uplift of the Plateau during the lateCretaceous and earlyTertiarypart of
the geologic column.As thecontinents rose towards theend of the flood, thereceding waters which
covered theEarth would erode major portions of the flood sediments, leaving great denuded areas and
smaller eroded canyons, suchas seen around Bryce,Zion, and the Grand Canyon.Themajorflood
events would havetaken about one year, but the lingeringeffects of this major catastrophe would have
lasted for manycenturies or millenniathereafter. Thelack of irregularerosion that would beexpected at
the surface of the lower layerat thesegaps suggests that these layerswere laid down rapidly, as
expected during theGenesis flood. Theworld-wide flood described is Genesis would unquestionably
causea major changein the carbon cycleof our planet. It is generallyassumed that therewas a lower
concentration of 14Cin the atmosphere and plants before that flood. Thisassumption is inagreement
with the very low proportion of 14Cin coal and oil. Gradual adjustments after that catastrophe are
assumed to beresponsible for a gradual increasein 14C28.Thisgradual rise for some 1000-2000years
after the flood could produce the older dates and sequences found in lamina and other deposits. .
Special mention should be made of: (1) a largercarbon reservoir diluting 14Cbefore the flood; (2) a
stronger magnetic field before the flood deflecting the cosmic rays that produce the 14C;(3) a rate of
mixing of 14Cinto the oceans after theflood, that would affect both atmospheric and oceanic
concentrations of 14C; (4) changein the intensity of cosmic rays which produce the 14C29.

45. Bristlecone Pines(5A)
Bristlecone pines arefound in a number of western states up around the
10,000 foot level. Theyare small pine trees with 4-5 needles in each bundle
and bristles on their cones. Their needles live for 20-30 years, which results in
branches being coveredwith needles for a long distance as growth proceeds.
In older trees the bark covers only partof the trunk resulting in intriguing
configurations. The best known bristlecone pine locality is in the White
Mountains of California. In the Brian Head region of Utah there are many
bristlecone pines included the Twisted Forest. Bristlecone pines are among
the oldest living things. Someare estimated to be 4600 years old. They have
played a majorrole in calibrating the carbon-14 dating system.

48. Carbon-14 (5B)
Carbon-14is anunstablesubstancefoundin wood,boneandotherliving materialsthatslowly
changestonitrogen-14.As boneorwoodetc.becomesolder,theamountof14Cremaining
decreases.Thusthe less14C leftthe olderitdates.Carbon-14dating,also calledradiocarbon
dating,is especially useful forremainsoforganismssuch aswoodhair,shells, etc.,thathavea
representativesample ofcarbon.The methodcanbe usedalso forlime deposits,andeven impure
water,whenspecial assumptionsareaccepted.
Plantsobtaintheircarbonmainlyfromatmosphericcarbondioxidethathasavery small
proportionof14C. Whenanimalseat plants,theyincorporatethissameproportionof 14C in their
bodies.This14C is radioactiveanddisintegratesatanaveragerateof 13.6atomsperminutefor
each gramoftotalcarbon.Plantsobtaintheircarbonmainly fromatmosphericcarbondioxide
thathasa verysmall proportionof14C.When animalseatplants,theyincorporatethis same
proportionof14C in theirbodies.This14Cisradioactiveanddisintegratesatanaveragerateof
13.6atomsperminute foreach gramoftotalcarbon.

50. Eruptions - Pipes & Dikes (6A)
KodachromeBasin StateParklies eastofBryceCanyonNationalPark.In theregion of
KodachromeBasin StatePark,Utah,arefoundsomeunusualvertically oriented,intrusive
sedimentarystructures.Theyarecalled pipes ifcylindricalin shape,ordikesif flat-likein
shape.Thesestructures,whichsometimesreach heights well over50 m (150 ft),havecome
fromthe sedimentarylayersbelow.Someotherfeaturesofthesepipesalsosuggest thatthere
wasnotmuch timebetween depositionof theselayersandrecent (Plio-Pleistocene) geologic
activity.The conundrumis thatthystandardgeologic time scaleimplies well over 150million
yearsbetween thelaying downof thesesedimentsandwhatappearstobethe timeof
intrusion.Thepipesrangein exposedheight upto 52m (170 ft)andup to15m (50 ft) in
diameter.Analysisofthe rocksandmineralsin thepipesshowssimilarity,mainlytothe upper
PariaRiverandlower WinsorFormationsbelow.Theyarethe mostlikely sourceformostof
the pipes.