2. • “back to the sources”
• ancient Greek and Roman works
• civic involvement, mass education to inspire virtuous life
• studia humanitatis
• practical professions
• printing press
• vernacular rather than Latin
• Hermeticism, Neo-Platonism
“Ad Fontes!”
3. • ludic (playful) activities lead to virtue
• rule of authority and study of rhetoric abandoned
• [The Abbey of Thélème]: Rabelais
• “Letter to Francesco Vettori”: Machiavelli
Homo Ludens (“Playful Man”)
4. Niccoló Machiavelli (1469–1527)
“I do not fear poverty, and
death does not terrify me. I
give myself completely over to
the ancients” (p. 125).
6. Gargantua and Pantagruel
“[P]lumb all knowledge to the very depths,
because when you are a grown man you will be
obliged to leave the peace and tranquillity of
learning, and acquire the arts of chivalry and
warfare, in order to defend my house and lands
and come to the aid of our friends. . .” (p. 139).
7. Joachim du Bellay (1522–1560)
“Whoever wishes to see all
that nature, art, and heaven
have been able to do, let him
come see you, Rome” (p.
148).
9. In Sonnet 3 of The Antiquities of Rome, Du Bellay writes that
“Whatever stands firm is destroyed by time. And whatever
flees resists time” (pg. 148). Do you agree?
Discussion Questions 1
10. Rabelais, like many humanists, argues that free people born of
noble lineage will be naturally inclined toward goodness,
virtue, and will possess “honor.” Do you agree with this
argument, and does it hold true for the “noble” people of your
culture? Explain.
Discussion Questions 2
11. This concludes the Lecture PowerPoint presentation for
The Norton Anthology
of World Literature
For more learning resources, please visit the Digital Landing
Page for The Norton Anthology of World Literature at
https://digital.wwnorton.com/worldlit4pre1650
Editor's Notes
Humanists did not reject Christian traditions, but they were more focused on the material world and human potential in this lifetime rather than a Christian afterlife. Their primary motto was ad fontes, or “back to the sources.” Therefore, they researched and indulged more in the works of the ancient Greeks and Romans rather than their medieval predecessors, also seeking more civic involvement and inspiring people to virtuous deeds through mass education. Practical professions and scientific inquiry were emphasized, and studies (studia humanitatis) would include rhetoric, history, and philosophy—all aimed at creating citizens that would engage their communities in virtuous action. In addition to mass printing using the printing press, the use of vernacular rather than Latin during the period increasingly allowed readership to expand. Two branches of Renaissance humanism (that often overlap) include Hermeticism and Neo-Platonism, the former focusing on esoteric writings, the latter on works from classical antiquity.
Humanists believed that education through ludic (playful) activities, rather than rule by an authority or study of rhetoric, will guide civilians to a virtuous and civic life. Rabelais’s Abbey of Thélème is a utopian humanist society based on education, civic engagement, and virtue without an oppressive authority. The members engage in festivity and sport without need for labor. In Machiavelli’s “Letter to Francesco Vettori,” the writer is clearly an agriculturalist, yet he carries books of poetry to read during his daily labors. After work, he plays games with the local inn patrons and returns home to study before bed.
Machiavelli was born in Florence, Italy, to a family that was well connected to the Medici family. He built a distinguished career of public service in the Florentine Republic, a city-state whose government was representative of politics of the period. In The Prince, Machiavelli offers prescriptions for effective rule. He lost favor with the Medici family at the end of the Republic, was self-exiled to his family’s farm, and returned to serve the Medicine during the 1520s, though with less favor and reputation.
The image is a Portrait of Machiavelli, by Snati di Tito (16th century). The Rijksmuseum (RP-P-OB-35.926)
Rabelais was trained initially as a Franciscan monk and priest but quickly broke with antihumanist forces at the Sorbonne (Paris), who banned the study of Greek and confiscated his books. He abandoned his habit at 1527 and pursued a career in medicine in Lyon. He published his works under the pseudonym Alcofribas Nasier, which satirized the Church and coincided with civil unrest by Protestants in Paris.
The image is Portrait of Rabelais, by Félix Bracquemond. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of David Keppel, 1922 (22.1.10)
Du Bellay was born to a noble family in the west of France and orphaned very young. He studied law at Poitiers, where he joined a circle of humanist poets and thinkers. There he met Pierre de Ronsard and together they formed the literary circle known as the Pléiade, which promoted a cultivating of French as a poetic language. Du Bellay’s main contention was that contemporary French language lacked quality to serve in higher forms of poetry. His vision (thought by many to be extremist) was to improve French and to imitate the Ancients rather than simply translate their works into French. Du Bellay and other Pléiade members moved to rejuvenate poetry, but rhyme and the logic of Form still remained prerequisites for good writing. They added contextual requirements that made poetry aurally appealing from the listener’s perspective: strong and convincing verses would be clear and concise, uniform and comprehensible to keep the reader from lolling off; vulgar topics and inappropriate language were to be avoided; and Cadence and Harmony were to be revered.
More’s Utopia (see separate module) mocks Westerners and introduces societies in which material wealth is irrelevant because of infinite resources and lack of greed. On the other hand, Machiavelli ridicules the Medici family and tyrannical rule in order to promote a republican form of government (see separate module). Du Bellay, in Sonnet 3 of The Antiquities of Rome, warns that Rome’s proud attempt to “vanquish all” led, ironically, to its own demise (p. 148).
The image is a photograph of the Medici family’s villa in Rome. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gilman Collection, Museum Purchase, 2005 (2005.100.799 (3))
