Chapter 15 Data Collection: Interviewing Individuals and Groups 1 Structured and Semistructured Interviews Structured and semistructured interviews are often based on investigator-created interview guides 2 Structured Interviews A highly structured interview closely resembles an examiner-administered questionnaire A set of specific questions, a set of possible responses, and a script for introducing the study are used 3 Structured Interviews The downside of this approach is that discovery of new perspectives, ideas, and insights is unlikely to occur 4 Semistructured Interviews A semistructured interview uses specific but open-ended questions and allows freer responses form the participants It is used when the researcher cannot predict all of the possible responses but wants to keep the responses focused on a specific topic 5 Piloting the Interview Guides It is essential to pilot test the investigator-created questions before using in a research study Review with experts Review with peers Ask pilot study participants to “think aloud” as they respond 6 Conducting the Structured Interview Deviation from the script and the prepared questions is discouraged when using a structured interview Interviewers are expected to ask the questions in the order presented and to use the prompts and probes supplied in the script 7 Conducting the Semistructured Interview During a semistructured interview, the interviewer is expected to: Read the question Use prompts such as “Tell me more” if needed Refrain from expressing an opinion or sharing a personal experience 8 Unstructured Interviews An unstructured interview is usually a dialogue, not a monologue The interviewer needs to be an expert listener in order to guide the interview 9 Conducting an Unstructured Interview An unstructured interview differs from a social conversation because: Interviewing has a specific purpose Information flow is primarily, although not solely, from the interviewee to the interviewer Most of the talking is done by the interviewee and most of the listening is done by the interviewer 10 Conducting an Unstructured Interview An unstructured interview differs from a social conversation because: The session is often recorded A formal agreement is made between interviewer and interviewee before the interview begins Analysis, interpretation, and written reports reflecting the results of the interviews are done 11 Opening the Interview Begin with an introduction to the study and a brief social conversation Start with a grand tour or mini tour question Then follow-up the broad question with more specific ones 12 Continuing the Interview The information sought and the purpose of the interview will guide you when to: Use prompts and probes Ask for specifics Guide the direction of the interview Ask for clarification where indicated Allow time for reflection 13 Completing the Interview When ending the interview: Review important point ...

1. Chapter 15
Data Collection: Interviewing Individuals and Groups
1
Structured and
Semistructured Interviews
Structured and semistructured interviews are often based on
investigator-created interview guides
2
Structured Interviews
A highly structured interview closely resembles an examiner-
administered questionnaire
A set of specific questions, a set of possible responses, and a
script for introducing the study are used
3
Structured Interviews
The downside of this approach is that discovery of new
perspectives, ideas, and insights is unlikely to occur

2. 4
Semistructured Interviews
A semistructured interview uses specific but open-ended
questions and allows freer responses form the participants
It is used when the researcher cannot predict all of the possible
responses but wants to keep the responses focused on a specific
topic
5
Piloting the Interview Guides
It is essential to pilot test the investigator-created questions
before using in a research study
Review with experts
Review with peers
Ask pilot study participants to “think aloud” as they respond
6
Conducting the Structured Interview
Deviation from the script and the prepared questions is
discouraged when using a structured interview
Interviewers are expected to ask the questions in the order
presented and to use the prompts and probes supplied in the
script

3. 7
Conducting the
Semistructured Interview
During a semistructured interview, the interviewer is expected
to:
Read the question
Use prompts such as “Tell me more” if needed
Refrain from expressing an opinion or sharing a personal
experience
8
Unstructured Interviews
An unstructured interview is usually a dialogue, not a
monologue
The interviewer needs to be an expert listener in order to guide
the interview
9
Conducting an Unstructured Interview
An unstructured interview differs from a social conversation
because:
Interviewing has a specific purpose
Information flow is primarily, although not solely, from the
interviewee to the interviewer
Most of the talking is done by the interviewee and most of the
listening is done by the interviewer

4. 10
Conducting an Unstructured Interview
An unstructured interview differs from a social conversation
because:
The session is often recorded
A formal agreement is made between interviewer and
interviewee before the interview begins
Analysis, interpretation, and written reports reflecting the
results of the interviews are done
11
Opening the Interview
Begin with an introduction to the study and a brief social
conversation
Start with a grand tour or mini tour question
Then follow-up the broad question with more specific ones
12
Continuing the Interview
The information sought and the purpose of the interview will
guide you when to:
Use prompts and probes
Ask for specifics
Guide the direction of the interview
Ask for clarification where indicated
Allow time for reflection

5. 13
Completing the Interview
When ending the interview:
Review important points raised
Ask if interviewee has anything to add
Express appreciation
14
Focus Groups
Focus groups encourage interaction between group members
Focus groups are designed to elicit group members’
experiences, perspectives, wishes, and concerns
15
Focus Groups
Members of the group can influence the direction of the session,
making this approach responsive to interests and concerns of the
group (Soklaridis, 2009)
Focus groups are often combined with individual interviews as
different information is elicited in different formats
16

6. Conducting Focus Groups
Select a convenient, comfortable meeting space
Select participants with relevant experience
Open sessions to set the tone and direction of the discussion
17
Conducting Focus Groups
Maintain interaction: stay on topic but encourage bringing up
additional ideas, issues, comments
Take notes and record the session
18
Analyzing the Results
Include some quotes that illustrate the themes
Quantify where appropriate
Describe group context and interactions and how they impacted
the discussion results
19
Chapter 14
Data Collection: Testing and Observation
Initial Preparation for Data Collection
IRB approval

7. Selection of measures
Rater training
Creating and assembling forms and test packets
Test administration
2
Selection of Measures
Reliability
Has reliability been reported?
Has it been at acceptable levels?
Was it tested with similar populations under similar
circumstances?
3
Selection of Measures
Validity
Same questions apply as reliability
Trustworthiness of qualitative procedures planned
Difficulty level
Time and energy requirements
4
Rater Training
If you are not collecting your own data training of raters should
include:
Background information on the measures used

8. Confirming consent
Confidentiality
Safety precautions
5
Rater Training
If you are not collecting your own data training of raters should
include:
Approach to participants
Handling emergencies and adverse effects
Administration of tests
Accurate recording
“Housekeeping” matters
6
Creating and Assembling Test Packets
Codebook
Order of questions and tests
Obtain permissions where necessary
Consider order effect
Consider practice effect
7
Test Administration
General considerations in testing situations:
Motivating participant

9. Providing privacy
Comfort of participant
Physical limitations of participant
Order of tests
8
Test Administration
General considerations in testing situations:
Accurate timing
Participant fatigue
Participant frustration
Effect of depression or anxiety
9
Tests of Function
There are four perspectives from which to approach
measurement of function:
Actual performance versus report of performance
Capability versus usual performance
Self-report versus informant report
Appropriate to the group being evaluated
10
Physical Assessment Measures
Often used along with other measures
Require clinical expertise in administration
Training for specific test may be needed

10. 11
Biological Tests
When collecting specimens for laboratory analysis:
Follow directions carefully
Avoid contamination
Maintain correct temperature
Use correct collection container
12
Biological Tests
When collecting specimens for laboratory analysis:
Process according to directions
Collect the correct amount
Adhere to the appropriate timing of the collection of specimens
Store and transport properly
13
Observation
Observation is often the first data collection method used when
exploring a new research topic
Observation may be highly structured or unstructured, but it
should always be systematic and purposeful

11. 14
Structured Observation
Observation uses a set of codes, checklists or guides that
specify what is to be observed and recorded
Recording may be done by hand or electronically
Observations are often done at regular time intervals
15
Naturalistic Observation
Naturalistic observation generally involves a smaller sample
size and is more informal
It usually covers a longer observation time
16
Degree of Participation
There is a continuum in the degree to which the data collector
participates in the activities under observation
Active: high level of comfort but may interfere with the ability
to step back and observe
Moderate: strikes a balance between insider and outsider
perspective

12. 17
Degree of Participation
There is a continuum in the degree to which the data collector
participates in the activities under observation
Nonparticipation: data collector can focus attention on the
observations being made but it may take some time for
participants to become comfortable with being observed
18
Entering the Field
When observing people, you need to gain their trust
It may require considerable negotiating skills
It is important to document efforts/activities to gain entry
19
What to Observe?
Time and data
Physical space description
People present
Actions and interactions

13. 20
What to Observe?
Emotional climate
Implicit understandings, norms, and expectations
Timing and sequencing
Events
21
Recording Observations
Keep in mind the purpose of your study in mind as you record
what you see
Notes taken on site should be brief but add detail as soon as
possible after observation
Be sure to distinguish observation from opinion
22
Video Recording
Video recording provides a permanent record of your
observations
It allows rich detail of an event to be captured but it does not
always pick up subtle changes
It may affect the recorder and people being recorded

14. 23