C A N I N E S W I T H M A N N E R SC A L L I N G A L .docx

C A N I N E S W I T H
M A N N E R S
C A L L I N G A L L D O G
O W N E R S
'Clients will work with their dogs using positive
reinforcement to teach commands and good behavior '
September 5, 12, 19, & 26
6:30-7:30 pm
Location: Kelley Kennels, Anytown, USA
F o r I n f o r m a t i o n C o n t a c t : JESS KELLEY,
TRAINER
SEC 10-K Analysis Grading Guide
ACC/423 Version 11
3
SEC 10-K Grading Guide
ACC/423 Version 11
Intermediate Financial Accounting III
Copyright
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companies. Use of these marks is not intended to imply
endorsement, sponsorship, or affiliation.
Edited in accordance with University of Phoenix® editorial
standards and practices.
Learning Team / Individual Assignment: SEC 10-K
AnalysisPurpose of Assignment
This assignment allows students to demonstrate their
understanding of the income taxes in financial reporting. Using
the financial statements of a publicly traded organization,
students will prepare a paper describing the components of
income taxes in both the balance sheet and income statement.
Students will also examine the Notes to the financial statements
and describe the required disclosures. Resources Required
SEC 10-K for Ford Motor, Company or Securities and Exchange
Commission's (SEC) Edgar filing systemGrading Guide
Content
Met
Partially Met
Not Met
Comments:
Writes a paper describing the amounts of current and deferred
income taxes.
Explains the items that affect both these classifications.

Provides details of the current and long-term portion of the
deferred taxes. Lists the Note number where the information is
located.
The paper is 350- to 700-words in length.
Total Available
Total Earned
3
#/X
Writing Guidelines
Met
Partially Met
Not Met
Comments:
The paper—including tables and graphs, headings, title page,

and reference page—is consistent with APA formatting
guidelines and meets course-level requirements.
Intellectual property is recognized with in-text citations and a
reference page.
Paragraph and sentence transitions are present, logical, and
maintain the flow throughout the paper.
Sentences are complete, clear, and concise.
Rules of grammar and usage are followed including spelling and
punctuation.
Total Available
Total Earned

2
#/X
Assignment Total
#
X
#/X
Additional comments:
Required Resources
Text
Buczynski, S., & Hansen, C. B. (2014). The change leader in
education: Roles and strategies in the differentiated
environment. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Section 8.1: Understanding Adult-Learning Theory
· Reading this section will prepare you for the Final Project.
Preparation and work on this assignment begin in Week 3.
Section 8.2: Preparing to Teach
· Reading this section will prepare you for the first part of the
Final Project about Theory. Preparation and work on this
assignment begins in Week 3.
· Section 9.2: Seeking Professional Development
· Reading this section will prepare you for the Professional
Development Discussion in Week 5.
·
Shean, A. (Ed.). (2012). The final step: A capstone in
education. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Section 3.1: Learning Theory for Teaching
· Reading this section will prepare you for the first part of the
Final Project about Theory. Preparation and work on this
assignment begin in Week 3.
Multimedia
Ashford University. (2017). Real-life challenges in

education (Links to an external site.) [Interactivity]. Retrieved
from https://scorm-iad-prod.insops.net/
· This interactive provides information about real life
challenges in education. This interactive will assist you with the
Workshop Flyer discussion and Workshop Plan assignment.
Ashford University. (2017). Multigenerational Center
activity (Links to an external site.) [Interactivity]. Retrieved
from https://scorm-iad-prod.insops.net/
· This interactive provides information about the
Multigenerational Center. You will tour the center and learn
about the opportunities that the Center can offer you as a recent
graduate. This interactive will assist you with the components
of your Workshop Plan assignment.
·
Recommended Resources
Books
Honigsfeld, A & Cohan, A. (2015). Serving English language
learners. Retrieved from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Chapter 8: Lesson Planning for ELLs
· Chapter 9: Effective Strategies for ELA and Content-Literacy
Development
· Reading these chapters will prepare students in the ELS
Program for the Final Project. Read them only if you are in the
ELS Program.
Krogh, S. L., Fielstein, L., Phelps, P. H., & Newman, R.
(2015). Introduction to education: Choosing to teach. Retrieved
from https://content.ashford.edu/
· Chapter 3: How Students Learn
· Reading this chapter will prepare you for the first part of the
Final Project about Theory.
Willis, J., & Mitchell, G. (2014). The neuroscience of learning:
Principles and applications for educators. Retrieved from
https://content.ashford.edu/
· Section 2.2: What Gets Our Attention
· Section 4.3: Emotional Climate

· Reading these sections may assist you in completing the fourth
part of the Final Project about Strategies
·
Web Page
Red Mountain Multigenerational Center. (Links to an external
site.) (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.mesaparks.com/parks-
facilities/recreation-centers/red-mountain-multigenerational-
center
· This web page provides information about the Mesa, Arizona
Multigenerational Center and may assist you in your Workshop
Flyer discussion, and Workshop Plan Part I assignment this
week.
Accessibility Statement
Privacy Policy
BACD
As the activity coordinator, Mr. Coleman has set up family
engagement nights at his center. His
intent was to create fun and engaging activities that would help
build a sense of community
within the program. He invited a nutritionist, Mrs. Cabral, out
for the October family night to
encourage healthy eating during a time when most kids are
thinking about candy! Mrs. Cabral
introduced the four food groups to the children and talked about
a healthy way to balance what
you eat. She showed the kids the My Pyramid food group chart,
which is the USDA’s Guidance
for Early Childhood Programs.

The next day, Mr. and Mrs. Agarwal came to talk to Mr.
Coleman. They attended the
presentation together and their young son left the experience
thinking they were not healthy
because they do not eat meat due to their Hindu religious
beliefs. If you were Mr. Coleman, how
would you handle this situation?
BACOG
You have just been hired for your dream job and your first
assignment is to co-present a training session
to your colleagues with your new boss. You just completed
your degree in Cognitive Studies and have
learned a great deal about how people learn and the best ways to
present material to ensure that it is
retained. Your boss is very traditional and has created a very
text filled power point for the two of you
to read from in the training.
How will you share what you have learned in the program with
your boss and what ways will you
suggest you modify the presentation to ensure that it is
engaging and memorable, using brain based

strategies?
BAECDDI
Mrs. Weaver is the director of the preschool at the local
elementary school. One of her teachers, Mrs.
Davis has a child, Brooke, in her three-year-old classroom who
is in a wheelchair. Brooke’s mother came
to school to let Mrs. Weaver know that her child has come home
crying because Mrs. Davis does not
include her in activities where it is difficult for her wheelchair
to navigate the classroom. Brooke’s
mother let her know that she has spoken with Mrs. Davis, but
nothing has changed, and that Brooke is
now sharing she doesn’t want to go to school. If you were Mrs.
Weaver, what would you do?
BAECE

Mrs. Ashland, the daycare teacher, is greeting children as they
enter the room. Mr. Jones and
Caleb are greeted by Mrs. Ashland. Mr. Jones, who is visibly
irritated, states he does not want
Caleb playing in the housekeeping area. He states in their
culture; the kitchen is not a place for
men and he does not want him playing there during the day. He
also finds fault in his son playing
with the dolls and dressing them up. Mrs. Ashland responds
calmly and asks Mr. Jones if he and
his wife would be available to set up a time to talk about this
further. He agrees to come in
afterschool to discuss, but states, “Caleb is not allowed to play
in the kitchen today.” If you were
Mrs. Ashland, how would you handle the situation?
BAECE
Mrs. Ashland, the daycare teacher, is greeting children as they
enter the room. Mr. Jones and
Caleb are greeted by Mrs. Ashland. Mr. Jones, who is visibly

irritated, states he does not want
Caleb playing in the housekeeping area. He states in their
culture; the kitchen is not a place for
men and he does not want him playing there during the day. He
also finds fault in his son playing
with the dolls and dressing them up. Mrs. Ashland responds
calmly and asks Mr. Jones if he and
his wife would be available to set up a time to talk about this
further. He agrees to come in
afterschool to discuss, but states, “Caleb is not allowed to play
in the kitchen today.” If you were
Mrs. Ashland, how would you handle the situation?
BAECEA
Principal Marx hires a first year teacher right out of college.
He enjoys hiring first year teachers because
they are bringing new and innovative backgrounds with them
that the veteran teachers can learn from,
but the new teacher can also be shaped into the best teacher
possible learning from the veteran

teachers. At first the new teacher does well. About the second
month of school, teachers overhear her
complaining about certain students out loud to other teachers.
One day, she is overheard talking to a
group of families about the children in her classroom. She is
talking about behavior issues, special
education accommodations, etc. That same night she has posted
something on her social media account
about a student and uses a name. Teachers begin complaining
to the principal so that he will know
what is going on. How should Principal Marx address this
situation?
BACOG
You have just been hired for your dream job and your first
assignment is to co-present a training session
to your colleagues with your new boss. You just completed
your degree in Cognitive Studies and have
learned a great deal about how people learn and the best ways to
present material to ensure that it is
retained. Your boss is very traditional and has created a very
text filled power point for the two of you

to read from in the training.
How will you share what you have learned in the program with
your boss and what ways will you
suggest you modify the presentation to ensure that it is
engaging and memorable, using brain based
strategies?
BAID
Mark, an instructional designer working for consulting
company, was just assigned a project to work
with a local company to develop training focused on increasing
worker productivity. The company,
hereby referred as the “stakeholder,” is convinced that training
is the solution. Once Mark begins the
project and does his own needs assessment, he finds that
training may not be the most effective
solution. He interviews several employees and concludes that
the lack of productivity is rooted more in
the negative views that the employees have toward the
company’s culture. The consulting company has
signed a contract for $30,000 with the stakeholder. Knowing
that training will most likely not solve the
productivity problem, Mark is now in an ethical dilemma.
Should Mark tell the stakeholder, as well as his boss, that the

training may not be the answer and risk
losing the contract or should Mark follow through with the
training seeing that it’s what the stakeholder
has decided will fix the problem?
If you were Mark, how would you handle this situation? Be sure
to reference any professional standards
and provide justification for your decisions.
BALS
For some time, a local militia group has been meeting in one of
the library meeting rooms each Tuesday
evening. There have been complaints from patrons about
inflammatory messages on their t-shirts
(examples: Anarchy rules! & Women belong in the home).
When you told the militia group about these
complaints, they voluntarily moved their meeting time to the
hour before closing so they are the only
patrons using the library.
Members of the militia group have begun checking out and
reading library materials. They are using the
library computers before and during their meetings over the last
month. Last night you noticed papers

left behind in the printer. As you collected these, you realized
they seemed to be instructions on how to
create explosive devices. As you examined them more closely, a
militia member came to collect them
and you handed them over.
Not sure what to do, you were still thinking this over when two
Homeland Security officers appeared at
the library the next day. The officers wanted access to all
computers used by members of the militia so
they could explore the website visitation history, and they also
wanted to know if any of the militia
group had checked out library materials, or viewed any on the
premises. If they had, Homeland Security
wanted a copy of the library records, and the titles of any
materials used in the library.
• What are you going to do?
• Will you help Homeland Security and turn over the library
records of the militia group
members?
• Will you allow them to search each computer, and tell them
about materials you noticed the
group examining?
• What other options might you have?

Refer to the Library Bill of Rights
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill or The
ALA Code
of Ethics
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/sites/ala.org.advocacy/files/conten
t/proethics/codeofethics/Code%20of
%20Ethics%20of%20the%20American%20Library%20Associati
on.pdf
in your response, and explain how the Bill of Rights and/or
Code of Ethics does or does not apply to this
situation. Thoroughly justify your answer.
Refer to the Library Bill of Rights
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill or The
ALA Code
of Ethics
t/proethics/codeofethics/Code%20of
%20Ethics%20of%20the%20American%20Library%20Associati
on.pdf
in your response, and explain how the Bill of Rights and/or
Code of Ethics does or does not apply to this
situation. Thoroughly justify your answer.

http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill
t/proethics/codeofethics/Code%20of%20Ethics%20of%20the%2
0American%20Library%20Association.pdf
http://www.ala.org/advocacy/intfreedom/librarybill
EDU 499 Professional Standards by Program
BA Education
Studies
InTASC Standards
http://programs.ccsso.org/projects/interstate_new_teacher_asses
sment_and_support_consortium/
BA Child
Development
BA Early
Childhood

Education
BA Early
Childhood
Education
Administration
BA Early
Childhood
Development
with
Differentiated
Instruction
NAEYC Standards
https://families.naeyc.org/accredited-article/10-naeyc-program-
standards
BA
Instructional
Design
ISTE Standards
https://www.iste.org/standards
BA English as a
Second
Language
TESOL Standards
http://www.tesol.org/advance-the-field/standards

BA Library
Science
BALS students can use any of the following Professional
Standards:
ALSC (Assoc. for Library Service to Children) Competencies
for Librarians Serving Children in Public Libraries (III
Programing Skills)
http://www.ala.org/alsc/edcareeers/alsccorecomps
http://programs.ccsso.org/projects/interstate_new_teacher_asses
sment_and_support_consortium/
https://families.naeyc.org/accredited-article/10-naeyc-program-
standards
https://www.iste.org/standards
http://www.tesol.org/advance-the-field/standards
http://www.ala.org/alsc/edcareeers/alsccorecomps
EDU 499 Professional Standards by Program
ALA’s Core Competences of Librarianship (7. Continuing
Education and Lifelong Learning )
http://www.ala.org/educationcareers/sites/ala.org.educationcare
ers/files/content/careers/corecomp/corecompeten
ces/finalcorecompstat09.pdf
Additional standards for librarians:
ALA links to standards for many kinds of
libraries:
http://www.ala.org/educationcareers/careers/corecomp/corecom
pspecial/knowledgecompetencies
YALSA focus on Young Adults
http://www.ala.org/yalsa/guidelines/yacompetencies2010
ALA/AASL Standards for Initial Preparation of School
Librarians (2010)
http://www.ala.org/aasl/sites/ala.org.aasl/files/content/aasleduca

tion/schoollibrary/2010_standards_with_rubrics_a
nd_statements_1-31-11.pdf
Non- ALA standards:
SLA (Special Libraries) https://www.sla.org/about-
sla/competencies/
Future-Ready Librarian Framework
https://www2.follettlearning.com/projectconnect/pdfs/future-
ready-librarian-
framework_follett.pdf
BA Cognitive
Studies
APA (Counselors and Psychologists):
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
Gifted and talented:
http://www.nagc.org/resources-publications/resources/national-
standards-gifted-and-talented-education
Special education:
https://www.cec.sped.org/Standards
School psychologists:
http://www.soe.unc.edu/academics/requirements/standards/NCD
PI_School_Psychologists_Standards.pdf
ers/files/content/careers/corecomp/corecompetences/finalcoreco
mpstat09.pdf
ers/files/content/careers/corecomp/corecompetences/finalcoreco

mpstat09.pdf
http://www.ala.org/educationcareers/careers/corecomp/corecom
pspecial/knowledgecompetencies
http://www.ala.org/yalsa/guidelines/yacompetencies2010
tion/schoollibrary/2010_standards_with_rubrics_and_statements
_1-31-11.pdf
tion/schoollibrary/2010_standards_with_rubrics_and_statements
_1-31-11.pdf
https://www.sla.org/about-sla/competencies/
ready-librarian-framework_follett.pdf
ready-librarian-framework_follett.pdf
http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/index.aspx
http://www.nagc.org/resources-publications/resources/national-
standards-gifted-and-talented-education
https://www.cec.sped.org/Standards
http://www.soe.unc.edu/academics/requirements/standards/NCD
PI_School_Psychologists_Standards.pdf
Program:Bachelor of Arts in Administration Early Childhood
Education
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Demonstrate knowledge of child development
principles, including cognitive, language, physical and affective
domains, in creating environments that are healthy, supportive,
and challenging for children.
PLO 2. Analyze the influence and impact of families and
communities on a child’s learning and development.
· PLO 3. Design and assess developmentally appropriate
strategies and programs promoting positive development and

learning for children.
· PLO 4 Apply leadership principles in directing and managing
a child care setting.
PLO 5 Identify components of personnel management in the
recruiting, hiring, and maintenance of staff in quality child care
settings.
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Child Development
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Utilize knowledge of child development to construct and
evaluate curriculum that effectively addresses the stages of
development including cognitive, language, physical and
affective development of young children.
PLO 2: Analyze the influence and impact of families and
communities on a child’s learning and development.
PLO 3: Describe how family structure and cultural backgrounds
influence communication processes in a child’s environment.
PLO 4: Evaluate the critical role of play in children’s learning
and development.
PLO 5: Apply their knowledge as an advocate for children,
families, childcare, and education.
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Cognitive Studies
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Apply knowledge of brain functioning to diverse ways
of learning and teaching.
PLO 2: Examine cognitive development and the impact of
learning across the lifespan.
PLO 3: Evaluate the unique needs of learners with
developmental delays, brain-behavior relationships, and
cognitive advances, and programs to address these needs.

PLO 4: Compare and contrast changes in the child and adult
brain over time and the impact on cognitive functioning.
PLO 5: Integrate environmental and cultural theories into
teaching and learning strategies.
PLO 6: Investigate an area of cognitive functions and processes
using foundational research skills.
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Early Childhood Development
with Differentiated Instruction
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Synthesize theories, processes and approaches in the
study of child development from diverse perspectives across
domains.
PLO 2: Analyze theories which address the interrelationship of
child, family and community, and culture on the growth,
behavior, and development of children.
PLO 3:Compile evidence based strategies that demonstrate an
awareness of exceptionalities and cultural diversity within the
field of child development.
PLO 4: Assess the impact of contemporary issues and trends
relating to the field of child development and their multiple
influences on current practice and knowledge.
PLO 5: Propose diverse models of inclusion to emphasize
access, participation, and partnerships with children and
families.
PLO 6: Apply professional and ethical practice aligned to
national standards to include critical thinking, individual
reflection, and collaboration.
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Early Childhood Education

PLO’s:
PLO 1: Demonstrate knowledge of child development
principles, including cognitive, language, physical and affective
domains, in creating environments that are healthy, supportive,
and challenging for children
PLO 2: Analyze the influence and impact of families and
communities on a child’s learning and development
PLO 3: Design and assess developmentally appropriate
strategies and programs promoting positive development and
learning for children
PLO 4: Identify components of personnel management in the
recruiting, hiring, and maintenance of staff in quality child care
settings
PLO 5: Demonstrate knowledge of fiscal, legal, ethical, and
program requirements in quality child care settings
Program: Bachelor of Arts in English Language Learner Studies
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Apply concepts, linguistic theories, research,
knowledge of the structure of English, and sociolinguistics to
facilitate the acquisition of English for English Language
Learners
PLO 2. Analyze the influences of culture and diversity as it
affects second language learning
PLO 3. Apply knowledge of meta-linguistics in second
language development in constructing multiple identities
PLO 4 Describe standards-based practices and strategies for
developing and integrating English listening, speaking, reading

and writing skills in instructional settings
PLO 5 Demonstrate knowledge of history, research and
current practices in the field of second language acquisition and
ELL
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Education Studies
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Design effective curriculum, instruction and assessment
to meet the needs of diverse learners
PLO 2: Demonstrate knowledge of child and adolescent
development in the cognitive, social, physical, and emotional
domains
PLO 3: Identify the unique needs of special learners and adapt
curriculum and instruction to meet these needs
PLO 4: Apply alignment practices of standards, instruction and
assessment to identified academic, district and state standards,
goals and priorities as part of the planning and material
selection process
PLO 5: Apply foundational research skills to a topic of interest
in an area of education
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Instructional Design
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Design instructional and training interventions and
assessments for online, place-based, and blended delivery
PLO 2: Apply the results of learning, task, performance, and
other analyses to the design of training and instruction
PLO 3: Apply evaluations of technologies for developing,
delivering, and assessing instructional and training

interventions
PLO 4: Distinguish how different principles and theories of
learning, design, and assessment influence design processes and
outcomes
PLO 5: Develop plans to manage collaborative processes and
participants typically involved in an instructional design project
PLO 6: Respond appropriately to ethical, legal, and political
factors influencing instructional design projects for diverse
learners and contexts
Program: Bachelor of Arts in Library Science
PLO’s:
PLO 1: Synthesize input from library patrons and knowledge of
resources to provide solutions to information, academic and
individual needs.
PLO 2: Research solutions utilizing technology, information,
programs or resources to meet the diverse needs of all patrons.
PLO 3: Evaluate customer service strategies to promote a
welcoming environment and culture of learning.
PLO 4: Construct ethical responses to contemporary issues
impacting libraries and library patrons.
PLO 5 Apply learning strategies that teach research and
information skills to diverse learners .

What is Special Education? 1
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap
interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with
disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special
education classrooms. T/F
5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
8Contemporary Concerns
Bjanka Kadic/age fotostock/Superstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• Identify sources of educational funding, and describe how
traditional state funding formulas can result in
school inequities.
• Cite federal legislation and judicial decisions that affect
teachers’ legal responsibilities and civil rights.
• Describe various school choice alternatives and the
characteristics of each.
• Describe teachers’ responsibilities to students.

School Funding 8.1
Educate every child as if he were your own.
—Rachel McMillan
From its earliest beginnings, public education in the United
States has had to deal with vari-
ous concerns and controversies. Schools have evolved side by
side with an evolving demo-
cratic national governing structure. Thus, questions about what
education should look like
and who it should serve in a democracy have provoked
continuing controversies. For exam-
ple, in the earliest colonial times, there was no expectation that
every citizen should be taxed
to provide education for all children; likewise, funding remains
an issue today. As well, con-
troversies have always surrounded models of schooling. Should
the teacher be a “sage on the
stage” who delivers lectures to obediently listening pupils? Or
is facilitative teaching more
appropriate in a democratic society? Can both models exist,
with parents allowed to choose
between them? Teacher rights and responsibilities have changed
over time also. Rules gov-
erning teachers’ personal lives, such as the expectation that they
should remain unmarried,
have been replaced by far looser ethical demands. In short,
issues have always arisen and
show no signs of disappearing.
In this chapter, we investigate three general topics of concern:
school funding, school choice,
and teacher rights and responsibilities. Because each topic

contains a number of issues and
controversies, read about them with an eye to deciding what
your own views are and how
they might develop in the future as you begin your teaching
career.
8.1 School Funding
School funding became an issue well before the United States
was established as a country. In
the 1640s, the Massachusetts colony led the way by requiring
any settlement of 50 or more
households to hire and pay for a reading and writing teacher. A
settlement of 100 or more
households taxed property owners for the purpose of
establishing a grammar school. The
colonial view was that property owners were the wealthier
citizens and should, therefore, be
expected to fund education. This long-ago view set the
precedent for much of today’s school
funding, which continues to be provided through state property
taxes. The Bill of Rights,
established by 1791, made no mention of rights regarding
education. This fact, coupled with
the tradition of individual colonies creating their own school
funding laws, led to little federal
spending on education. In fact, colonies and territories applying
for statehood were required
to agree to fund their own education.
Over time, federal spending on education has increased,
particularly in times of need such
as during the depression years of the 1930s, or when
international competition has arisen,
such as in the 1950s, when Russia led the way into space.
However, because federal spending
on education today constitutes only about 5% to 6% of the total

expenditures, local and state
revenues are extremely important for school finance. Sources of
funding and the percentages
provided by each are determined by individual state and local
governments. Basically, taxes
are generated through a (1) personal income tax placed on
individual earnings; (2) state sales
tax placed on items of purchase; (3) personal property tax on
homes, personal items, and busi-
nesses; and (4) privilege tax placed on licenses such as a
driver’s licenses, hunting licenses,
and so on. In some states, revenue is generated from legalized
gambling or (5) a state lottery.
Section 8.1School Funding
Personal Property Tax
Historically, an individual’s wealth was
measured by land, and taxes were lev-
ied accordingly. This situation remains
true today regarding public school-
ing—the mainstay of financial sup-
port for schools comes from revenue
generated from personal property
taxes. Because a high percentage of tax
money for education comes from prop-
erty owners, a vote to increase school
taxes often faces opposition. For retired
homeowners who no longer have chil-
dren in school, or those persons on
fixed incomes, paying school taxes can
be seen as an unwanted and unfair bur-
den. Furthermore, some property own-
ers complain it is unjust that they must

pay for schools, when families who rent apartments or homes
are exempt. It should be pointed
out, however, that a renter’s landlord must pay the taxes, which
no doubt show up as a por-
tion of the renter’s monthly payment. Additionally, some
parents whose children go to private
schools feel they are unfairly saddled by school taxes; after all,
they are already burdened by
costly tuition fees. Aside from these arguments, others have
pointed out that schools are not
producing sufficient outcomes, and thus they are undeserving of
revenue increases. In those
school districts where there is the most dissatisfaction with
local schools, attempts to increase
taxes are usually unsuccessful.
During the latter part of the 1970s and through the 1980s, many
states across the country passed
tax and spending limitation laws that fundamentally altered the
way schools had traditionally
been financed (Carroll, Krop, Arkes, Morrison, & Flanagan,
2005). These laws often led to a
decrease in school funding. One of the most well known and
well documented of these funding
changes occurred with the passage of Proposition 13 in
California. This amendment to the state
constitution, which passed in 1978, capped the amount of
property tax a homeowner would
pay and rolled back tax rates. It also shifted the primary source
of funding for schools from local
property taxes to the state’s general funds (Carroll et al., 2005;
Wassmer, 2006). While Proposi-
tion 13 reduced tax rates for homeowners, it had the added
effect of significantly reducing the
tax dollars collected by the state and local counties used for
education funding. While other fac-

tors have contributed to the reduction in funding across a
number of states, many attribute the
downturn in school funding to laws such as Proposition 13
(Carroll et al., 2005).
Assess Yourself
1. Issues that affect people’s pocketbooks tend to create the
greatest dissension. What do
you think about property taxes being the main source of revenue
for schools? Does this
type of tax unfairly penalize those who own property? Or does
this system seem fair?
2. What alternatives would you propose?
AP Images/Rick Bowmer
The fact that education funding at the local level
comes from property taxes virtually ensures that
the topic will be surrounded by heated debate.
Inequities in School Finance
The most obvious limitation of school districts’ heavy reliance
on local property taxes is the
disparity found in local schools. In communities where property
valuations are higher, the tax
bases will inevitably be larger, which means that the district’s
schools will mirror that afflu-
ence. Thus, one school district might have an ample operating
budget while another district
can barely make ends meet.

To better understand this problem, consider reading the now-
classic Savage Inequalities:
Children in America’s Schools by Jonathan Kozol (1991). After
touring schools from East
St. Louis, Illinois, to San Antonio, Texas, Kozol reported his
findings. In poorer schools, he
observed clogged toilets; bathrooms without hot water, soap, or
paper products; playgrounds
without swing sets or jungle gyms;
and outdated textbooks. The pres-
ence of support staff was negligible.
At the opposite end of the financial
spectrum, Kozol toured schools with
carpeted hallways, music suites, and
lounges for students. Study halls were
fully equipped with the latest technol-
ogy, and libraries were stocked with
state-of-the-art equipment. There
were opportunities for students to
perform or study abroad. He noted
modern school buildings surrounded
by trees and landscaped gardens, with
spacious playing fields for sports. In
recent years, inequities such as those
described by Kozol (1991) have pro-
vided an impetus for school finance
reform at the federal, state, and judi-
cial levels.
Federal Government’s Response
The federal government’s role is and has been somewhat limited
regarding school finance.
However, the Department of Education, a Cabinet-level office
created in 1979 by Presi-
dent Jimmy Carter, distributes grant money to schools. Most

federal assistance has been
in the form of categorical aid, money that is earmarked for a
specific school need such as
a library, computers, reading programs, transportation, or free
lunches for economically
disadvantaged students. A large portion of categorical grants are
reserved for schools with
a high proportion of children from low-income families or other
children whose special
educational needs put them at a disadvantage. The drawback to
categorical aid is that there
are strings attached; the schools must use the monies only for
the designated purposes.
There are strict federal guidelines that accompany these dollars.
Stringent documentation
is required from those schools accepting categorical aid. A
national study in 2008 found
that the state average dependence on categorical grants was 25
grants. By 2012, the aver-
age was 16, with Florida and Montana depending on just one,
and Iowa on 64 (Smith, Gas-
parian, Perry, & Capinpin, 2013).
1a_photography/iStock/Thinkstock
Inequities in education have serious and long-
lasting effects on the lives of students and their
families.
During the 1980s, restrictions on local school administrators
eased under the Reagan admin-
istration when another type of federal assistance, known as a
block grant, was made avail-

able. Simply put, block grants are large sums of money that
come with fewer federal restric-
tions, which means that schools are given more latitude as to
how money can be spent to best
serve students’ needs. Regardless of the federal government’s
role in financing schools, the
major financial burden of schools continues to rest on states and
the local school districts.
States’ Response
In an effort to correct inequities, states are asked to equalize
funding among districts by issu-
ing flat grants, equalization grants, and foundation grants. A
flat grant is the oldest, intro-
duced in the mid-19th century. It is also the most unequal
method of financing schools. A
fixed amount of money is divided by the number of students
attending, which explains why
it is crucial for districts to keep meticulous records on
attendance. Unfortunately, flat grants
do not take into consideration the extra costs associated with
educating special education
or English language learners, or the comparative wealth of a
district. An equalization grant
addresses the inequities of the flat grant. It requires that
wealthier districts give back surplus
revenue to the state, which will in turn distribute excess funds
to poorer districts. A founda-
tion grant is designed to provide poorer districts with state aid
to compensate for insufficient
local funding. Hence, local school districts that have trouble
raising revenue because of low
property values can receive assistance from the state to make up
for these deficiencies. Most
states require a minimum property tax for local communities to
qualify for this grant.

Judicial Response
In some states, the Department of Education is in conflict with
state courts regarding the
outcome of inequities in the funding of school systems. One of
several landmark court cases
affecting school funding was Serrano v. Priest (1971), which
charged that the current system
for financing schooling in California was unconstitutional. The
plaintiffs argued that using
property taxes to finance schools violated the Fourteenth
Amendment, which provides “equal
protection” to all citizens. The Supreme Court of California
upheld the parents’ claim that the
wealth of the state—not the wealth of property owners from
local school districts—should
be the determining factor for financing schools because it was
clear that property taxes in
poorer communities could not compete with property taxes in
the wealthier communities.
The court instructed the California State Legislature to revise
the system to separate school
funding from local property taxes.
After this ruling, cases were filed in several other states,
including in Texas. In the San Antonio
Independent School District v. Rodriguez case, a federal circuit
court ruled the same as in the
Serrano case. However, in 1973 the U.S. Supreme Court
reversed that decision and ruled that
this funding practice was not unconstitutional because the right
to an education is not guar-
anteed by the U.S. Constitution. Nonetheless, the U.S. Supreme
Court (1973) did recognize
that there were inherent disparities in educational expenditures
because of a flawed system

of property tax funding. The court noted that these kinds of
issues should be addressed by
state legislatures or state courts, not by federal courts.
An example of funding inequities subsequently being addressed
at the state level took place
in 1989. The Texas State Supreme Court found that the system
of relying on property taxes for
Section 8.2School Choice
school revenue had led to inequities in pupil expenditures. In
response, the Texas State Legis-
lature passed “Robin Hood” legislation in 1993 to redistribute
funds from wealthier districts
to poorer districts (i.e., districts that had lower property
values). Since then, a number of
cases have been brought before state courts based on the
Supreme Court’s San Antonio deci-
sion. In early 2014, there were 10 such cases pending. In March
of that year, for example, the
Kansas Supreme Court declared that the state’s schools were
funded inequitably. A second
part of the suit, which argued that the state did not provide
adequate funding to be in com-
pliance with the state’s constitution, was sent back to the lower
courts (Heck, 2014). These
sister issues—equitable funding and adequate funding—are the
primary ones dealt with by
the various state courts, and the courts can be quite assertive in
their judgments. In 2014, for
example, the Washington State Legislature was taken to task by
the state’s Supreme Court
for repeatedly not providing adequate funding according to the

Washington constitution and
despite the Court’s orders. As of mid-2014, threats had been
made to the legislature by the
Court that included leveling fines, forcing property to be sold,
or removing other funding from
the legislature’s powers (Camden, 2014).
8.2 School Choice
Decreases in school funding and the pressure on schools and
districts to innovate and improve
student achievement have also led to the emergence of a greater
number of schooling options.
While there have always been calls for more school choice in
the United States, the voices have
grown louder as the impact of high-stakes testing has expanded
(Deming, Hastings, Kane, &
Staiger, 2011; Wolf, 2008). School personnel, parents,
community members, and lawmakers
are asking for more school options and for greater levels of
involvement and accountability.
States, districts, and a range of organizations have responded.
There is now a wider range
of schooling options from which parents can choose. So, what
exactly are these options, and
how do they differ from one another? This section will consider
several alternative schooling
models: charter schools, magnet schools, private schools,
innovation schools, schools within
schools, single-sex education, and homeschooling.
Charter Schools
In 1991, Minnesota became the first state to pass a law
permitting the creation of public
schools that could have more flexibility in their governance
while still accepting account-
ability requirements. Since the 1990s, all but eight states have

passed legislation permitting
this model, which is known as the charter school. The original
idea of the Minnesota model,
as designed by progressive education reformers, was that
“charter schools could be an effec-
tive mechanism for incubating reform and improvement in a
small number of experimental
schools,” eventually spreading to a wide number of public
schools (Fabricant & Fine, 2012, p.
18). It was surmised that “freeing a sector of schools from the
red tape and formulaic prac-
tices of bureaucratized education, new forms of practice would
be unleashed that, in turn,
would improve academic performance” (p. 19).
Charter schools are public schools, yet they differ from
traditional public schools in many
ways. From their beginnings in Minnesota, they have had
greater flexibility as to how they
operate and the programs they have in place. Charter schools
operate under a performance
contract, or a charter, which frees them from many of the rules
and regulations under which
traditional public schools operate. The charter is agreed upon
between a local school district,
county, state, or sponsoring agency and the organization,
agency, or private corporation that
plans to run the school. The contract details the school’s
mission, program goals, and the stu-
dents who will be served by the school. The length of time for
which the charter is granted is

also outlined in the contract. A charter must be renewed after a
specified period of time, gen-
erally 3 to 5 years. Many factors are used to determine if a
charter is renewed, including stu-
dent performance measures and the financial sustainability of
the school.
Charter schools can take any number
of forms, some innovative, others more
traditional. The first Minnesota pub-
lic charter school was a Montessori
school, a model that was already found
nationally, but typically private. Other
models have begun small and then,
once successful, become more wide-
spread. The KIPP Academy (Knowl-
edge Is Power Program) is an example
of this. KIPP is also an example of a
network of charter schools that are
run by a non-profit foundation. Other
charters, such as the Edison Schools,
Inc., are run as a business, using pub-
lic funds as a private profit-making
endeavor. Finally, there are charters
that have been described as “Mom and
Pop” schools. These are typically a sin-
gle school created by “experienced educators, frustrated with
the district bureaucracy and
trying to model a different kind of educational strategy for
disadvantaged kids” (Fabricant &
Fine, 2012, p. 22). The Folk Arts/Cultural Treasures school in
Philadelphia is an example. Per-
haps the most interesting creation of charter schools came about
in New Orleans after 2005’s
Hurricane Katrina demolished so much of the city. It is now the
country’s one city where the

majority of students (78%) attend a charter school.
While charters have greater freedom than traditional public
schools, they are held to the
same level of accountability when it comes to the academic
achievement of their students
and the financial state of their schools. Thus, while charter
schools might have the freedom to
operate differently from other schools, their students typically
take the same tests as others
in the district and state.
Frequently, charters will focus on new teaching methods or
target a segment of students not
well served by the traditional school model. Whereas traditional
schools must enroll all stu-
dents based on where they live, charter schools are not
necessarily bound by a specific atten-
dance boundary and have the ability to enroll students from a
larger geographical area. If the
number of students who would like to attend the charter school
exceeds the spaces available,
a lottery system is often utilized to determine who will be
admitted.
Because the original impetus for the charter school movement
was to foster innovation,
increase school choice, and be more responsive to the needs of
students and parents, there
Associated Press/Julio Cortez
Tennis star Andre Agassi began a charter school in
Newark, NJ, in 2014. Charter schools have become
increasingly popular in recent years, as traditional
schools have struggled to demonstrate success.

has also been greater discretion and latitude given to charter
schools to determine what cur-
riculum they will use. Support for such innovations is a
hallmark of the Race to the Top (RTTT)
legislation discussed in earlier chapters.
While the laws of each state differ, charter schools generally
receive their funding from the
state or district in a manner similar to that of the local school
district. Charter schools, how-
ever, have to negotiate and often contract outside a district for
space to operate. Finding an
appropriate physical space to serve a school’s students that has
the proper zoning and is
affordable is often one of the biggest roadblocks for charter
schools to overcome.
Decisions about curriculum, staffing, and budgeting are made
by the charter school’s govern-
ing board, which is separate from a school district’s school
board. Because a charter school is
a public school, the teachers must adhere to the same licensing
requirements as their coun-
terparts in traditional schools. However, the hiring practices for
a charter school are often
different and are not always bound to follow the guidelines of
any union or bargaining agree-
ments that may exist with a district. This factor has placed
charter schools front and center
in the debate over what factors support or limit the impact of
public schools to be successful.

Since the charter school movement began in Minnesota, charter
schools have increased in
popularity throughout most of the United States. By 2012, there
were about 4,900 charter
schools with an average 400 new schools opening each year
(Butrymowicz, 2012). Although
charter schools have existed for more than 20 years, they can
still be considered a new effort
and approach to education, given their varying models, lack of a
single educational theoretical
basis, and mixed results from testing. One ongoing problem is
related to the work expecta-
tions of charter school teachers. KIPP teachers, for example,
have been found working about
65 hours per week, 25% longer than teachers in their areas’
regular public schools (Fabricant
& Fine, 2012). While charter teachers must hold proper
credentials, they tend to have less
experience than others. One major source of charter teachers
has been the Teach for America
program, which, while hiring outstanding university graduates,
provides little teacher train-
ing to prospective educators, who are generally without any
experience and who view teach-
ing as a transitional job rather than as a real career. Thus,
retention and expertise are prob-
lems that charter schools often must face. One early, as well as
continuing, expectation has
been that charter schools would make traditional public schools
sit up, take notice, and feel
the competitive urge to improve themselves. This, however,
does not seem to have been the
case. According to David Harris, a mayor’s assistant for charter
school development in India-
napolis, “The thought was that ‘a higher tide raises all boats,’”
but “[i]t’s been a disappoint-

ment both in Indianapolis and around the country” (as cited in
Butrymowicz, p. 29).
Despite continuing problems and controversies, charter schools
have many enthusiastic sup-
porters who are willing to participate in the next stages of
development. Ben Adams (2012), an
education reformer from West Virginia, one of a few states that
prohibit charter schools, points
to his own state’s struggles to move up from its rock-bottom
educational evaluations and sees
charter schools as an effective solution. School choice, he
argues, is key: “Public charter schools
are simply another way to give parents choices in education for
their children” (p. 25).
However, it is possible to create a unique model of public
education without relying on a
special charter. Magnets, as we know, attract only substances
containing iron, and magnet
schools are designed to attract students with a special interest or
from a specific population.
Magnet Schools
Magnet schools are public schools created in the early 1970s in
an effort to help desegregate
public schools. The goal was to entice students to attend schools
outside their neighborhood
and attendance boundary by offering a unique and different
school experience. When legisla-
tion was passed to create magnet schools, it was explicitly
stated that the focus was to have

schools that “offer a special curriculum capable of attracting
substantial numbers of students
of different racial backgrounds” (U.S. Department of Education,
2012, “Program Description,”
para. 2).
Magnet programs originally aimed to eliminate, reduce, or
prevent “minority group isolation
in elementary and secondary schools” while strengthening
“students’ knowledge of academic
subjects and their grasp of . . . marketable vocational skills”
(U.S. Department of Education,
2012, “Program Description,” para. 1). The special curriculum
of a magnet school attracts sub-
stantial numbers of students from different social, economic,
ethnic, and racial backgrounds
and provides greater opportunities for voluntary and court-
ordered desegregation efforts to
succeed. Some of the program choices offered by magnet
schools include math and science,
gifted and talented, language immersion, performing or visual
arts, vocational training, and
academic remediation programs (Corwin & Schneider, 2007).
Magnet schools have evolved over time, and balancing racial
diversity is no longer center stage.
In fact, in 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in Parents
Involved in Community Schools v. Seat-
tle School District that students can no longer be assigned to
schools through a race-based lot-
tery unless the district is still under a court order to desegregate
its schools. Magnet schools,
however, have maintained their attraction for a diverse group of
students and parents.
Magnet schools are similar to charter schools in that they seek

to offer unique learning expe-
riences that traditional public schools do not offer. However,
they still operate under the
school district and school board and are bound to follow the
same rules as their traditional
public school counterparts, whereas charter schools have much
more flexibility in hiring and
operational management. Magnet school teachers also must
follow the same credentialing
and licensing guidelines as all other public school teachers.
Magnet schools, like charter schools, have a reputation for
being more innovative than tradi-
tional schools. The argument is often made that because parents
and students choose these
schools, students will be more motivated to learn and parents
will be more invested in help-
ing their schools succeed. Although magnet schools generally
earn high praise, it has been
said that they do at times “develop bizarre programs, such as
one devoted to the care and
feeding of animals or another focused on athletic skills”
(Corwin & Schneider, 2007, p. 146).
By 2007, more than 1 million students were attending more than
3,000 magnet schools, with
80% of them in urban areas. Well over half of these had been
placed in high-minority neigh-
borhoods with the purpose of interesting white families in
attending, thus continuing the
tradition of enhancing integration (Corwin & Schneider, 2007;
Greene, 2005).
Private Schools
Historically, parents who could afford it have always had the
option of sending their children

to private schools, which are financially supported by parents or
other organizations, rather
than with public funds. There are, of course, advantages and
disadvantages to private school-
ing. One advantage is that because of their small enrollments,
private schools can offer a
close-knit family atmosphere. Because of their smaller size,
private schools can also provide
more opportunities for teacher and student involvement. It is
easier for students to establish
personal relationships with teachers. On the other hand,
although private schools are typi-
cally supported by tuition and possibly by added grant money,
funds for salaries are still lim-
ited. Teachers can almost always expect to be paid …
What is Special Education? 1
iStockphoto/Thinkstock
Pre-Test
1. You can use the terms disability and handicap
interchangeably. T/F
2. The history of special education began in Europe. T/F
3. The first American legislation that protected students with
disabilities was passed in the 1950s. T/F
4. All students with disabilities should be educated in special
education classrooms. T/F

5. Special education law is constantly reinterpreted. T/F
Answers can be found at the end of the chapter.
9Becoming a Teacher
David De Lossy/Exactostock-1598/Superstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to
• List your own pros and cons for choosing teaching as a
career.
• Identify characteristics that distinguish most professions.
• Describe the latest developments in teacher education and
certification and their implications for teachers.
• Cite ways that teachers can continue to grow as
professionals.
• Summarize the roles and benefits of professional
organizations.
• List the components of a teaching portfolio and the
benefits of having one.
• Explain some ways to keep up to date regarding the
teaching profession and its application to you.
Section 9.1Entering the Profession
Education, to me, is not theory. It is not requirements. It is not

lesson plans.
Education is felt. It is shared. It is a commitment to all the
children of
the earth[.]
—John Donnelly
At the beginning of this text, you were asked to reflect,
throughout your reading, on the pros
and cons of joining the teaching profession. A primary goal was
to provide you with enough
information to make an informed decision. As you consider
whether teaching is right for you,
realize that learning to teach is a developmental process. Thus,
you are not expected at this
time to be an expert or even to teach at the level of a
professional. Having a career perspective
should help you realize that becoming a teacher is a journey—
not a destination. You can and
should pack your suitcase and make travel plans, but remember
that the process of getting
there is just as meaningful as having arrived. Along the way, the
pursuit of excellence (through
reflection and renewal) should guide your efforts. When you
devote time to thinking about
your teaching and you engage in activities that help you to
renew yourself, you will find that
greater energy and enthusiasm result.
As you weighed the pros and cons of a career in teaching, you
were asked to keep your per-
sonal values and background in sight. As we have learned, self-
knowledge is critical to making
a wise decision. Now consider again: What do you seek in a
career? What kind of career would
make you happy? What prior experiences have led you to

believe that you may be suited
for teaching? What experiences in your background fight
against your choice of a teaching
career? The decision to teach, as you know, is one that no one
else can make for you (although
you can certainly be influenced by others).
Although we have just described a teaching career as a journey,
an apt metaphor for mak-
ing the decision to teach might also be stepping onto a thrilling
new ride at the amusement
park. The ride is unpredictable yet exhilarating. Those who
choose teaching must commit to
a lifelong pursuit of excellence in both living and learning. As
models of the human experi-
ence, teachers accompany students on this breathtaking ride as
they prepare together for the
future. In this chapter, consider if you are willing and able to
get on board.
9.1 Entering the Profession
What is a profession? Does teaching qualify as one? When you
hear the word “profession,”
what images come to mind? You might think of the following:
advanced degrees, with diplo-
mas on the wall; high standards for admission to a program of
study; formally decorated
offices; or titles of great respect, with nameplates on the office
door. As you anticipate a career
in teaching, it is important to examine the meaning you
associate with the word profession.
How would you define the word?
Primary Aspects of the Profession
Briefly, a profession is an occupation that rests on a solid body
of knowledge and requires

specialized, advanced training and intellectual skills. In
addition, professional organizations
can be expected to define themselves
by their own specific commitment to
ethical behavior and service to society.
As applied to teaching, behaving as a
professional is “characterized by the
ability to make informed judgments
and perform important tasks in com-
plex environments. These judgments
and performances are grounded in an
identifiable, empirically supported
knowledge base” (North Central
Regional Education Laboratory, as
cited in Wilke, 2003, p. 215).
Do these professionalism character-
istics, then, indicate that teaching can
be defined as a profession? Perhaps
surprisingly, the question is one that
still, after generations of debate, can-
not be answered definitively. Much of
the nationwide discussion and debate has taken place within the
American Association of
Colleges for Teacher Education (AACTE), which states:
Achieving professional consensus around matters at the core of
the profes-
sional enterprise has been elusive. Debates about effective
preparation and
ongoing professional development for teachers and other school

profession-
als are ongoing, and the current debates are often focused on
what counts
as evidence of effective programs and effective teachers.
(Kinnucan-Welsch,
2010, pp. 47–48)
Necessary to future success in settling the debates will be the
willingness by all stakeholders
and participants to “embrace necessary reform and renewal that
will firmly establish teach-
ing and teacher education as a profession” (p. 48).
To define more clearly the characteristics of a profession and
their debatable application to
the field of education in the early 21st century, consider the
following questions.
Knowledge Base
Do teachers have a knowledge base? The noun profession is
built on the verb form profess,
meaning “to make a public declaration” or “to acknowledge.”
Thus, at the foundation of a pro-
fession, there must be a body of knowledge. In education, we
refer to this as a knowledge base.
Teachers, doctors, lawyers, and members of other professions
have a specialized knowledge
that members of the general public do not have. Such
knowledge is acquired through a rela-
tively lengthy period of education that is intellectually rigorous.
Because much of the practice of teaching has been based on
personal experience and conven-
tional wisdom, teachers have not always had a well-defined
body of knowledge. As research
continues to inform practice and these findings are disseminated

through professional
michaeljung/Thinkstock
Despite the rigorous training teachers must
undergo before they have access to a classroom,
debate over whether teaching is a profession
continues to be argued.
literature, the knowledge base of teaching continues to be
developed and refined. However,
we do know that the key to teaching lies in the application of
one’s knowledge. Teaching is
primarily a problem-solving venture that requires both
knowledge and skill. The complexity
of the work of teaching sets it apart from other occupations.
Service Orientation and Ethics
What is the primary orientation of teachers? A profession has a
strong service orientation—
providing an essential service to society and to the individual.
Although there may be some
practicing physicians whose primary motive is financial gain,
most doctors are committed to
helping maintain or restore the health of their patients. This
service ideal is vital to teaching.
A teacher’s primary responsibility is to serve students.
In its relationships with others, a profession is guided by ethical
standards. Even though the
teaching profession does not have a unified code of ethics,
various education organizations,
such as the National Education Association (NEA), do have

such a statement. Ethical codes
represent a consensus of what the members in any given
profession consider to be proper
principles of conduct. The following statement from the
Preamble to the NEA Code of Ethics
gives an overview of the importance of ethical behavior in
teaching according to the NEA:
The educator, believing in the worth and dignity of each human
being, recog-
nizes the supreme importance of the pursuit of truth, devotion to
excellence,
and the nurture of the democratic principles. Essential to these
goals is the
protection of freedom to learn and to teach and the guarantee of
equal educa-
tional opportunity for all. The educator accepts the
responsibility to adhere to
the highest ethical standards. (NEA, 2010, para. 2)
Take a few minutes to read the National Education Association
Code of Ethics (1975, amended
2010). You will find two lists of principles: one pertaining to
ethical commitments to students,
the other to the profession. As you read, think of specific
examples applicable to each prin-
ciple. The NEA Code of Ethics can be retrieved from
www.nea.org/handbook.
Autonomy
How much autonomy do teachers have? For the most part,
teachers have freedom within the
classroom to teach as they best see fit. This independence
influences teachers’ level of satis-
faction; overall, teachers carry out their daily duties with
minimal supervision. However, as

they make decisions, teachers must consider the expectations of
parents and the values of the
local community and school board. The freedom found in
autonomy is tempered by account-
ability to others.
Being able to make important decisions about one’s work is a
large part of what it means to
be affiliated with a profession. (See the quotation from the
North Central Regional Laboratory
at the beginning of “Primary Aspects of the Profession.”)
However, as a group, teachers have
been relatively powerless—unable to affect decisions that have
an impact on their work. For
example, creating the class schedule is usually handled by the
school principal and counselor.
In addition, selecting textbooks is typically out of the hands of
individual teachers because of
the existence of state-adopted lists with lengthy time periods
between adoption decisions.
www.nea.org/handbook
Teachers experience more self-determination in some schools
than in others. The emergence
of site-based school management (usually known as SBM), in
the 1990s, gave educators a
greater, more empowering voice in school matters. SBM
governing councils might include any
combination of teachers, principals, and community members.
Over time, SBM proved more
effective and popular in some places than others, and as a new
teacher you may or may not

find yourself employed at a site that practices this approach to
governance.
Accountability
The term for the practice of holding teachers and schools
responsible for student learning is
accountability. Do teachers have accountability? Thus far, we
have learned that teachers are
responsible to many parties for their decisions and actions; they
are accountable to their stu-
dents, the parents and guardians of their students, other
teachers, school administrators, and
the public in general. The public has entrusted its young into
teachers’ hands for the purpose
of education and has a right to expect results. The question
arises concerning how teachers
can be held accountable. The ultimate measure of accountability
rests in how well students
learn. Yet, how should learning be measured? Are standardized
tests the optimal way? Do
teachers control all the factors that affect learning and
achievement? What happens to teach-
ers when their students do not learn? Although it is true that
teachers demonstrate a level
of accountability through the learning success of their students,
the problem lies in finding
equitable ways to assess these results.
One way schools have quality control over instruction is
through their teacher evaluation
system. Teachers undergo evaluation each year (beginning
teachers have more frequent
evaluations than veteran teachers do). This evaluation is usually
conducted by the principal;
sometimes it is only a ritual encounter. Many school districts,
however, are developing more

meaningful ways to evaluate teachers involving the use of peer
observation and portfolios.
Assigning mentors to new teachers is another way to monitor
teachers’ performance. In 2011,
the National Education Association (NEA) voted to create an
updated and equitable approach
to evaluation and accountability, based on the organization’s
contention that much national
discussion on the topic was increasingly unfair and
disrespectful to teachers. Stating that “the
teaching profession is a cornerstone of society,” the NEA
proposed that the creation of “high
quality evaluation and accountability systems” was of the
highest priority (2011, para. 1). It
then laid out a full statement of the important components of
such a system. See the end of
this chapter under Web Resources for access to the full
statement. Fairness in evaluation and
accountability will be important to your successful professional
life.
We conclude this section by returning to the original question:
Does teaching qualify as a pro-
fession? Doctors, engineers, theologians, and lawyers face no
questions about their identifica-
tion as professionals. However, although teachers do belong to
professional associations and
exercise some control over their conditions, complete autonomy
does not exist. Teachers per-
haps could be more solidified if they identified as a group.
Many teachers identify more with
their individual disciplines (e.g., mathematics, language arts,
reading, or business education)
than with their profession as a whole. In spite of this limitation,
current reforms are moving
teaching forward in the direction of a profession on the

continuum. The knowledge base is
constantly changing and improving, the decision-making power
of teachers is increasing, and
the standards for admission to teacher education are being
raised.
Teacher Certification
A license is a document that allows one to practice a specified
trade or profession; it is issued
by a board or other official body. Most recently, teachers have
been licensed through their
state departments of education by completing an approved
teacher education program.
(Most states use the term certification to describe the process of
becoming recognized as
one who has a credential to teach in the state’s public schools.)
In addition to course comple-
tion, most teacher candidates must also pass a written test—
either a state test or, previously,
the National Teachers Examination (NTE). The NTE was a
standardized test developed by
the Educational Testing Service (ETS) that assessed
communication skills, knowledge, and
professional (content) knowledge. The NTE has been replaced
by the Praxis I and II exam-
inations. Note that a license to teach must be renewed
periodically, typically every 3 to 5
years depending on state requirements. In addition, the number
of years might be different
for beginning teachers than for those with experience. During
the time between certificate
renewals, teachers are expected to engage in continuing

education courses or experiences.
These too will be determined by state requirements.
Praxis Examinations
Increasingly, there is a recognition of the need to assess not
only what teachers know but also
what they can do. By focusing on the complexity of the
teaching-learning process, as well as
the need to apply knowledge, performance assessments move
beyond conventional forms of
testing by requiring the creation of evidence based upon
performance. To meet this require-
ment, individual states have selected a variety of tests. Many of
them have chosen one created
by the Educational Testing Service (ETS), known as the Praxis
Series: Professional Assess-
ment for Beginning Teachers. States that adopt the Praxis Series
might choose either or both
of two levels of testing. The purpose of the first test, Praxis
Core, is to test basic knowledge
in reading, writing, and mathematics and use the results as a
gateway to program entry. The
cut-off score might be set by either a state or a particular
program. Praxis II exams cover
academic subjects as well as pedagogy,
and a state might choose among the
120 that are offered as appropriate for
each teacher candidate. In some states,
the exams are taken after graduation
and before acquiring a teaching cre-
dential. In others, they are required
before student teaching can begin. A
number of states have used the Praxis
II exams as a way to meet the require-
ments of the No Child Left Behind leg-

islation, which demands “highly quali-
fied” teachers. You can learn your own
state’s requirements by going to the
Praxis website: http://www.ets.org/
praxis. Your state’s requirements will
be included even if it requires tests
other than the Praxis Series.
Blend Images/Blend Images/Superstock
Teachers are evaluated not only on their
mastery of the subject they teach, but also on
their effectiveness in facilitating learning in the
classroom.
http://www.ets.org/praxis
http://www.ets.org/praxis
InTASC Standards
One organization committed to standards-based reform in
teacher education is the Inter-
state Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (InTASC),
an association of state edu-
cation agencies, higher education institutions, and national
education organizations. Since
1987, InTASC, established by the Council of Chief State School
Officers, has been developing
licensure standards to provide a common ground among the
states. According to the InTASC
position statement,
These core teaching standards set forth new and high
expectations for teach-
ers, including around leadership. Integrated across the standards

is the teach-
er’s responsibility for the learning of all students, the
expectation that they
will see themselves as leaders from the beginning of their career
and advo-
cate for each student’s needs, and the obligation to actively
investigate and
consider new ideas that will improve teaching and learning and
advance the
profession. (CCSSO, 2011, p. 5)
The InTASC standards focus on three areas of performance and
development just as the Praxis
assessments do: knowledge, skills, and critical dispositions. The
10 standards are divided
into four general categories to help teachers organize their
thinking:
• The Learner and Learning
– Standard #1: Learner Development. The teacher understands
how learners grow
and develop, recognizing that patterns of learning and
development vary indi-
vidually within and across the cognitive, linguistic, social,
emotional, and physical
areas, and designs and implements developmentally appropriate
and challenging
learning experiences.
– Standard #2: Learning Differences. The teacher uses
understanding of individual
differences and diverse cultures and communities to ensure
inclusive learning
environments that enable each learner to meet high standards.

– Standard #3: Learning Environments. The teacher works with
others to create
environments that support individual and collaborative learning,
and that encour-
age positive social interaction, active engagement in learning,
and self-motivation.
• Content
– Standard #4: Content Knowledge. The teacher understands
the central concepts,
tools of inquiry, and structures of the discipline(s) he or she
teaches and cre-
ates learning experiences that make the discipline accessible
and meaningful for
learners to ensure mastery of the content.
– Standard #5: Application of Content. The teacher understands
how to connect
concepts and use differing perspectives to engage learners in
critical thinking,
creativity, and collaborative problem solving related to
authentic local and global
issues.
• Instructional Practice
– Standard #6: Assessment. The teacher understands and uses
multiple methods of
assessment to engage learners in their own growth, to monitor
learner progress,
and to guide the teacher’s and learner’s decision-making.
– Standard #7: Planning for Instruction. The teacher plans
instruction that supports
every student in meeting rigorous learning goals by drawing

upon knowledge
of content areas, curriculum, cross-disciplinary skills, and
pedagogy, as well as
knowledge of learners and the community context.
– Standard #8: Instructional Strategies. The teacher
understands and uses a variety
of instructional strategies to encourage learners to develop deep
understanding
of content areas and their connections, and to build skills to
apply knowledge in
meaningful ways.
• Professional Responsibility
– Standard #9: Professional Learning and Ethical Practice. The
teacher engages in
ongoing professional learning and uses evidence to continually
evaluate his/her
practice, particularly the effects of his/her choices and actions
on others (learn-
ers, families, other professionals, and the community), adapting
practice to meet
the needs of each learner.
– Standard #10: Leadership and Collaboration. The teacher
seeks appropriate
leadership roles and opportunities to take responsibility for
student learning; to
collaborate with learners, families, colleagues, other school
professionals, and
community members to ensure learner growth; and to advance

the profession.
Assess Yourself
1. The 10 InTASC standards are meant to be useful and
practical. Choose one standard
that you believe could be applicable to your own teaching
future.
2. Consider a specific instance and environment in which your
choice could be applied.
3. For future recall, take a few notes about your choice and its
application.
4. Consider, as an extension, including your thoughts as a part
of your portfolio
ref lections.
National Boards
While all teachers are required to be certified by the state, there
is a level of recognition teach-
ers can achieve that is considered to be the highest level of
mastery in the classroom. The
definitive standards on teacher development are called the
National Board for Professional
Teaching Standards. They were developed in the late 1980s
after the publication of A Nation
at Risk, a report that laid out the negative aspects of American
education. A major intent in
creating these standards was to lead teaching in the direction of
being a true profession, a
key issue in education as just discussed. Important to those
developing the standards was
the fact that professions such as law and medicine have
standards that are created by the

lawyers and doctors themselves. In this case, about two-thirds
of the participants were teach-
ers. In 2013, the NBPT organization celebrated its 25th
anniversary with an announcement
that there were now more than 100,000 NBPT-certified teachers
and they could be found in
all 50 states. It was declared as well that such teachers were
having an important impact on
education, with about 50% of them teaching in high-poverty
areas, many with certification
and awards in math and the sciences (NBPTS, n.d.).
The original NBPT document, titled What Teachers Should
Know and Be Able to Do, was pub-
lished in 1989 and contained five basic propositions that are
still considered the organiza-
tion’s “vision for accomplished teaching. The Five Core
Propositions form the foundation
and frame the rich amalgam of knowledge, skills, dispositions,
and beliefs that characterize
National Board Certified Teachers (NBCTs)” (NBPTS, n.d.,
para. 1). As you read the five propo-
sitions, keep in mind that they represent a goal for experienced,
talented, and highly moti-
vated teachers. The propositions are generalized, but teachers
who work toward certification
will find subsets of each one that take teaching to a highly
skilled level. It is, however, never
too early to start working toward the professional goals as
described and agreed upon by
leaders in the teaching field. The propositions and their subsets

can be found on the NBPTS
website: www.nbpts.org.
• Proposition 1: Teachers are committed to students and
their learning.
• Proposition 2: Teachers know the subjects they teach and
how to teach those sub-
jects to students.
• Proposition 3: Teachers are responsible for managing and
monitoring student
learning.
• Proposition 4: Teachers think systematically about their
practice and learn from
experience.
• Proposition 5: Teachers are members of learning
communities.
To begin the process of earning the certificate, a teacher must
have taught for at least 3
years, demonstrating the advanced nature of the National
Board’s expectations. The process
includes collecting standards-based evidence of accomplished
teaching related to content
knowledge, differentiation in instruction, teaching practice and
classroom environment, and
being an effective and reflective practitioner. Activities consist
of written assessments of con-
tent knowledge, reflections on student work samples, analysis
of videos of teaching practice,
and documented knowledge of accomplishments. Although the
total cost of completing the
process (and successful achievement is definitely not
guaranteed) is close to $2,000, a raise

in salary will generally more than pay for the effort.
The EdTPA
The edTPA (Teacher Performance Assessment) is the most
recent of the high-stakes perfor-
mance assessments to be developed and adopted by many states.
Most of the assessment
components are similar to those of the National Boards but are
designed for beginning teach-
ers as they complete their university education programs, rather
than for those who have
more experience. Thus, there are no written exams or
testimonials about the candidate’s
leadership abilities. The focus of the edTPA is on the ability of
a beginning educator to “teach
his or her specific content area effectively to diverse learners.
The focus on content learning
outcomes narrows the conception of teaching to one that
emphasizes disciplinary learning”
rather than a broader expectation that includes personal growth
or humanistic aims (Sato,
2014, p. 426). The centerpiece of the process is a portfolio that
“addresses planning, instruc-
tion, assessment, analyzing teaching, and academic language to
reveal the impact of a candi-
date’s teaching performance on student learning” (Stanford
Center for Assessment, Learning,
and Equity, as cited in Sato, 2014, p. 426). As of 2014, 24
states and the District of Columbia
are considering the adoption of the edTPA. Beginning teachers
in those states who fail to
complete the edTPA’s requirements will not be granted a
teaching certificate (Miller, Carroll,
Jancic, & Markworth, in press). It can be noted that, if a
university program has dedicated
itself to meeting the standards created by an organization such

as InTASC, or a more locally
created organization, it can continue to do so, relying on the
edTPA only for final evaluations.
www.nbpts.org
Alternative Certification
Traditionally, the only way to achieve teaching certification has
been to complete a univer-
sity program that includes pedagogy courses along with an
academic major and an intern-
ship. In recent years, however, some states have decided that an
undergraduate major in a
content area, with no work in education, can provide the basis
of a certificate. After gradu-
ation, it is then possible to take an intensive course of study
that typically includes practi-
cal courses in pedagogy coupled with classroom experience.
Such programs differ across
states and between programs. Quite commonly, they require 1 or
2 years of supervised class-
room teaching coupled with summer courses. To learn what
your state requires, go to www.
educationdegree.com/programs/alternative-teacher-certification.
Assess Yourself
1. One thing is certain in this uncertain profession known as
teaching: Change is inevi-
table. How do you handle and respond to change? In what ways
do you see yourself
playing a role in educational reform?

2. What would you do so that teaching could be seen more
widely as a profession? Or
does it matter one way or the other to you?
3. Do you see yourself applying for National Board
Certification? Why or why not?
Teaching Abroad
Although most readers of this text are probably thinking of a
teaching career near home,
there will be others who hope for adventures farther afield.
Finding positions throughout the
world is definitely a possibility, perhaps right from the
beginning, more usually after 2 or 3
years of teaching experience. Generally, there are three types of
teaching experiences avail-
able in other countries: positions on American military bases
that provide schools for depen-
dents, positions with international schools that often have
official or informal attachments
to American embassies and consulates, and opportunities to
teach English, with or without
certification in the subject.
Schools that serve the children of American military personnel
in other countries have …

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