This document advertises an upcoming meeting of the Sociology/Criminology Club and Alpha Kappa Delta and Alpha Phi Sigma honor societies on March 2nd. The meeting will feature a guest speaker from URecovery speaking about addiction. Upcoming events include activities exploring power, history and race in Miami, a CSI event, elections and an induction ceremony. URecovery is described as creating an environment for students in recovery to socialize and be of service to the university while embracing a normal college experience. It maintains that abstinence-based recovery is meaningful and all recovery pathways are welcomed. There are over 150 collegiate recovery programs nationally supported by recovery organizations.

1. Join the Sociology/Criminology Club along with
Alpha Kappa Delta, International Sociology Honor Society &
Alpha Phi Sigma, Criminology Honor Society
When: Thursday, March 2 at 5:00 pm
Where: LC 140
Pizza will be provided! RSVP: 305-284-6762 for
Facebook
Guest Speaker Lissa Franklin
from URecovery
…speaking about her club/program and her experience with
addiction
Upcoming Events & Activities:
3/21 Liberty Square: Power, History, and Race in Miami
3/28 CSI:UMIAMI
Elections
Research, Creativity, Innovation Forum
Study Break
Induction of Honor Society Members
U Recovery: A Collegiate Recovery Community at the
University of Miami, is an organization that creates an
environment in which recovering students can interact socially,
and be of maximum service to the University of Miami.
We provide the much-needed nurturing and affirming
environment for social and psychological change as students
recover from substance use disorders and process addictions,
enabling a student in recovery to embrace a normative

2. collegiate experience, and serve as a catalyst for a culture shift
on campus. We spearhead innovation by encouraging and
promoting recovery research, and we enhance the collegiate
learning experience by increasing retention, graduation, and
academic success for students in recovery. We are of service
through student leadership and active community involvement,
by being a voice for the implementation of a positive social
justice intervention in the University setting and outside
community as a whole. We maintain that the science of
abstinence-based approaches to recovery is meaningful and will
not be discounted, and all pathways to recovery are welcomed.
Finally, we can #recoveroutloud, because of #collegiaterecovery
!
Currently, there are over 150 active Collegiate Recovery
Programs across the United States, supported by the Association
of Recovery in Higher Education, and Transforming Youth
Recovery. For more general information, please visit:
www.collegiaterecovery.org and
www.transformingyouthrecovery.org
Portal Information
Description
U Recovery: A Collegiate Recovery Community at the
University of Miami, is an organization that creates an
environment in which recovering students can interact socially,
and be of maximum service to the University of Miami. We
provide the much-needed nurturing and affirming environment
for social and psychological change as students recover from
substance use disorders and process addictions, enabling a
student in recovery to embrace a normative collegiate
experience, and serve as a catalyst for a culture shift on campus.
We maintain that the science of abstinence-based approaches to
recovery is meaningful and will not be discounted, and all
pathways to recovery are welcomed. Finally, we can
#recoveroutloud, because of #collegiaterecovery !
Currently, there are over 150 active Collegiate Recovery
Programs across the United States, supported by the Association

3. of Recovery in Higher Education, and Transforming Youth
Recovery. For more general information, please
visit: www.collegiaterecovery.org and www.transformingyouthr
ecovery.org
Category
Special Interest
Website
http://www.collegiaterecovery.org
Full Organization Name
U Recovery: A Collegiate Recovery Community at the
University of Miami
Organization Guidelines and Objectives
The objectives of URecovery: A Collegiate Recovery
Community shall be to:
• Provide the much-needed nurturing and affirming environment
for social and psychological change as students recover from
substance use disorders and process addictions, as well as
mental health concerns, by offering weekly recovery seminars
serving as a supportive and anonymous gathering of students in
recovery/supporters of students in recovery.
• Enable a student in recovery to embrace a normative collegiate
experience and enhance the collegiate learning experience by
increasing retention, graduation, and academic success for
students in recovery, through continual support from the
Collegiate Recovery Community.
• Engage members in service through student leadership and
active community involvement by participating in campus wide
service initiatives, hosting community educational workshops,
and outreach to the local Miami community. Serving as a
catalyst for a culture shift on campus by being a voice for the
implementation of a positive social justice intervention in the
University setting and outside community as a whole.
• Spearhead innovation by encouraging and promoting recovery
research, through participation in current National initiatives.
• Maintain that the science of abstinence-based approaches to
recovery is meaningful and will not be discounted.

4. • Seek to provide a supportive environment for those students
who identify as being in recovery from any mental health
concerns, and act as a liaison for all students in support of
recovery, regardless of personal experience.
The Sociology of American Drug Use
Chapter 6:
Demographic Correlates of Drug Use
Part II
2
Age Correlates of Drug Use: Adolescents
Adolescents:
Most illicit drug use reported by high school students is
marijuana (alcohol is highest reported drug)
Use of illicit drugs other than marijuana is more sporadic
Increase in use in 1990s, then decline in 2000s
Greatest concern over 8th grade use
Esp. for those continuing into adulthood and “possible gateway”
effects
Faupel et al states that even rise in 1990s much less than use in
1970s
3

5. Age Correlates of Drug Use: College Students
College years time of heaviest experimental and recreational
drug use
Illicit drug use on college campuses pales in comparison to
alcohol consumption, much of it problematic
4
5
These graphics represent factors in the environment that
perpetuate high-risk and illegal alcohol use.
Ads promote high-risk alcohol use.
Students can easily obtain and use fake IDs.
Ads promote cheap drink specials.
Students socialize and bond over alcohol.
Normative messages equate students with drinking and
drunkenness.
Students have easy access to alcohol.
Age Correlates of Drug Use: College Students

6. College years time of heaviest experimental and recreational
drug use
Illicit drug use on college campuses pales in comparison to
alcohol consumption, much of it problematic
Most studies report between 20 and 25 percent of college
students with drinking problems
Binge drinking
Defined by the number of drinks in a single drinking session
College students who engage in threshold binge drinking are
engaging in “normative behavior”
Secondary binge effect:
Violence against an intimate partner following drinking
About 75% of men and 55% of the women involved in date
rapes had been drinking or using other drugs right before the
attack
6
Age Correlates of Drug Use: Baby Boomers
“Baby boomers”: generation born after World War II (1946 -
1964)
Smoking marijuana in the 1960's and early 1970's was an act of
defiance that involved great risk of heavy sanction by the
criminal justice system
Data from the National Survey on Drug Use and Health revealed
that 47.4% of adults between the ages of 40 and 64 have used
marijuana.
The baby boomers in their sample experienced “phases” of use
ranging from: controlled users to marginal users
Baby boomers are more likely to be involved in meaningful
jobs, family relationships, etc.,
Greater concern over controlling drug use than younger people

7. who are less involved in conventional role obligations
7
Age Correlates of Drug Use: Elderly
Illicit drug use among the elderly is extremely rare
Alcohol and tobacco use common
Use of prescription medications is much more common
The aging process impacts the consequences of drug use for the
elderly
Many unaware of abuse, or take various medications with
synergistic effects
8
Percent of Age Categories Using Drugs in the Last 30 Days
6.3 Percent of Age Categories Using Drugs in Last 30 Days,
2010.
Social Class Correlates of Drug Use
Research on the relationship between social class and drug use
is both limited and ambiguous:
“Serious” illegal drug use has generally been associated with
the “lower class”
Marijuana, hallucinogens, cocaine and some inhalants
associated with the middle class
Not considered “serious” drugs… why not????
Studies showing a positive relationship between income and
drug use are contrary to other studies that find that people on

8. welfare are much more likely to be drug users
10
More important:
understanding of the conditions under which social class
variables affect or are effected by various types of substance
use
Set and setting
under some conditions (e.g., toasting or celebrating) substance
use may actually enhance an individual’s standing
under other conditions (addiction or loss of control) such use
may be highly stigmatizing
The Sociology of American Drug Use
Chapter 6:
Demographic Correlates of Drug Use
1
Demographics
Demographic correlates refer to population categories which
have some relationship to drug use
Drug use is not evenly distributed throughout the population
Used to see if there are certain segments of the population that
are more vulnerable to drug use and abuse than others
Demographic variation in drug use goes beyond type and

9. frequency of drug use
2
Past Month Use of Selected Illicit Drugs among Youths Aged 12
to 17: 2002-2013
National Survey on Drug Use and Health: SAMSA
Results from the 2012
National Survey on Drug Use and Health:
Summary of National Findings
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH AND HUMAN SERVICES
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality
http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2013SummNatFindDetT
ables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2013.htm#fig2.7
3
Past Month Marijuana Use among Youths Aged 12 to 17, by
Gender: 2002-2013
In 2011, the rate of current illicit drug use was higher among
males aged 12 to 17 than females aged 12 to 17 (10.8 vs. 9.3
percent), which represents a change from 2010, when current
illicit drug use did not differ significantly between males and
females (10.4 and 9.8 percent). Males aged 12 to 17 also were
more likely than females to be current marijuana users (9.0 vs.

10. 6.7 percent).
http://archive.samhsa.gov/data/NSDUH/2013SummNatFindDetT
ables/NationalFindings/NSDUHresults2013.htm#fig2.11
4
Sex and Gender Correlates of Drug Use
Sex- “physiological features” of being male of female
Sex correlates of drug use for women:
pregnancy, menstruation, menopause have hormonal impact that
may predispose women to use
Gender - “social dynamics” of being male or female
Gender correlates of drug use and affects due to society's
expectations of men and women
Women – more affected by being unable to maintain their home
or care for their children
society generally looks much more disapprovingly than it does
upon men who are unable to do the same thing
Men - more affected by not being able to hold down a job
Rehabilitated male drug addicts more readily accepted by
society, women seen as “damaged goods”
5
Other sex/gender demographic trends:
Men more likely to use drugs recreationally
Men more likely to turn women on to drugs
Women more dependent upon men to keep them supplied with
drug, to help them prepare the drug, etc.
Women coming from troubled domestic backgrounds more
likely to use drugs
“other-drug-using” women more likely to abuse alcohol, more
readily develop liver dysfunction from alcohol than do men
Women who suffer eating disorders more likely to use and

11. abuse drugs:
alcohol, and marijuana, stimulants, tobacco, laxatives, and other
drugs intentionally used to enhance weight loss
Doctors more willing to prescribe medications to women with
emotional/physical complaints than men, result:
generations of women addicted to prescription drugs
6
Hispanic Drug Use Dynamics:
Three dominant Hispanic populations in the United States are
those from Mexico, Puerto Rico and Cuba
Cultural traits of Hispanic Culture encouraging drug use among
Hispanic males (Moore)
implications for treatment and recovery from drug addiction
MACHISMO: varies from aggressive supermasculine to
responsible adult manliness; directly linked to cultural feature
of alcohol use
Men are expected to drink; men who refuse often have their
sexuality questioned
PERSONALISMO: ability to sustain long-lasting loyalties
between friends and family
CARNALISMO: special "blood brother" bond that ties all
Chicanos (Hispanics of Mexican descent) together
2 & 3 may explain higher rates of gang membership among
Chicano addicts
Racial and Ethnic Correlates of Drug Use

12. 7
Acculturation – (Akens et al)
Substance abuse increases the more highly acculturated…
Acculturation – replacing traditional cultural beliefs with
dominant culture
Acculturation stress leads to increased use and abuse
all substances, including alcohol
8
African-American Drug Use Dynamics:
Ethnic category to which illicit drug use–particularly heroin and
(crack) cocaine use–has been more closely identified
More likely due to official reports than actual incidence
Social class: important factor in African American drug use
Social class significant in determining ‘level’ of substance use
among black men:
poor African-American men more than five times more likely to
use drugs and/or alcohol than poor white men
Relationship (negative) between educational attainment and
drug abuse
9
Native American Drug Use Dynamics:
Native Americans rank higher than any other ethnic minority
with regard to the percentage of their population reporting

13. “heavy” use of alcohol over the past 30 days
American Indian Policy Review Commission identified
disruptive historical circumstances as cause
However, as high as the percentage of alcohol dependence is
compared to other subcultures, still only 7% of population
Also higher rates of cigarettes, marijuana, cocaine, and most
other illicit drug dependence than other ethnic groups
10
Asian-American Drug Use:
Asian-Americans have the lowest prevalence rates of all ethnic
categories reported
except for hallucinogens - differences among ethnic categories
are virtually non-existent
Growing research suggesting genetic predisposition to an
aversion to alcohol
What social issues may be influencing relationship?
Parents disapproval strong factor on lower drug use of Asian
American youth
11
David Sheff’s Website: http://www.davidsheff.com/contact.html
BEAUTIFUL BOY FORUM: TAKE A STAND ON ADDICTION
In addition to a forum for us to share our stories, I’ve initiated
this forum for us to explore the problem of addiction in America

14. and to discuss new ways forward. In the afterword to the
paperback edition of Beautiful Boy, I propose one option: the
declaration of a war on addiction modeled on the war on cancer.
Given the enormity of the suffering, its astounding that we – the
collective we – are doing almost everything wrong in our fight
against addiction. Four thousand Americans have died in five
years in Iraq, whereas more than twenty thousand die each year
of drug overdoses alone, and the number continues to rise. In
many regions of the country, overdoses have or will soon
surpass automobile accidents as the leading cause of non-
natural death. Add the other casualties of drug use -- crime,
accidents, suicide, drug- and alcohol-caused illnesses, lost
productivity -- and you begin to fathom the enormity of the
problem.
After hearing countless stories from people who have been
betrayed by America’s mental-health care system, I began to
explore alternatives. This is a place to discuss them. I’ve
determined that if we tackle addiction for what it is – as a
healthealth crisis -- we could reverse the course we’re on. We
could dramatically lower emergency room visits and decrease
prison populations. We’d eventually free up billions of dollars
to treat other illnesses, dramatically improving health care
across the board. We’d save lives. We’d help families stay
together and repair broken neighborhoods. We’d alleviate
immeasurable suffering.
—David Sheff
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZdiDutNYZ80

15. We All Fall Down
Living with Addiction by Nic Sheff
In his bestselling memoir Tweak, Nic Sheff took readers on an
emotionally gripping roller-coaster ride through his days as a
crystal meth and heroin addict. Now in this powerful follow-up
aut his continued efforts to stay clean, Nic writes candidly
about eye-opening stays at rehab centers, devastating relapses,
and hard-won realizations about what it means to be a young
person living with addiction.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UXDwXkJFu_4
2017 Update…
Hometown: San Francisco, California
Nic Sheff, sober, has written a variety of articles on websites
like Salon and The Fix that aim to give advice and healing to
people who are struggling or know somebody who is struggling
with addiction and other mental health issues.
Books: We Fall Down: Living with Addiction, Schizo: A Novel,
and Tweak: Growing Up on Methamphetamines.
TV: Recovery Road, The Killing, and 13 Reasons Why:
http://www.vanityfair.com/hollywood/2017/04/13-reasons-why-
suicide-controversy-nic-sheff-writer

16. 5
The Sociology of American Drug Use
Chapter 5 Part III:
Theoretical Explanations for Drug Use and Addiction
1
Social Structure – Strain Theory
Based on Durkheim’s Concept of Anomie
1938 Merton modified and expanded Durkheim’s concept of
anomie to explain deviant behavior
Merton’s strain theory was a reaction to trait theories
Deviance is a normal response to conditions that limit the
opportunities for individuals to obtain the economic success for
which we are all supposed to strive
Merton’s Anomie occurs when cultural goals cannot be achieved
using socially acceptable means
Deviance is a function of strain caused by the conflict between
the goals people have and the means they can use to legally
obtain them
Strain is met with adaptations of
Innovation, Retreatism, or Rebellion
2

17. Merton’s Adaptations to StrainMode of
AdaptationAdhere to
Cultural GoalsAdhere to
Legitimate
MeansConformityYesYesRitualismNoYesInnovationYesNoRetre
atismNoNoRebellionSubstitute Substitute
Retreatism - Drug abuse/addiction as an adaptation to strain
where one rejects goals and means for a life of drugs
3
Read 292-293!
Differential Opportunity Theory (Cloward and Ohlin,1960)-
Another of the classical Strain Theories…
Cloward and Ohlin hold that retreatism follows failed attempts
at crime –
Double failure
AdaptationLegitimate OpportunitiesIllegitimate
OpportunitiesGive up the goal of American Dream?Criminal
Subculture NoYes
(property crime)NoConflict SubcultureNoYes
(violence)NoRetreatist Subculture
No
Yes (drug use)Yes
“double failures”
4

18. Critique of Classic Strain Theories
Drug use and other forms of deviance are not limited to lower
classes
Assume value consensus and don’t take into account goals other
than monetary success/middle class status
Do not specify clearly why only some strained individuals turn
to delinquency
Weak empirical support
esp. for traditional measures of classic strain such as the gap
between educational aspirations and expectations)
Do not consider strain other than social class
5
Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Agnew identifies sources of strain that are not class or
economically based, but based at the social-psychological level
Drugs are a way of dealing with all types of strain, such as?
Divorce
Loss of loved one
Loss of job
Poor school performance
Poor work performance, etc…
Agnew also acknowledges that some people may be more
vulnerable to strain than others
Incorporating trait theory!
6
Social Structure – Cultural Deviance Theories
Cultural traditions promote deviance (primarily criminal

19. activity)
Shaw and McKay - Believed deviance to be the result of
‘transitional neighborhoods’ and ‘social disorganization’
Communities are socially disorganized, leading to:
Lack of Informal Social Control
Cultural Transmission of Values
Linked transitional slum areas to the inclination to commit
crime
Transitional neighborhoods are incapable of inducing residents
to defend against criminal groups
Concentric zone mapping identified the inner-city transitional
zones as having the heaviest concentration of crime.
Slum children choose to join gangs when values are in conflict
with existing middle-class norms
Crime rates correspond to neighborhood structure according to
Shaw and McKay
7
The Original Social Disorganization Model
Poverty
Residential Mobility
Ethnic Heterogeneity
Social
Disorganization
Crime
Criminal

20. Subculture
Structural
Characteristics:
Lack of Informal Social Control
Combines the effects of social disorganization and strain to
explain criminality
Lower classes create an independent subculture with its own set
of rules and values
Subcultural norms clash with conventional values
8
Social Structure – Cultural Deviance Theories
O’Donnell – drug subcultures formed after passage of Harrison
Narcotics Act in 1914, criminalizing possession and distribution
of narcotics
brought common set of problems for users…
maintaining access to drugs without getting caught!
Johnson – Marijuana subculture with shared:
Values
Conduct norms
Lifestyle
Rituals
Criminalization actually encourages drug use and illegal
behaviors necessary to obtain drugs
9
Integrated Structural Theory – Winick

21. Combines Cultural Deviance Theory and Strain Theory:
Cultural Deviance:
Increase in access to drugs rooted in subculture of use
Disengagement from normative attitudes on drugs (create new
beliefs and values)
Strain Theory
“Role strain” and “role deprivation”
Felt by anyone with an unmanageable or unstructured lifestyle
10
Social Reaction – Labeling Theory and Drug Use
Social construction of drug use
Deviance has been defined through moral entrepreneurship
Social consequences and implications of this labeling process
(Becker)
Devalued social identity [stigma]
Master Status
Move from primary deviance-> secondary deviance (Lemert)
Routine and systematic drug use by labeled drug user
Seeking out “like others”
Downward spiral…
11

22. Social Reaction – Conflict Theory and Drug Use
Explanations are ‘macro’ level- focused on larger structural
forces than labeling theory accounts for
Suggests that recreational-abusive use is more common in lower
SES, and when found in upper SES, less reaction, less punitive
responses
Elliot Currie (1985, 1993)-
Urban heroin use
Product of economic and political conditions
Drug dependency affects marginalized groups
Lack of opportunity – almost a normal response
Argues that an effective drug policy must ATTACK AND
CHANGE current economic and political conditions
12
The Sociology of American Drug Use
Chapter 5 Part II:
Theoretical Explanations for Drug Use and Addiction
1
Back to Psychological Risk Factors/Traits
“Disease Model”/Addictive Personality
Recently heavily associated with other psychological disorders
Anxiety and Depression
What are some of the policy implications of the various

23. psychological explanations (psychoanalytic, personality, and
behavioral) of drug abuse and addiction?
Can you apply any of the psychological perspectives to David’s
portrayal of his son’s progression to methamphetamine
addiction?
2
Sociological Theories
General sociological theories of drug use and abuse are most
often derived from social theories concerning crime and
delinquency
Social process theories
Social structural theories
Societal reaction theories
All focus on the social environment of the user
3
Sociological Theories of Drug Use and Addiction
Theories assume that no one is ‘born’ to be drug user
Text distinguishes the sociological theories into 3 groups
focusing on the social environment of the user:
Social process theories
Focus on social norms, expectations, forces influence an
individual’s behavior
Theories: Social Learning and Social Control
Social structure theories
Focus on certain segments of society that are more involved in

24. drug use and/or crime than others
Theories: Strain and Cultural Deviance
Societal reaction theories
Focus on social construction of deviance and differential
treatment
Theories: Labeling and Conflict
4
Social Process – Social Learning Theories
Through socialization, individual acquires skills, values,
motives
Sutherland’s Differential Association
Most significant in this process of learning are the values,
beliefs and norms of a person’s closest intimates
Specific direction of motives is learned from definitions of the
deviance as favorable or unfavorable
An excess in definitions favorable to deviance over unfavorable
results in deviance
Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority,
and intensity
5
Ronald Akers (1969)-- Differential Reinforcement
Builds on operant conditioning, but Akers claims more
important to understand the nature of reinforcements provided
by others
drug-using behavior is reinforced socially more than
physiologically
depends on the differential associations that one has
If associating primarily and intensely with drug-using friends,

25. drug using behavior will be highly reinforced
If one's friends are primarily non-drug users, drug use will not
be reinforced
Akers' theory represents a combining of operant conditioning
theory with Sutherland's differential association theory
Learning to Use and Anticipate Reactions to Drugs
Becker (1963, 1967) on learning to enjoy marijuana, Faupel
(1991), becoming a heroin user
6
Social Process – Social Control Theory:
Hirschi
Reverses question to be asked about all forms of deviance
Does NOT ask WHY PEOPLE ARE DEVIANT, instead, social
control theory asks: WHY DO PEOPLE CONFORM?
What holds people back from using drugs?
Hirschi’s answer:
SOCIAL CONTROL
- in the extent to which people develop a bond to society
One will be less likely to risk loss of job, status, reputation,
friends and family, and thus avoid deviance and conform
The more society is able to foster greater social bonds and a
greater stake in conformity, the less deviance there will be
7
Elements of the Bond
Attachment: an individual’s relationship to others
if one does not care about the expectations of others he or she is
free to deviate
Commitment: Investment of time, energy, self

26. Risking the loss of such investments by deviance and facing
punishments would prevent one from engaging in deviance
Involvement: Involvement in conventional activities
Limits time, energy and opportunity to engage in deviant
activity; “idle hands are the devil’s workshop”
Belief: set of values
assumes existence of a common value system within a society or
group
the greater a person’s acceptance of the moral authority for a set
of norms, the less likely they are to violate them
8
Integrated Perspective: Social Control & Learning
Subcultural Recruitment and Socialization
Goode and Johnson: Combine social control and social learning
theories to address characteristics of drug users
Social control theory:
Nonusers’ peer associations and networks have conventional
values, more control, less freedom to engage in deviant
behavior
VS.
Drug users’ associations - common world view and lifestyle –
LESS SOCIAL CONTROL
Less religious, sexually permissive, politically liberal, less
control, freedom to engage in deviant behavior
Learning theory:
Socialization occurs once an individual is recruited into a drug-
using network of “associates”
9

27. The Sociology of American Drug Use
Chapter 5 Part I:
Theoretical Explanations for Drug Use and Addiction
1
Theoretical Explanations
Set of tools to understand the purpose and significance of social
behavior
Theory allows researchers to analyze relationships using the
scientific method
Various theories, all useful in explaining behavior
Some better suited to explain initiation, patterns of use (and
non-use), or addiction
Core theoretical explanations for drug use and addiction in text:
Nature theories
Biological theories
Psychological theories
Sociological theories
2
Theories of drug use/abuse rooted ‘within the individual’
Nature Theories
Trait Theories
Biological Theories
Psychological Theories
Theories of drug use/abuse rooted ‘beyond the individual’
Sociological

28. 3
Nature Theories
Drug use/addiction - an intrinsic character of human nature
“universal human characteristics”
an expression of the universal drive to achieve altered states of
consciousness
Andrew Weil physician/proponent of alternative medicine
Desire to alter consciousness is innate and “analogous to hunger
or the sexual drive”
“…Every known culture has indigenously grown intoxicants and
established rituals for usage”
“Must not assume it is bad”
….rather, should try to minimize risk in using
4
Biological Theories
Addiction stems from particular biological predispositions
Early biological theories viewed addiction in terms of ‘disease,’
and believed that it was ‘communicable’
Modern biological explanations focus on biological
predisposing factors that can be broadly classified as either
neurochemical or genetic in nature

29. 5
Neurochemical Explanations
Neurochemical explanations vary with the type of drug in
question and identifies neurotransmission as the biological
source of addiction
6
Biogenetic Explanations
Text describes four types of epidemiological studies assessing
genetic linkage to alcohol: animals, family pattern, twins, and
adoptees
Studies on animals (mostly rats) have shown that it is possible
to breed strains that have a preference for alcohol over water
Family pattern studies- documented the relationship between
familial linkage and alcoholism (but nature vs nurture?)
genetic vulnerability (not inevitability)
Twin studies- work to separate genetic
influences from environmental ones
Adoption studies- strongest evidence for a genetic link to
alcoholism – rate of metabolism – still more to the picture?
7
VULNERABILITY to What?

30. Starting Drug Use?
Liking Drugs More?
Continuing Drug Use?
Becoming Addicted?
Specific to A Particular Drug?
8
Psychological Theories
Psychological theories, as with biological, focus on the
individual user
Concerned with the nature and quality of individual experiences
which might make one susceptible to drug use, abuse, or
addiction
Focus on characteristics of the individual which somehow
differentiate him or her from non-users
Three broad types of psychological explanations:
psychoanalytic, personality, and behavioral theories
9
Psychoanalytic Explanations
Based on work of Sigmund Freud

31. Link cause of drug abuse or addiction to abnormal personality
development or adjustment
Drug abuse and addiction is viewed as a sickness or pathology,
resulting from this unhealthy development
often traced to childhood trauma
Abusing drugs is a way to deal with pathological experiences
Psychoanalysts attempt to help clients work through traumas to
alleviate need for drugs
10
Personality Theories
Belief that drug abusers have unique personalities
Early studies: addicts have psychopathic or sociopathic
personalities (anti-social personality disorders)
DSM IV Manual Devotes almost 100 pages to describing
addiction and dependence disorders
“Addictive personality” includes:
Sensation seeking
The seeking of novel experiences and sensations
Impulsivity
An inability to delay gratification
Decision-making without consideration of potential negative
consequences
Low self esteem
Little evidence of a conclusive “addictive personality”
11
Behavioral Theories
Founded in Pavlov’s dog’s conditioned responses

32. Operant conditioning-
individuals likely to engage in behaviors that are positively
rewarded and avoid those that produce negative consequences
12
Behavioral Theories
McAuliffe: reinforcing effects of opiates
Euphoria, cessation of withdrawal effects, analgesic
Crowley research
Distinguished between primary and secondary reinforcement
Primary – directly pleasurable
Secondary – pleasurable because of associations
Association of smoking dried banana peels in drug within
subculture
Lindesmith:
Cognitive-behavioral sociologist - addiction not caused by
euphoric effects of drugs (not all experiencing euphoria become
addicted!
Addicts who do not link the physical distress of withdrawal
with the drug do not become addicted…
Cognitive recognition is necessary to become an addict
Behavioral theories are similar to some of the sociological
theories
13
What are some of the policy implications of the various
psychological explanations of drug abuse and addiction?
Can you apply any of the psychological theories to David’s

33. portrayal of his son’s progression to methamphetamine
addiction?
psychoanalytic, personality, and behavioral?
14
Sociological Theories
General sociological theories of drug use and abuse are most
often derived from social theories concerning crime and
delinquency
Social process theories
Social structural theories
Societal reaction theories
All focus on the social environment of the user
15
Sociological Theories of Drug Use and Addiction
Theories assume that no one is ‘born’ to be drug user
Text distinguishes the sociological theories into 3 groups
focusing on the social environment of the user:
Social process theories
Focus on social norms, expectations, forces influence an
individual’s behavior
Theories: Social Learning and Social Control
Social structure theories
Focus on certain segments of society that are more involved in
drug use and/or crime than others
Theories: Strain and Cultural Deviance
Societal reaction theories

34. Focus on social construction of deviance and differential
treatment
Theories: Labeling and Conflict
16
Social Process – Social Learning Theories
Through socialization, individual acquires skills, values,
motives
Sutherland’s Differential Association
Most significant in this process of learning are the values,
beliefs and norms of a person’s closest intimates
Specific direction of motives is learned from definitions of the
deviance as favorable or unfavorable
An excess in definitions favorable to deviance over unfavorable
results in deviance
Differential associations vary in frequency, duration, priority,
and intensity
17
Ronald Akers (1969)-- Differential Reinforcement
Builds on operant conditioning, but Akers claims more
important to understand the nature of reinforcements provided
by others
drug-using behavior is reinforced socially more than
physiologically
depends on the differential associations that one has
If associating primarily and intensely with drug-using friends,
drug using behavior will be highly reinforced.
If one's friends are primarily non-drug users, drug use will not
be reinforced.

35. Akers' theory represents a combining of operant conditioning
theory with Sutherland's differential association theory.
Learning to Use and Anticipate Reactions to Drugs
Becker (1963, 1967) on learning to enjoy marijuana, Faupel
(1991), becoming a heroin user
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Social Process – Social Control Theory:
Hirschi
Reverses question to be asked about all forms of deviance
Does NOT ask WHY PEOPLE ARE DEVIANT, instead, social
control theory asks: WHY DO PEOPLE CONFORM?
What holds people back from using drugs?
Hirschi’s answer:
SOCIAL CONTROL
- in the extent to which people develop a bond to society
One will be less likely to risk loss of job, status, reputation,
friends and family, and thus avoid deviance and conform
The more society is able to foster greater social bonds and a
greater stake in conformity, the less deviance there will be
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Elements of the Bond
Attachment: an individual’s relationship to others
if one does not care about the expectations of others he or she is
free to deviate
Commitment: Investment of time, energy, self
Risking the loss of such investments by deviance and facing
punishments would prevent one from engaging in deviance
Involvement: Involvement in conventional activities

36. Limits time, energy and opportunity to engage in deviant
activity; “idle hands are the devil’s workshop”
Belief: set of values
assumes existence of a common value system within a society or
group
the greater a person’s acceptance of the moral authority for a set
of norms, the less likely they are to violate them
20
Integrated Perspective: Social Control & Learning
Subcultural Recruitment and Socialization
Goode and Johnson: Combine social control and social learning
theories to address characteristics of drug users
Social control theory:
Nonusers’ peer associations and networks have conventional
values, more control, less freedom to engage in deviant
behavior
VS.
Drug users’ associations - common world view and lifestyle –
LESS SOCIAL CONTROL
Less religious, sexually permissive, politically liberal, less
control, freedom to engage in deviant behavior
Learning theory:
Socialization occurs once an individual is recruited into a drug-
using network of “associates”
21
Social Structure – Strain Theory
Merton (1938) Socially defined goals vs. institutionalized
means

37. Strain results in deviance
argued drug user- retreatist [heroin and alcohol]
Differential opportunity theory (Cloward and Ohlin,1960)-
retreatism follows failed attempts at crime – double failure
Empirical evidence does not strongly support theory –
Doesn’t apply to addicts supporting habit with crime
Early Strain Theories Elitist…
Merton refers to strain as due to not being able to achieve
goals through socially acceptable means retreat into drug use,
like an escape…
Is failure to achieve defined goals due to lack of resources the
only source of strain?
22
Agnew’s General Strain Theory
Agnew identifies sources of strain that are not class or
economically based, but based at the social-psychological level
Drugs are a way of dealing with all types of strain, such as?
Divorce
Loss of loved one
Loss of job
Poor school performance
Poor work performance, etc…
Agnew also acknowledges that some people may be more
vulnerable to strain than others
Incorporating trait theory!
23
Social Structure – Cultural Deviance Theories
Cultural traditions may promote criminal activity

38. Shaw and McKay - Believed delinquency to be the result of
‘transitional neighborhoods’
O’Donnell – drug subcultures formed after passage of Harrison
Narcotics Act in 1914, criminalizing possession and distribution
of narcotics
brought common set of problems for users…
maintaining access to drugs without getting caught!
Johnson – Marijuana subculture with shared:
Values
Conduct norms
Lifestyle
Rituals
Criminalization actually encourages drug use and illegal
behaviors necessary to obtain drugs
24
Social Reaction – Labeling Theory and Drug Use
Social construction of drug use
Deviance has been defined through moral entrepreneurship
Social consequences and implications of this labeling process
(Becker)
Devalued social identity [stigma]
Master Status
Move from primary deviance-> secondary deviance
Routine and systematic drug use by labeled drug user

39. 25
Social Reaction – Conflict Theory and Drug Use
Explanations are ‘macro’ level- focused on larger structural
forces than labeling theory accounts for
Suggests that recreational-abusive use is more common in lower
SES, and when found in upper SES, less reaction, less punitive
responses
Elliot Currie (1985, 1993)-
Urban heroin use
Product of economic and political conditions
Drug dependency affects marginalized groups
Lack of opportunity – almost a normal response
Argues that an effective drug policy must ATTACK AND
CHANGE current economic and political conditions
26