This is islam

1. • t Mb ZU
^Tiis v7s ^/slnm
From Muhammad and the Community ol Believers
to Islam in the Global Community

2. £pntents
Publisher’s Note .......................................................................... xi
Teachers’ Preface ........................................................................ xvii
What Is Islam? ............................................................................. 1
Arabs and Arabia before Islam ............................................. 5
Muhammad and the Emergence of Islam ......................... 9
Islamic Texts ................................................................................ 19
Islamic Sects ................................................................................ 29
Philosophy and Theology ........................................................ 53
Teachings....................................................................................... 63
The Mosque and Prayer ........................................................... 79
Islamic Rites................................................................................. 85
Islamic Law ................................................................................... 99
Challenges of the Modern Era............................................... 107
Resources ....................................................................................... 113
Index ................................................................................................ 117
About the Author ........................................................................ 125
ix

3. Distribution of Muslim Population by Country
Only amntries with more than 1 milliun Muslims are shoum
United
States
Unlied
Mrgo::ni
Germany
F,,n“
«mm
«aMa TurMy
Pew ResearchCenter sForumon Refcgion & Public Ute • Mapping theGlobalMu$*mPopulation.

4. and Territory
Rusua
Phil.pp-n«
Ttrttir, j
MMwi
Mcjambique 150 million
Musltfns
75
10

5. World Distribution of Muslim Population
77hs iveighted'map ofthe worldshows euch country’s relativesixe based on its
Muslimpopulation. Figuresare roundedtothe nearest million.
1 SouthAIicjI Mm>i2
Ppw Pr-.oarch C<*itnrs Forumon Ralrjion & Publc life • MaccV We GG0a< MusfimRjpuWxxt. Octoöw 2009

6. Worid
Population
6.8 blllion
Muslim
Population
1.57 blllion

7. ^enchers'
/Jrefnce
napost-Septembcr 11 culturaldimate. misconceptionsoftheIslamic
faith run rampant and are perpctuatcd through the mcdia, parcnts,
and even Community leaders. "Why are Muslims associated with
tcrrorism?" has bccomc one ofthc most common qucstions myhigh school stu­
dents ask. Since today's high school students had onlyjust entercd school whcn
thc Worid Tradc Center attacks took place in 2001. we cannot blame them for
their misconceptions—especially given that in 2010 plans tobuild a mosque and
Islamic center two blocks from ground zero sparked such intense anti-Muslim
Sentiments that the international human rights lawycr Arsalan Iftikhar,writing
for CNN online, wrotc about "a new wave ofIslamaphobia." Without doubt,
teaching about Islam can be adifficult task, but itmustbc donc ifwc are to cre-
ate a twentv-first-century culture oftolcrance and understanding.
More than ever, we are facing a precarious task as educators. Our global
economy has created new torms ofinstant communication and the opportunity
to expcricncc other cultures through interactivc mcdia. Our teaching model
is no longer limited to text, and it is evolving as we gain access to a myriad of
educational resources available through thc Internet. Likewise, our students
haue mastered these new technologies and are often at the merev of thc Con­
stant stream ofInformation. Students are sophisticated Consumers oftechnol-
ogy and no longer develop their bcliefs through the influence oftheir parcnts
and community.
Teaching Islam must be approachcd through several angles. First, it is
imperative to teach it through a historical lens and avoid cultural bias. You will
find that Ibis Is Islam: From Muhammadandthe CommunityofBeliefern to Islam
intheGlobalCommunityöftersa thorough and well-written aceountofthe history
ofIslam. EncourageyourstudentstomakeConnectionsbetween Muhammad and
other religious prophets while considcring the difficulties such a revolutionary
xvii

8. xviii Tf.achers’Preface
would facc within their Community and bcyond. Primary-sourcc sidebars, in-
dudingexcerpts from the Quran, allow students to answer theirown questions
through rescarch and analysis. Ofsimilar intcrcst is the compelling history of
hadith and the process by which this acceptcd canon ot Muhammad's sayings
and teachings was devclopcd. Students in world religions courses might benefit
from acomparison ofhadith and the process bywhich different books were re-
jected or assimilatcd into the Christian NewTestament. Both demonstratc the
extent to which religious leaders shape the course ofa religion into its modern
counterpart. The PillarsofFaith and the Piliars ofPractice form the foundation
through which non-Muslims can truly widerstand the reason behind Islamic
beliefs and practiccs. Misconceptions are often tueled bv ignorance; therefore,
students should be encouragcd todevelop anduse theirfoundational knowlcdge
ofIslamic history to approach the religions modern beliefs and practices.
As teachers of Islam, we cannot deny the impact of the faith on our stu­
dents and their perceptions of Islamic culture. As one of the fastest-growing
religions in the Unitcd States, Islam cannot be stereotyped as a solelv Middle
Eastern religion; rather, it is a religion with worldwidc cultural and educational
significancc.
When teaching Islam, we must not avoid discussing stereotypes or
misconceptions,but ratherembrace the opportunity for open dialogue. It might
be useful at the beginning ofan Islam unit to ask your students to write down
any questions they might have about the faith. Ulis provides a secure way for
students to ask questions that they would not normally ask in front ofa class.
Ibis also gives you, as the educator, the ability to shape your Curriculum to fit
the needs ofyour students. Iwo topics that most intcrcst students, jihad and
women's legal rights, are well addressed within this book. The section onjihad.
in particular, will prcparc you for the inevitable questions about the Connection
of terrorism to Islam. Througliout the book thcre are infonnational sidebars,
questions for debate, and provocativc "thought experiments,” all ofwhich you
can use to enrich discussion and critical thinkingwithin your classroom. “Top-
ics for Fürther Study" refer to rclated articles in the Berlsbirt Encytloprdia of
IVorUHistory. 2ndEdition (2010). Oncc vour class's study ofIslam is complete,
you might askyour students to examine their previous notions about Islam and
discuss ways in which theycan avoid cultural and religious stereotypes. Finallv,
the resources in the back of the book providc furthcr rcadings and Websites to
explore as you develop your Curriculum.

9. Teachers'Preface xix
When 1 first began teachingIslam. 1 strugglcd to findan unbiascd text tliat
comprehensively covered both lslarfiic historyand the beliefSystem. IbishIslam
bridgcs the gap bctwccn a textbook account and a modern rcligions handbook
by approaching the topic in a scholarlv. yet approachable männer. Whetheryou
are a first-year teachcrora Veteran, I am confidcnt rhat thisbookwill be an asset
to yourstudents' study ofthe fascinating and complex religion Islam.
Katherine L. Saffle
Heritage llall UpperSchoo!

10. ^T)is
From Muhammad and the Community of Believers
to Islam in the Global Community

11. is
slam is a rcligion of approximatcly one and a half billion people
(about a quarter ofthe world’s population). The people who profcss
the rcligion of Islam arc called "Muslims" (sometimcs written as
"Moslems") and are found on all continents, with the largest conccntrations
in Asia and Africa, and to a lesser dcgrec in Europc. Smallcr populations are
found in North and South America, where substantial numbers of Muslims
wcrc brought as slaves; later, the numbcr ofMuslims in the Americas incrcased
through conversion and Immigration.
"Islam" is an Arabic word mcaning “Submission." This term rcfers to the
surrender ofthe believing Muslim to the will ofGod, who is secn by Muslims
as all powerful and all knowing. Most Muslims bclieve that there is one God.
who is the ercator and ultimate force in the universe. All things that exist do
so according to a plan designed by God and follow his laws, which conform to
the laws ofnature. The only things that arc capablc ofdisobeving these laws are
human beings, and even they do so by God’s own design. They arc given the
free will cithcr to disobeyor surrender voluntarily (i.e., to enter a state ofIslam)
to God’s plan, thereby attaining salvation.
Birth of Islam
Islams historical origins lie in the life ofa man named Muhammad, who was
born in Mecca (in modern-day Saudi Arabia) in cithcr 570 or 572 cf. and who
died in the nearby citv of Medina in 632. Islams historical birth as a rcligion
occurred in theearly pari ofthe seventh Century-ce in Mecca. Manydevout Mus­
limswould argue that, in actual fact, Islam has alwavscxisted since the rcligion
represents God’s laws for the Operation ofhis universe. and that the historical
Islam that started on the Arabian Peninsula is onlythe final, definitive form of
Islam laid out for human understanding. This viewpoint illustrates the Muslim
1

12. 2 ThisIs Islam
JTbought £xperimen«
Whatyou thinkofthe Word'Islam." whatcomesto mind? What factors—
suchHs family, politics, world events, andreligio»—have shaped youropin-
How do you think education, through reading a book such as 7Jm Ti
blam, will help you and others rethink commonly hcld views ofIslam?
belief in the eternal narure and validity of the religion and is not intcnded to
contradict the historical origins ofthe religion.
Arabia in the Seventh Century CE
In Muhammad's time, Arabia was materiallyand culturallypoorcomparedwith
thelarge andwealthycmpircs that surrounded it. To the north were the Byzantine
Empire in Eurasia and the Sasanid dynasty in Persia, and to the south was the
wealthy and vibrant Abyssinia (modern-day Ethiopia). Arabia itselfwas divided
geographicallybetween the main Arabian plateau and a region called South Ara­
bia (present-day Yemen), which had once been the seat ofa thriving agricultural
society but had fallen on poorer times. The Arabian plateau,where Muhammad
was from, was an arid place, and the majority ofpeople lived aspastoral nomads,
accompanying their herds ofcamels, sheep, and goats from one place to another
in search ofgood pasture. Arabia’s few cities were located on oases that provided
theonlyrcliablesourceofwater for agriculture. Some,such as Mecca, wereCenters
oftrade for the people ofArabia and those from surrounding lands.
^7opieo for ^Curthcr ^tudy
Islamic World
Modemity
Religion—Overview
Camels
Modern Islam
Islam continues to be the majority religion in countries as diverse as Morocco
in the west and lndoncsia in the east, and from Senegal in the south to Bosnia
in the north. Each Country has regional
expressions of Islamic practice that dif-
fer in some particulars, the most apparent
being the way people dress and their cus-
toms surrounding such life events as birth
and marriagc. Thus, Bosnian Muslims live
their lives in ways that have more in com-

13. What Is Isi.am? 3
Twochildren pray on prayerrüg» at hon*. 1‘hoio bv Jane Sawyer(morguefile.com>.
^Juick /ncts: OTJuslims in ^mericn
86 pcrccnt say they cclcbrate thc
Fourthotjuly, and64 percent say
«r 2006, the Council on
Amcrican-Islamic Rclations
surveyed voter-agc American theyfly the U.S. flag.
Muslims on their bclicfs and prac- A '*"*
ticcs. Thc survey uncovcrf
fbllowing:
Jews.
' 62 pcrccnt of Muslims in thc ' 77pcrccnt said Muslims worship
United States have at least a the same God that Christians
bachelor’s degrec. andJews do.
' 84 percent said Muslims
ed the should strongly emphasize
shared values with Christians and

14. mon with their Christian neighbors than with thc Muslims ot Uzbckistan or
Pakistan, and the Muslims of lndoncsia havc incorporated many elements of
Ilindu mythology into their rcligious lives.
In othcr places, local customs distinguish Muslims from their non-Muslim
neighbors. For cxample, Indian Muslims cat particular foods and do not usc
certain colors and flowers in their weddings in Order to maintain their differ­
entes from the Hindu majority.
In spite oftheir differentes from one patt ofthe world to anothcr, however,
Muslims retain a remarkable similarity in their rituals, a fact that is reinforced
by thc almost universal use of Arabic as thc languagc of prayer and liturgy.
Furthermore, even though Muslims’ sense of nationalism and patriotism is as
highlv developcd as anyone else’s, many ofthem retain the sense that thev all
belong to one community. callcd the ummab. For this reason. Muslim citizens
ofa particular community or country will greet fellow Muslims from distant,
unrclated societieswith awarmth andsense ofkinship that is rare in most other
religious communitics.
^/’hcrc ^>o MJost Wjuslims ^£ive?
cA« <njus,ims c’zlrn*,s’
uslimscan bc found invir-
tually all countrics, wirh
most Muslims living outside the
Middle East. Whilc statistics vary,
thc world’s largest Muslim popula-
tion is found in lndoncsia, tollowcd
by thc Indian subcontinent. Only
about 20 pcrccnt ofMuslims arc oi
Arab desccnt. Significant Muslim
populations can bc foundin Central
Asia, castern Europe. and northern
Africa. Tbc Muslim population in
the West has also incrcased sig-
nificantlv sincc thc late twentieth
Century duc to relaxed strictures
on immigration and convcrsion (in
particular, thc rapid spread of Islam
among African Americans).

15. c^rabs and «-^rabia
before v7slom
he ArabsofMuhammads time lived in tribes thatwere largesocial
f groups held together bvasharedancestry. Tribeswerecomposed of
a number ofclans madc up of severa! extendcd families. A familv
elderwouldbe recognizedas the leaderofthe clan, and theclan leaders together
constituted the rulingcouncilofa tribe. Tribal councils tried tooperatc through
negotiation andConsensus building, although powcrfulclans nodoubt had much
greater influence ovcrtribal aflairs than didweakerones. The majorityoftribes in
Arabiawere bothpatriarchal and patrilineal, meaningthatnotonlydid political
and economicpowerrcside primarilvwithmen, butthatchildren were regarded
as the descendants oftheirfather, but not oftheir mother. There appcar to have
been some tribes in which lineage was passed down through the mother, and
even in verypatriarchal tribes it was notuncotnmon fbrwomen tohold property.
A good cxamplc isMuhammads firstwißt, Khadijah.whowas awealthv widow
before her marriage to Muhammad and was actively engaged in trade.
Socioeconomic Structure before Islam
Arabia had no central govermnent or state, but existed in balance between
tribes and the mercantilc and agrarian citics. These citics had a elose, sym-
biotic rclationship with the nomads, who sometimes belonged to the same
tribes that the town dwellers did, or eise to allicd tribes that came to the city
to buy goods and attend rcligious and seasonal festivals. In return for access
to the cities' markets and for employment on the trade Caravans, the nomadic
tribes acted as guides, provided camels, and agreed not to attack the cities
or Caravans on their way to or front them. Mercantilc citics were hcavilv
dependent upon the east-west trade between the Indian Ocean and the
5

16. 6 This Is Islam
This prc-lslamic coin dcpict* the
Abyssinian king Aphidas on one side and
the last Jewiah king ofYcmcn, Yusuf
I )hü Nuwiwn, on the othcr. Source: D. S
Margohouth. (1905) anJtbeRt^eet
blam. London: G. P Putnams Son*.
Mcditerrancan Sea, and on the
north-south trade between Africa
and the Byzantine Empire (c. fourth-
fifteenth centuries ce) and Sasanid
dynasty (224/228-651 ce). Arabia
is located at the crossroads of many
of the trade routes ofthat time, and
goods were brought by ship to Ara­
bian ports, where they were loaded
ontocamel Caravans to be transported
across the desert to distant markets.
Arabian Religion before Islam
Vcry little is known about the religious Situation in Arabia at the time of Mu­
hammads birth. Hie surrounding empires had large Christian populations,
Abyssinia and the Byzantine Empire both being Christian kingdoms. Sasanid
Persia was officially Zoroastrian (a religion that sees a balance between the forces
ofgood and evil, as distinct from Islam, Christianity, and Judaism, which arc
primarilyorganized around the recognition ofone god who isviewed as entirely
good). Even so. Persia had a large Christian population. In addition, all the em­
pires had substantialJcwish populations.
Hiere were someChristianswithin Arabia, buttheirnumbers appear to have
been quitc small and, forthe most part, they were individual bclievers. notentire
clansortribes who regarded thcmselvcs asChristian. Nochurch wasbasedwithin
Arabia. The numberofArabianJewsappears to havebeen niuch larger. there were
entirelyJewish tribes, some ofwhich seem tohave moved to Arabia from Palestine
followingthedestruction ofthe tcmple atJerusalem at the handsofthe Romans at
the end ofthefirst Centuryce. 1talsoseems probable that therewere aneven larger
numberofpeople who, though notformallvJews, identifiedthemselvesas Israel-
itesandwere familiär with the storiesofthe _____________________________
Hebrew prophets.
The majority ofArabs did not belong
to any formal religion but belicvcd in a
combination ofsupernatural forces, some
ofwhich they identified as spirits and oth-
ers asgods. The spirits were belicvcd to in-
Topir» for _Xurther Jstudy
Bands,Tribes. Chiefdoms, and
States
Byzantine Empire
Caravan

17. Arabs and Arabia beeore Islam 7
habitnatural objects,such as rocks and
trecs, and to havc inäuence ovcr hu­
man livcs.Hiegodswereoffen identi-
ficd with natural phenomena such as
thesun, moon, and rain. Ofthe many
pre-Islamicgods, the moon god, also
the guidc of travelers, was viewed
bv many Arabs as the ancestor and
leader ofthe others, just as Zeus was
viewed by the ancient Greeks as thc
ancestor and chiefoftheir gods. Diis
did not mean that this god, named
Allah (litcrallv meaning “the God"),
was the one most offen worshipped;
many other deities, most notably
thc goddesses al-I,at, al-’Uzza, and
Manät, were at thc center ofpopulär
rcligious cults.
The pre-Islamic Arabs did not
havc adctailcd moral and ethical codc
ofthe kind that was dcvclopcd in Is­
lamic, Christian,andJewish theology,
nor did they commonlv bclicvc in lifc
afterdeath. Instcad, theywere governed by ndes ofhonor, couragc, and hospital-
ity. In the absence ofa beliefin thc afterlife, thc onlyway to attain immortality
was in thc memory oftheir tribe. People attempted to live hcroic livcs through
extravagant acts ofvalor and generositythat tribal poets then rendered intoVerse.
Poctry served as the primary form ofliterature in pre-Islamic Arabia, and poets
were revered notonlyas artists butas tribal historians, because they recorded thc
stories ofthe ancestors. Diese Arabswereawed bythcpowcrofpoctryandpoets.
and theyviewedpoets assupcrnaturallypossesscd people tobeboth respcctcdand
feared. A major event at most fcstivals ofthat time was a compctition between
poets ofvarious tribes who would sing ödes to the virtues and strengths oftheit
own tribes and ancestors atthccost oftheircompctitors. As such, these competi-
tions served a role similar to that ofathletic competition in modern times.
In addition to poets, two other figurcs carricd great respect in pre-Islamic
Arab society. Die first was the soothsayer, who would foretcll thc futurc and

18. 8 This Is Islam
yribal and Clan J'nteractions______________
he complcx naturc of tribal
and clan intcractions bascd
on "honor, courage, and hospitality"
tormcd thc backbonc ofpre-Islamic
Atabian society.Oncsuch tradition,
thc gaozu raid, functioned as a way
to redistributc wcalth amongdiffer­
ent tribes and clans. An important
pari ofthis raiding tradition was its
emphasis on not killing members of
the othcr tribe—taking booty was
aeceptablc.butadeath could poten-
tially rcsult in a blood feud and war.
Ulis tradition ofraiding thosc morc
fortunate and then distributing the
booty among one’s own tribe has
been identified as a possible rcligious
justification for the modern Somali
pirates’actions in thcIndianOccan.
Uiese modern raidersarc cquallyfo-
cused on booty (in thc form ofran-
soms) and trying not to kill their
hostages. They sec thcmselves as
heroes, though the money usually
does not make it back to theirclans.
Suppose this thcory is correct, and
the pirates see thcmselves as carry-
ing on a time-honored and cultur-
ally acccptable method of raiding.
How might theirview make it more
difficult for othcr societics to fight
them?
attempt to solve problcms as diverse as those ofinfertility and finding lost ani-
mals. Thc other was thejudge, whoscjob it was to intercede in conflicts within
atribe and. morc importantly, between tribes, as a wayofavoidingviolcncc. All
thcsc offiecs are significant to thc studyofIslam,because during Muhammads
prophetic carcer, he displayed qualities ofall thrce such that his critics often
labelcd him as a poet or soothsayer in order to dismiss his rcligious Claims.

19. ^yijuhnmmod and the
£mergence of ^/slam
/ BTb uhammad was born into the seventh century-ct Ar.il>
K f ■ environment. His family belongcd to the clan ofHäshim in
the tribc ofQuraysh, meaning "little shark." Tic Quraysh
was an important merchant tribc with great influcnce in Mecca and the sur-
rounding area. Tie Hashim clan. though not the most powertul in the tribc,
was considercd respectable. Meccawas home to a majorshrinc, callcd the Ka'ba,
which was one ofthe few religious sites revered by people from all over Arabia.
Tie Hashim clan was the Custodian ofthis shrinc.Thissuggests that the 1 läshim
had a high degree ofreligious Status within the tribc.
Muhammad's father, Abdallah, died shortlv betöre Muhammad was born,
and his paternalgrandfather, Abd al-Muttalib, assumed hisguardianship. When
he was born, his mother. Amina, named him Ahmad, while his grandfather
named him Muhammad. Tie latter name became more common although he
is sometimes referred to as Ahmad even to this day.
Muhammads Early Life
Little is known about Muhammad's childhood since, like other major religious
figures, his life was not considered worthyofstudy and recording unti! after he
became a famous prophet. The few things that we can consider to bc factually
true about his childhood havc bcen cmbcllishcd by pious biographers who in-
serted realor imaginedevents into hischildhood in Order toshow that Muham­
mad was markcd forgreatness from the time ofhis birth. We can be reasonably
sure that, in the custom amongthe Meccans ofhisday, as avcryyoungchild Mu­
hammad was sent to thedeserttolive with a nomadic tribc.Tiiscustoin probably
derived from the desirc togetchildren out ofthe unhygicnic environmentofthe
city, as well as from the beliefthat the nomads led a culturally “purer" (or more
9

20. 10 Tins Is Islam
guick ,/acw.- 7~he ^tory of ehe JO ba
*^»!ic Ka'ba is a cubelike struc-
J ture locatcd in the Center of
Masjid al-Haram, also known as
the Holy Mosque or Holy House,
in the pilgrimage city of Mecca.
It is thought that Abraham, the
founding prophet ofJudaism, built
the Ka’ba with his son lshmael as
a lasting monument to Allah. It
contains the Black Stone, an object
ofveneration, which many believe
feil from the heavens. In the twen-
ty-first Century, during the annual
hajj, or pilgrimage season, Mus­
lims travel from all over the world
to perform rituals as asign ofdevo-
tion or worship. Participants near
to the Black Stone will offen kiss it.
as Muhammad is thought to have
done.
authentic) Arab life. Muhammad was given over to a fester family with whom
he lived as a shepherd and for whom he retained a great deal of affcction in later
life, particularly for his fester mother, Halima. Accordingtoone populär legend,
while Muhammad washerdingsheep one day, hewasvisitedbytwo angels, who
laid him down and opened his ehest. They then took out his heart and washed
it in a golden basin filled with snow befere replacing it and closing him up. Tic
full implications ofthis storyare not clear, although it probably symbolizes the
removal ofall existing sin from his body. Tiere is no doubt that Muslims see in
this Story evidence ofMuhammads destiny to be a great prophet.
This Visitation caused Muhammad's fester family to fear for his safety, and
thev decided to return him to his mother befere something bad happened to
him. Shortlv after his return to Mecca. both Muhammad's mother and grand-
father died, and his patcrnal uncle. Abu Talib, assumed his guardianship. Abu
Tälih was a merchant who frequentlv traveled throughout Arabia. Muhammad
accompanied his uncle on diese journevs, probably including one journey to
Syria. In the process, he learned the merchant's trade and encountercd a wide
variety ofpeople, cspcciallv Christians ofdifferent sects.
Muhammads Marriage to Khadijah
Upon reaching adultliood, Muhammad became a merchant and quickly gained
a reputation forhonestyand trustworthiness. A wealthywidow named Khadijah

21. Muhammad and the Emergence oe Islam 11
Bcdouin Arabs are ubown storvwlling in (hin drawing bv Alfred Fredericks.Source:
D. S. Margolioulh. (I90S). tbrRüfefblam. l-oodon C. I’. Putnam'»Sona
employed him as her Business represenrative and subsequentlyextended a mar-
riagc proposal to Muhammad that hc acccptcd. At the time oftheir marriage,
Muhammad was twenty-five years old and Khadijah was forty. In later life.
Muhammad spoke fondly ofthe years hc had spent with Khadijah, whowas the
mother ofthe only children Muhammad had who survivedpatt infancy.
Muhammads life with Khadijah appears to havc becn quiet and com-
fortable, although during this time he developed the habit of retiring to a
cavc outside Mecca to meditate in private. On onc such occasion, according
to the narrative rccord, or hadith, he feil asleep, only to be awakened by an
angelic being who commanded to him, “Recitc!" Muhammad replicd by ask-
ing what he should recitc, at whieh the angel only repeated his initial com-
mand. After the third time, the angel commanded, "Recitc! In the namc of
your Lord Who creatcd. Crcatcd man from a clot! Recite! And your Lord
is Most Bountiful—Hc taught by the pen. Taught man that which he knew
not!" (These commands becamc the first five lines of the Qur’an.) This event
occurred when Muhammad was fortv years old and marks the first revclation
he receivcd; for the remainder ofhis life hc continued to receive revelations.

22. sometimes through the efforts ofthat angelic being whom he was to identify
as Gabriel, others directly from God.
Muhammads iniüal reaction to his firstcncounter with Gabriel was to run
home to scckcomfort from Khadijah. Over time,shepcrsuaded him tolisten to
thc angel, and Muhammad wasconvinced that he had been chosen as a prophet
ofGod tobring a divine message tohumankind. 'Ihe major parts ofthis message
wcre the existence ofa unique, all-powerful God. a warning ofan impcnding
doomsday and judgment, and an cncouragcment to live a virtuous life.
Great Emigration: The Hijra
At first Muhammads prcaching was met with tolerancc and curiosity, but as
he started to gain converts, the leadcrs ofMecca began to view him as a threat
and to pcrsccutc his followers. The majority ofMuhammads early followers arc
bclicvcd to have been womcn, slavcs, and the very poor, all ofwhom wcre at
the mcrcy oftheir powerful oppressors. When it bccame clcar to Muhammad
that it would be impossiblc for his followers and him to live in Mecca in pcace,
he began to search for a new place to live. It so happcned that a nearby town,
Yathrib (modern-day Medina), was politically divided between two powerful
tribes, and they were looking for an impartial judge to arbitrate between them.
Muhammads reputation as an honest man reached that city, and the elders of
Yathrib invited him to move there and serve as theirjudge. Muhammad agreed
to do so onlyifccrtain conditions wcre fulfilled: (1) that his family andfollowers
^Tiought Experiment
’that thcycaris 615 ce andyou live in abustlingtrade city in Saudi
Arabia that is home to a diverse population ofGreeks, Jews. Egyptians,
^^^ntric'ans, and Arabs. Yoursocicty mostlvworships multiplegodsat a local
remple that contains a black stone. One dav while at the market, vou hear
J^feofa man proclaiming that he is thc messenger ofGod and that there is
only one God. Many people think he is a sorccrcr and that his divine vi-
sions are hallucinations. Others sec him as a threat bccause his message of
socialjusticcwould upset the hierarchical structurc ofyoursocicty. What
mcasurcs could you andothers take to decidewhether he speaksthe truth?
What would it ultimately take for people to bclieve his message?

23. Muhammad and tue Emergence of Islam 13
could move with him; (2) that they would be supported until they could find a
means oflivelihood for themselves; and (3) that they would be considercd full
citizens ofthc city in such a way that, ifthe Meccans and their allies chose to
attack the Muslims, thcn all the citizens ofYathrib would fight on thc side of
Muhammads followers, callcd the"Muslims.”
The delegation fro.n Yathrib agreed to these terms, and the Muslims- sccrct
migration from Mecca to that citybegan. Finally, when all but two ofMuhani-
mad's followers (his friend and adviscr, Abü Haler, and his cousin 'Ali) had
reached Yathrib, he decidcd to move there himself. By this time, some ofhis
opponents had realized that he represented a grave threat to their interests and
had formed a pact to kill him. Hearing oftheir plan, Muhammad sccrctly left
Mecca accompanied by Abü Bakr, lcaving 'Ali in his house. ‘Ali was the son
ofMuhammads uncle Abu Tälib and had come to live with Muhammad as
his adopted son. 'Ali eventually married Muhammads daughtcr Fätimah and
became one of thc most important and influential people in the fbrmative
period ofIslam.
That night Muhammads encmics surrounded his house, waiting to attack
him in the dark. 'Ali servedas a decoyby slcepingin Muhammads bcd. When
the Meccans finallybroke into Muhammads house and found Ali. they realized
that Muhammad had slipped away, and they sent a search party to hunt him
down. Legend hasitthatMuhammad and Abü Bakrhid in a cave toescape their
pursuers and that a spider wove a web covering the entrance to the cave. See-
ing thc spiderweb, thc Meccans thought that no onc had been insidc in a while
and did not enter the cave in search ofMuhammad. After the search party had
returned emptyhanded, Muhammad and Abü Bakr madc theirway toYathrib,
and Ali followed as soon as he had settled all ofMuhammads financial and
social obligations in Mecca.
Thc cmigration ofMuhammad and the Muslims from Mecca to Yathrib,
which occurred in 622 ce, marks thc most important datc in Islamic historv. It
is called thc Hijrah, or “Great Emigration.” 'Ilie Muslims who emigrated are
referred to as “Muhajirs," and thosc who hclped them as “Ansar.” Great honor
is attached toboth groups.Throughout Is­
lamic historv, anyeventin which a number
ofMuslims have to flee from persccution
to a safe haven is sccn as a reference to the
^7opies for ^furthrr ^$tudfj
Muhammad
Pastoral Nomadic Socicties
Hijra, and thc emigres and their hclp-
ers are seen as repeating thc events in
Trading Patterns, Tnns-Saharan

24. 1-1 This Is Islam
Muhammad s life. Tie Hijra is also important because it marks the start of
the Islamic calendar, which is used for all religious events and is the official
calendar in many countries to this day.
The Hijra marks the beginning of Islam as a social religion and political
entity. In Mecca, Muhammad was viewed mostlyas someone who issued warn-
ings and as a prophet who brought a message ofmonotheism, urging people to
repentoftheirimmoral ways betöre itwas toolate. In Yathrib, the religion began
to evolve into a social phenomenon and devcloped a history and complex set of
laws. The importanceofYathrib in the devclopmentofIslam is attested toby the
fact that thecitywas renamed Madinatal-Nabi ("Cityofthe Prophet"),Medina
or al-Madinah, for short. While at Medina, the revelations that Muhammad
received began to emphasize social laws and a sense of history that showed
Muhammad and his religion to beacontinuation ofthereligious tradition of the
Hebrcw prophets. Muhammad rapidly rose from the Status ofa simple prophet
to that ofthe social, religious, and political leader ofan entire Community. As
such, he resembled religious figures such as Moses, David, and Solomon much
more than he resembledJesus or the Buddha.
The Meccans perceived the growing Muslim community of Medina
as a threat and engaged in three battles with them. Each battle resulted in
Muhammads cause becoming much stronger, so that within a decadc he had
become the most powcrful figure in all ofArabia. Finally, in 630 ce, the city
of Mecca surrendered to Muhammad and he cntcrcd it, guarantceing the
citizcns securitv of their lives and property. Even the leaders of Mecca were
untouched. The only major consequenccs were the cxecutions of pocts and
singers who had ridiculed Muhammad and his religion and carried out a con-
certedpropagandacampaign against him, and the rcmoval ofall idols from the
Ka’ba. Muhammad then performed a pilgrimage to the Ka’ba and returned to
Medina, which he now considcrcd his home. He madc one more journey to
Mecca before his death in order to visit the Ka’ba. This is callcd the “Fare-
well Pilgrimage" and serves as the model for one of the most important
Islamic rituals.
Shortly aftcr his return from the Farewell Pilgrimage, Muhammad feil
gravely ill and confined himselfto the house ofhis third wife Äishah, who was
the daughtcr ofAbü Bakr, where he died on 8 June 632. According to a tradi­
tion stating that prophets should be buried where they die, Muhammad was
buried in ‘Ä'ishah's chamber. It was later converted into a shrine and serves as
an important pilgrimage site to this day.

25. Muhammad and thf. Emergence of Islam 15
The Ummah after
Muhammad
Muhammad died without ap-
pointing a definite successor,
Although it was clcar that there
would be no prophets after him,
no one was surc what thc role of
the leader after him was to bc.
The elders ofthe ummah dccidcd
that Muhammad's closest com-
panion, Abü Bakr, who was also
one ofthe first converts to Islam,
should lead the Community after
his dcath. Abü Bakr dicd in 634
The Ka'ha, chought Io bebullt by Abraham
and Ishmael, ia a fötal poinl ofIslamic fairh.
Sourte: D. S. M^rgoliouth. 119051.AfcbamitvJauftbt
/tot<•/*Liam. London. G. P. Putnam» Son».
CE, two vears after Muhammad
and was succeedcd by anothcr re-
spccted companion of Muham­
mad named ‘Umar (c. 586-644
ce). It was during 'Umar’s ten-
year leadership and the twelve years ofhis successor, 'Uthmän ibn ‘Affän (d.
656 ce), that thc Islamic Community bürst out ofArabia and sprcad from thc
Mediterranean shores ofNorth Africa to the Central Asian steppe. It was also
during their time that thc rcvelations rcccivcd bv Muhammad wcre organizcd
into a scripture called the Quran (or Koran).
Thc lcadcrs of the ummah after Muhammad wcre ncithcr prophets nor
kings. Instead, they were known as caliphs (khalifa in Arabic), a Word that
mcans "representative- or "delcgate," implying that thc caliphs did not rule
on their own authority but only as the representative succcssors of God and
the Prophet Muhammad in terms of leadership ofthe polity. After ‘Uthman
ibn 'Atfän’s dcath there was some confusion as to who should bc the next
caliph. Many people feit that thc honor should go to Muhammads cousin
and son-in-law, ‘Ali (also known as ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib; c. 600-661 ce). Oth-
ers supported 'Uthmän ibn 'Alfän's cousin Mu'äwiyah. Encouraged by their
respective supporters, both men were declared caliphs and a civil war ensued.
In the coursc ofthc dispute, 'Ali was murdered by an assassin and Mu'äwiyah
succcssfullv seized power for himsclfand his family. This laid the foundations
for the first Islamic dynastv, which was known as thc Umayyad (a rcferencc

26. 16 Tms Is Islam
Äishnh (614-678 C£)
‘A’ishah was the daughter of
Muhammads closecompanion and
first caliph, Ahü Bakr. She wasvery
young when Muhammad married
her and was his only wil'e who was
not previously married (his other
wives were either widows or divor-
cies). Given herassertive Personal­
ityandhigh statusasthedaughterof
Muhammads mostseniorcompan­
ion, 'A’ishah had the most impact
of any of Muhammads wives on
determining the course of Islamic
history and rcligion. She outlived
Muhammad bv almost fifty years
and was considercd a very reliable
source of infbrmarion about him.
As such, she had tremendous influ-
ence on the formationofthe hadith
(religious narrative) and Islamic
law. Furthermore, she never hesi-
tated toget involved in the politica!
life ofthe ummab (community). She
publiclydisagreed with'Umareven
after he became the second caliph.
and she was so opposed to ‘Ali bc-
comingcaliph that she and agroup
ofherfollowerswent towar against
him in 656 ce.
Despitc bringaConstant source
of troublc for them, both 'Ali and
‘Umar treated her with immense
respect because of the great affec-
tion that Muhammad had for her.
When Muhammad feil preyto the
illness that cvcnruallv took his life,
he moved into ‘A’ishah's room. He
died there and, in kceping with a
tradition that states that prophets
shouldhe buried wherc theydie, he
was buried there. ‘A’ishah refused
to move out of her chamber (now
csscntially a tomb) and lived there
until the end ofher life.
to Mu'äwiyah’s clan). Tic majority of modern pious Muslims helieve that
with the rise ofthe Umayyad dynasty, the pristine Institution ofthe caliphatc
came to an end; they only consider the first four caliphs as truly virtuous; as
a result, thosc four are referred to as the Rightly Guidcd Caliphs. Even so, it
was under the hundred-vear rule ofthe Umayyads that most ofthe lands still
identified with Islam were conqucrcd, and the Islamic Empire extended from
modern-day Spain to Pakistan,

27. Muhammad and the Emergence of Islam 17
Evcn though the Umayyads were in almost complete political control, the
dispute between the Supportenof'Allsdescendants and the Umayyadsdid not
end. lt took an evcn more serious turn when 'Ali’s son Husayn and many ofhis
family members were massacrcd in 680 ce bv troops loyal to Mu'äwiyah’s son,
Yazid, at a place in modern-day Iraq called Karbala. This formed the basis ofa
splitwithin the Islamic Community that continues to this daywith the Separation
between the Sunni and Shi'a sects.
Many pious Muslims ofthat timeweredisillusioned bythe politicalconflict
ragingaround them and withdrew into apious contemplation oftheirfaith. Somc
emphasized the role of prayer and love for God. others devoted themselves to
prcaching among the citizens of the ncwly conquered lands, wliile still others
dedicated their lives to the study of the Qjir'an and traditions ofMuhammad
and his companions. It was primarilythrough the efforts ofsuch people that the
worldwide Islamic Community developed a rieh and vibrant tradition for theol-
ogv, law, and philosophy and that the citizens ofvery diverse lands converted
to the new rcligion.
One ofthe most remarkable features ofIslam is that, with onlyone signifi-
cant exception, all lands to which it spread have remained Muslim into modern
times. The exception is Spain. where the long process ofChristian reconquest
(called the Reconquista) followed by the Spanish Inquisition systematically
eradicated the Muslim population ofSpain after 1492. Evcn so, when the cdict

28. 18 This Is Islam
for the final expulsion ofMuslims andJews was issucd in 1619 (127 years after
the endofthe Reconquista), apptoximately2 million Muslims fled the kingdom
ofCastille alone. Tiis gives some indication of the degree to which Islam had
bcen integrated into Spanish life.

29. ^/slnmic ^exts
slam is a religion with many texts, and the tradition views scripture
(defincd as a divinelvrevealcd text) as thegreatest evidence ofGod's
involvemcnt in humanlife. Islams followershavc dcvclopcd anumbcr
ofSciences to study this scripture as well as a numbcrofart forms to celebrate it.
Alrhough the Qur’an is Islamsonlyscripture, there areotherwritings that Mus­
lims consider tocarrygreat religious importance. Despitc theirinferior Status to
the Qur'an, these texts can be viewed as scriptural as well, since they are often
quotcd as sources of religious authority and are used to derive religious law.
The Qur'an
The word “Qur'an"dcrivcs from the Arabicvcrb mcaning“to rcad“or“torecite."
Qur'an thcrcfore means something like a recitation or a Collection ofthings to
be rccitcd. Muslims scldom refcr to their scripture simply as the Qur'an but
normally add a title that signifies respect, such as al-Karim (“the Noble”) or
al-'Azim (“the Magnificcnt)." Within the Qur'an itself, the term al-Kitab (“the
Book") is used as an alternative.
In Muhammads opinion, and that ofthe majority ofpious believers, the
Qur'anic revelations came from heaven, where they wcrc prescrved on a "wcll-
guarded fablet,“ a concealcd supcrnatural book that cxistcd in the presence of
God. Muhammad did not become acquainted with the whole ofthe Qur'an at
oncebutonlywith isolated sections ofit. The Qur'an contains onlya fewobscure
hints about how it was communicated to Muhammad. In fact, it is not from the
Qur'an but from the traditions ofMuhammads life (called “hadith") that we
learn about the trances Muhammad occasionally weilt into wheri he received a
rcvelation. On such occasions, he would begin to tremble and ask to be covcrcd
up with a cloak. He would thcn hcar a rcvelation and recite it to those around
him, or in formal situations, to largergatherings.
19

30. 20 This Is Islam
£?uick _/ncts; Why ^9 ^rnbic
JJo ^mportant to ^slwm?
heprimaryscripturcofIslam,
thc Qur’an, is considercd to
be theditect,word-for-word revela-
tion ofGod. Since it is in Arabic,
Muslimscontinue to rcad and recite
it in thc Arahic language regardlcss
of their mothcr tonguc. Thcrcforc,
although most Muslims are not of
Araborigin, manyIcarn to read and
write Arabic at an early age.just as
Jews traditionally learn Hebrew.
Arabic is to Islam as Latin was
to Christianity, and sincc Islamic
scholarship was ovcrwhclmingly
conducted in Arabic, a familiarity
with Arabic also allows Muslims
to engage the centurics ofscholas-
tic dialoguc and litcrarv hcritagc.
Many times, Muslim pilgrims to
thc holy city of Mecca find that
theycan communicatewith sorne of
their fcllow pilgrims from around
thc world through a rudimentary
understanding of Arabic. Duc to
the influence ofArabic. many lan-
guages spuken in Islamic lands have
adopted Arabic words, such as thc
univcrsally understood grecting
laiaarn 'alaykum or "pcacc bc upon
you," or words for thc ritual prac-
ticcs and ethieal ideals of Islam,
such as ulab for ‘ritual prayers”
and akhlaq for “good morality."
Some Islamic conccpts, such as
sharia (Islamic ritual law and legal
injunctions), do notalwaystranslatc
casily and thus havc bcen retained
in Arabic throughout thc Muslim
world, while others, such as thc hi-
jab (“thc veil") are offen retained
in licu ofmodern translations with
negative connotations.
Muhammad bclicvcd that not onlvhis prophetic mission but also the rcvcla-
tionsoftheearlier Hebrewprophets and thcholyscripturesofthcJews andChris­
tianswcrc based on thc original hcavcnlv scripturc. so that theycoincided in part
with what he himselftaught.Tic Quran thus confirmswhat was revealed earlier:
thc law wasgiven to Moses in the Torah,toJesus as reconlcd in thcGospels, and,
in less famous revealed texts, to otherprophets includcd in the Hebrew Biblc.
Although the stories contained in the Qtir'an and thc conccpt ofrevelation
through a scries of prophets are shared with the Hebrew Biblc and thc New

31. Islamic Texts 21
Jabal-al-Noor, or Mountain of Light, ix where Muhammad i»aaid to have praycd and
meditated.
Testament, the style ofthe Qur'an is more in keepingwith that ofthe prc-lslamic
Arab religious tradition ofsoothsaycrs. The text is ncirher written in prosc nor
is it poetrv, hur consists ofrhymed prose that is easier to remember than normal
prosc but is not as rcstricted in style as poetrv.
Organizing the Qur'an
The Qur’an is arrangcd into 114 chaptcrs, or luras. The turnt arc ofuncqual
lcngth. some being several pages long while others arc only a fcw lincs. Their

32. 22 This Is Islam
orderdoes not rcflect thc orderofrevelation. instead theyarc arranged bylength,
from longcst to shortest, with thc exception of thc first sura, "Thc Opcning,"
which has sevcn vcrscs. Suras are traditionally identified by their names rather
than their numbers. Their names arc normally distinctive orunusual words that
appearsomewherc in thc early pari ofthc sura. They are further subdivided into
vcrscs called ayat (literally "signs"). Twenty-nine ofthc suras begin with seem-
ingly disjointed letters referred to as thc "mystcrious letters.’ The most common
rcligious interpretation for their cxistcncc is that they are an integral part ofthe
textandcarrysome sccret religiousnteaning. Manyothcrcxplanations tbrthem
cxist, however, includingonc that suggests that theywerc partofa filingSystem
used to organizc suras into the Qur'an.
Collecting the Qur’an
The Qur'an was not compiled duringMuhammad’s lifetime butwas preserved
on whatever material was then availablc: bits of parchmcnt. lcaves, shoulder
blades ofcamcls, and cspecially in the oral tradition, memorized in scqucnce
by his followers. After Muhammads dcath, people dccided to start collect­
ing thc work, but thc process took sevcral vears. There is a populär story that
asserts that the Qur'an was collectcd in its present form while Abü Bakr was
caliph. According to this account, 'Umar was disrurbed by the fact that in
onc of thc early battlcs under Abü Bakr, many of thc people who knew thc
Qur’an by heart were killed. 'Umar feared that ifmore ofthem died, some of
thc Qur'an would be lost forever. He therefore counselcd Abü Bakr to make
a Collection of the Qur'an. At first. Abü Bakr hesitated to undertake a task
The on this» Fragment in wrilten in Kufisscript and Follows the Format typical oF
horizontal Qur'an» wrilten on parchmcnt in thc ninth Century CB. LibraryoFCongre».

33. Isi.amic Texts 23
that the Prophet hadn’t authorizcd betöre his dcath, but in the end he agreed
and commissioned one ofMuhammad’s secretaries, named Zayd ibn Thäbit
(c. seventh Centuryce), to direct the project. According to this account ofhow
the Qur’an was collected, Zayd wrotc what he had transcribcd the parts onto
shects ofequal size and gave this "book" to Abü Bakr. On the latter’s death,
the book was passed to ‘Umar and thcn to his daughtcr Hafsah, a widow of
Muhammad. Ihis collcction thcn served as thc model from which all later
copies ofthc Qur’an wcre madc.
This story may not bc true. It assumes that during Muhammad's lifetime
no one attcmpted to make an authoritative record ofthe revelations. There
is also much disagrccmcnt about who first came up with thc idea of collect-
ing the Qur’an. Generally. it is said to bc ’Umar, but sometimes Abü Bakr
is said to havc commissioned thc Collection on his own. On thc othcr hand,
there is a tradition that says ’Umar was the first to collect thc Qur’an and it
complctcly excludcs Abü Bakr. The greatest criticism of this thcory is that
a Collection put togethcr under the authoritv of someone such as Abü Bakr
with thc hclp of ’Umar and Zayd ibn Thäbit would havc had a tremendous
amount of importance and authority, but this docs not appear to havc becn
thc casc. Several different collections were considered authoritative in various
provinces of thc Islamic world. Furthermore, thc disputes over the accurate
text of the Qur’an that arose while 'Uthman ibn 'Affin was caliph, and that
cvcntually led to thc official codification ofthc Qur’an, would not havc arisen
had there been an official Version in the possession of the caliph. Thus it ap-
pears that no official collcction ofthc Qur’an was madc while Abü Bakr was
caliph.
Under the caliph 'Uthman ibn 'Affin, therewcre dispuresconcerning which
version was thcofficialVersion ofthe Qur’an. During militarycampaigns in the
Caucasus, arguments arose between troops drawn from Syria and Iraq over the
cxact text ofsome verses ofthc Qur’an. This disagreement rose to such a lcvel
that a general had to bring thc problcm
to the attention of thc caliph. ‘Uthmän --------------------------------------------
ibn ‘Affin took counsel with other senior Topie» for _/urrhrr ^$tu4g
companions ofthc Prophet and finallyOr­
der Zayd ibn Thäbit to collect the Qur’an.
Zayd ibn Thäbit, assisted by thrcc highlv
respected assistants, collected fragmentsof
revclation from a variety ofsourccs. Thc
Arab Caliphatcs
Culnirc
Deserts
History. Oral

34. 24 This Is Islam
wholeQur'an was thencarefullyorganizcd and comparcd with the private copv
in the posscssion of‘Umars daughter, Hafsah. Finally, an autoritative text of
the Qur’an was establishcd. A number ofcopies were made and distributed to
the main Islamic Centers. Previously cxisting copies were said to have been de-
stroyed, so that the text ofall subsequent copies ofthe Qur'an would bc based
upon that Standard edition. This cstablishment ofthe text ofthe Qur'an under
‘Uthmän ibn ‘Affin may be dated somewherc between 650 and 656 ce. and is
a critical point in what may bc callcd the formation ofthe canon ofthe Qur’an.
Whatevcr may have been the previous form of the Qur'an, it is almost certain
that the modern Version is csscntially the Qur’an of‘Uthman ibn 'Affän's time.
1 lis Commission dccided what was to bc includcd and cxcludcd; it also fixed the
number and Order ofthe suras.
While ‘Uthmän ibn ‘Affän'sefforts to makc the official Version ofthe Qur'an
the only one for the entire ummah were largelv successful, unofficial versions of
the Qur'an were not forgotten. Most early histories and commentaries on the
Qur'an mention a number ofother collections; some have lists cxplaining how
they differed from ‘Uthmän ibn'Affän'sedition. The Information suggests there
was no greatVariation in the actual Contentsofthe Qur'an in the period imme-
diatelv after the Prophet'sdcath. Differcnccs consistcd mostlyofminor problems
arising bccausc the order ofthe ranw was apparently not fixed. and there were
also slightvariations in some ofthe words.
While the promulgation ofthe official text ofthe Qur’an under'Uthmän
ibn ‘Atfän was a major Step toward uniformity in versions ofthe scripturc, its
importance may easily be exaggerated. For one thing, knowledge ofthe Qur'an
among Muslims was based far more on memorv than on writing. For another,
the early Arabic script ofthe Qur'an was a sort ofshorthand: only consonants
were written, and the samc letter shapc could indicatc more than one sound.
Ihis script was simply an aid to memorization; it assumed that the reader
had some familiarity with the text, It was not until the reign of the
Umayyad caliph‘Abd al-MalikibnMarwän(served685-705 ce)that the modern
Arabic script was creatcd with its vowels and the use ofone letter shape for
each sound.
Hadith
Although Muslims treat the Qur'an as the onlv formal scripturc oftheir rcli­
gion, other written religious works ofgreat importance to Islam exist. Sunnis,

35. Islamic Texts 25
in particular, rely heavily on a category öl' literaturc called hadith. The Word
“hadith" primarily means "a communication" or "a narrative* In Islamic terms,
it means a rccord ofthe actions or sayings ofthe Prophet and his companions.
In the latter sense, the whole bodyofthe sacred tradition ofIslam is called the
hadith and the formal studv ofit is called the scicncc ofhadith.
Pre-Islamic Arabr considered it a virtue to follow the examplc or tradition
oftheir forefathers. But in the Islamic period, a pcrson could hardly follow the
examplc ofanccstors who were not Muslim, so a new tradition ofpracticcs, or
tunna, had to he found: the ntnn« ofMuhammad. At first companions ofMu­
hammad were considered the best sourccs for his sunna-, they had listcned to the
Prophet and witncssed his actions with their own eves. Hie term “companion"
evcntuallycame to be a technical term connoting anv Muslim who was alivc at
Muhammads time andcould possibly have seen himonevcnoneoccasion.Ihe
gencration immediately after them became known as "the followers," and those
after them “the followers ofthe followers."
After Muhammads death, the original religious ideas and usages that had
prcvailed in the ummab could not remain unaltered for long. A new period of
development set in. Ilie learned systcmatically began to dcvelop the doctrine
of duties and bclicfs in accordance with the new conditions prevailing in the
Islamic community. After the early conquests under the Umayyads, Islam was
practiced in an enormous area, and new ideas and institutions were brought in
with the conquered peoples. Nevertheless, the principlc wasstcadfastlyadhered
to that only the sunna ofthe Prophet and that ofthe original Muslim commu­
nity could supply rules of conduct for the Muslim belicvers. This soon led to
deliberate forgery oftraditions concerning the Prophet. Transmitters ofhadith
traditions brought the words and actions of the Prophet into agreement with
their own views and ideals.
Numerous traditions were thus put into circulation alleging that Muham­
mad said or did something that would supporr a particular opinion. A very
large portion of these sayings ascribed to Muhammad dealt with legal provi-
sions, religious obligations, issues ofwhat
was permissibleand forbidden, ritual pur-
ity, and matters ofctiquette and courtesy.
Over time the records of Muhammads
^Vopies for ^Curther
Islam
words and deeds increascd in quantity
and copiousness. In the early centurics
after Muhammads death, thcre was great
Kinship
Wriring Systems and Materials

36. 26 This Is Islam
diversity ofopinion in the Muslim Community on many qucstions relating to
topics such as thosc mcntioncd above. Each partv tried to support its views
as far as possiblc with sayings and dccisions of the Prophet. The conditions
became so bad that an entire category ofprophctic traditions made up of say­
ings ascribcd to Muhammad arosc to deal with places and lands that were not
conquercd until after he had died.
Hadith as History
The majority of hadith accounts cannot be regarded as reliable historical ac­
counts ofthe tunna ofthe Prophet. On the contrary. theyexpress opinions that
had come to be heldin different circles in the early centuries afttrMuhammad’s
death and were only then ascribcd to the Prophet. Tie hadith, however, is held
in great reverence throughout Islamic society. In some cases, it is even believed
that God's actual words arc found in the hadith. Such accounts usuallv begin
with the words "God said" and are callcd “Divine Hadith" (Hadith Qudsi). It
is not complctcly clcar how they originally differed from the material that was
included in the Qur'an. But few modern Muslims would confuse a Qur’anic
versewith a “Divine Hadith."
As earlyas theeighth Centuryce, certain Islamic scholars became extremely
conccrned about the large numberofforged hadith that were in circulation, and
they devised a highly claborate System to cstablish some idca of a hadith's ac-
curacy. Accordingto the Muslim view, a hadith account can only be considered
believable ifits chain oftransmission, or isnad,offen an unbroken series ofreli­
able authorities. The critical examination ofan isnadconsistcd ofresearch into
the names and circumstanccs of the transmitters in a hadith account in Order
to investigate when and where they lived and which ofthem had been person-
ally acquaintcd with one another, and a test their reliability, truthfulncss, and
aceuracy in transmitting the texts, to make certain which ofthe hadith trans­
mitters were reliable. Scholars used the chain oftransmitters to divide a hadith
into tliree tnain categories that denotc their reliability. The most important of
thcsc arc callcd sabih (sound). This name is given to thosc hadith considered
absolutcly reliable bccause thev have flawless chains of transmission and rein-
force something that is widely accepted in the Islamic Community. The next
dass oftraditions, thosc considered reliable but not without doubt about their
authenticity, are called basan (beautiful). Finally, some hadith were judged to
be unrcliablc or “weak."

37. Islamic Texts 27
gh» £xperiment
people compare the validity ofthe different categories ofthe narra-
, or hadith, to the game oftelephone. where a person whispers
ä Statement to another person, who whispers it to another person, and so
^^^on Tic final statem.-nt is different from the original. Trv passing on par-
^^Mticular Verses from the hadith to your classmates, starting at on one end
ofthe dassroom and finishing at the other. Listen to the resulting verse at
the end. Oral tradition often changcs the meaning ofsayings over time.
How does this cxercisc demonstrate oral tradition in action?
Hadith Collections
Manv collections ofhadith traditions wcrc prepared by scholars in the eighth
and ninth ccnturics CE. At first, the hadith accounts in these collections were
arranged according to their transmitters rather than their contcnt. The best
known ofthese isbyan important and respected religious scholar named Ahmad
ibn Hanbal (780-855 ce). But arrangement according to transmitters madc the
collections difficult to use when looking for hadith by topic, which is the way
hadith are most often used. Later collections wcrc therefore arranged in chap-
ters dealing with specific topics. Six such hadith collections becamc extremely
populär in the Islamic culture, ofwhich two. one by a scholar named Muslim
ibn al-Hajjäj (c. 817-875 ce) and the other by al-Bukhäri (810-870), are consid-
ered so rcliablc many Sunni Muslims rank themjust bclow the Qur’an assacred
texts. Al-Bukhäri and Muslim ibn al-Hajjäj’s books only contain those hadith
accounts theyjudged to be tabih, or complctcly above any suspicion regarding
their accuracv. Shi'a Muslims do not rely on hadith litcraturc in the samc way
as do Sunnis, but they too, havc their own collections ofhadith that they con-
sider important.
Sunna (Tradition of Muhammad)
What is containcd in the hadith is the sunna, or tradition, ofMuhammad, con-
sisting ofhis actions and sayings and those things to which he gavc unspoken
approval. Sunna hascome to mean the practice ofthegreater ummah. and in this
capacityit is often referred to as the “Living Sunna." Muhammadslunna, in the

38. 28 This Is Isi.am
sense ofbisactions andwords,iscontained in thc hadith. In thcory, thc concepts
ofsunna and hadith arc separate, but in practice they often coincide.
To understand thc importance of the sunna in Islam, we must remember
that while thc Qur'an was a source from which a major part ofIslamic prac­
tice was derived, Muhammad had settled many questions posed to him not by
revelation but by decisions madc on a casc by case basis. His words and actions
wcre recognized—even in his own lifetime—as a fine cxamplc deserving to be
imitated. This is why the sunnaofthc Prophet was fixed in writing, although it
never gained an importance cqual to that ofthe Qur'an.
It is clear, however. that thc sunnabecamc a Standard ofbehavioralongside
thc Qur’an, and that rcligious scholars tried to answerquestions conccrning the
relationship between the two. In the carlicst Islamic community, the sunna ap-
pears to havc been cqual to the Qur’an in authority. With the passagc oftime
and the conversion ofnon-Arab pcoplcs to Islam, thc Qur'an gained acentrality
as scriptum that outstripped the importance given to the sunna, particularly in
its written form ofhadith.

39. ^slnmic J>ects
|>e IslamicCommunity isdividedinio a numbcrofsects, thc mostim-
f portantofwhichderive theirdiflcrcnccs fromevcntsthatoccurred in
thc first twoccnturies ofIslamic history. Over the centurics, scvcral
othcr scctsemergcd; some, such as thcNurbakhshia,a small, mvsticalsectlimited
to a remotc region of the westem Himalayas, are too small to have exerted much
influence over the ummah at large. Others, such as thc Wahhabiya. which is an
eightecnth-ccnturyretbrm movement within thc major Islamic sectofSunnism,
became powerful enough to takc over in some countries (Saudi Arabia, in this
casc) and havc considcrablc influence in thc greater Islamic socictv. Still others,
such as the Bahä'i faith, were perceivedbyothers and bytheirownpractitioners to
be sodifferentfromthe Islamic environmentinwhich theyemergcd that they no
longer consider themselves Muslims and have emergcdas independent religions.
Ncvcrthclcss, these later sectarian movementsalloccurwithin a contextwhere thc
Muslim communityis essentially divided in twounequal parts, theSunni major­
ity and a numbcr ofsmallcr sccts that together make up the Shi’a minority.
Sunnism
Sunnis account for thc ovcrwhclming majorityofall Muslims. The term "Sunni"
derives from the word sunna (“tradition") ar.d is actually an abbreviation for a
much longer term meaning "thc pcoplc oftradition and the community." Iltis
name was applicd to thosc mernbers ofthe early ummahwho wcre political qui-
etists, believing that it was bettcr to accept a less-than-ideal leader than to risk
the destruction ofthc Muslim community through civil war.
Given the meaningofSunni, thc onlywayforan individual to separatefrom
Sunnism is to consciously takc up a political or religious position that opposcs
the conventional views of the Sunni majority. At most times in history, the
Sunni sect has taken an inclusive attitude and tried to count as manv Muslims
as it could within thc Sunni umhrella, even when it mcant that notions ofwhat
29

40. 30 This Is Islam
was acceptablc as Sunni beliefhad to be cxpanded. It is important to notc that
being a Sunni does not ncccssarilyimply that an individual agrees with theway
the Sunni Muslim Community is beinggovcmed; it simply mcans that it is more
important to maintain a safe Muslim Communitythan to fight a bad ruler.
A major diffctcnce between Sunnism and Shi’ism is that, unlikc Shi’ism,
Sunnism has noofficialnotion ofaclergyorotherkind offormal religious leader­
ship. Sunni religious scholarsgain authority through their reputationsforlcaming
and high moral charactcr, not through a system ofOrdination (though the svstem
in Shi’ism isalso more informal than inChristianity). In theclassical ageof Islam
(c. seventhCenturyce), this allowed fora highdegree ofdiversitvin thcopinions
ofscholarsandpermitteda largedassofpeople to cngagein ijtihad,orthepractice
ofindependent rcasoning, in thinking about Islamic law and theology.
In practice, in many parts of the Sunni Muslim community since the six-
teenth Century ce, religious scholars have been employees ofthe state and havc
been extremely sensitive to the wishes of their rulcrs in making controvcrsiai
Statements. They havc also adopted distinctive formsofdress toshow their Status
as religious scholars. As such, Sunnism has dcvclopcd a clcrical System in which
religious scholarsgoto different Colleges thanother people and are intmediately
recognized by the clothing theywcar.
Shi’ism
The Word “Shi’a" literally means "party” or "faction," which gives a dcar indi-
cation that thc carlv Shi’a bclicvcrs (sometimes callcd “Shi’ite believers”) saw
thentselvesasa political, rathcr than apurely religious,group. Theywere referred
toas thc"Shi'at 'Ali'(“thc Party of'All,"Muhammadscousin and son-in-law),
and were some ofAlisclosest friends.The original Shi’a followers bclicvcd that
Ali should havc been recognized as the leaderofthe ummahaftcr Muhammads
death, and that aftcr Ali, this leadership should have been kept within the
houschold ofthc Prophet. This beliefis supported by many hadith traditions in
which Muhammad is believed to havc shown a preference for his family over
other members ofhis community, and by other traditions according to which,
in his absence, he used to designatc ‘Ali as thc temporary leader ofthc Islamic
community.
Despite the belief by some members of the early Muslim community
that 'Ali be made leader, he was passed over in favor ofthree ofMuhammad's
close companions. When he did finally become leader ofthc ummah, his brief

41. Islamic Sects 31
^?uick ^acts: ^unni and ^hin WJuslims
♦/i'. the twcnty-first Century.
Sunni Muslims outnumbcr
Shi’a Muslims ncariy 7 to 1. Ute
dcvclopmcnt ofthese two sects ovcr
time has crcatcd thcological and
religious tensions betwccn thcm
that affcct political, diplomatic,
and social conditions in the modern
Islamic world. Powcrful Islamic dv-
nasties in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth ccnturies firmly established
Sunni Islam throughoutthe Middle
East and in Turkey (center of the
Ottoman Empire, c. 1300-1922),
and thev established Shi’a Islam in
Iran and Iraq (center ofthe Safavid
Empire, 1501—1722), Düring this
time, the Sunnis persecuted Shi’a
Muslims, who in turn persecuted
Sunnis in theirrcspectivc lands. Al-
though this violent animosity sub-
sided somewhat in the ninetcenth
Century, modern times have Seen a
resurgence. espccially in Iraq un­
der the Baath Partyafter 1968. Ulis
Sunni ruling party (in acountrythat
is 60 pcrcent Shi’a Muslim) rooted
outpolitical andreligiousOpposition
byconductingmass killingsthrough
militarymight. In rccentyears, mass
graves have been discovered that re-
veal the brutality of the regime of
formetIraqi President Saddam Hus­
sein, which resulted in the deaths
oftens of thousands of Iraqi Shi’a
Muslims.
Meanwhile. neighboring Iran,
with a population that is ncariy 100
pcrcent Shi’a Muslim, has gener-
allv isolated itsclffront the rest of
the Islamic world. It also adopted
an extreme Interpretation ofmany
aspects ofIslam, including restric-
tions on the public role of women
and, in particular, approachcs to
jihad and relations with non-Mus-
lims. After the Iranian Revolution
of 1979, the thcocratic govern-
ment led bv Ayatollah Khomeini
launchcd a jihad against Iraq and
took a more Isolationist and ag­
gressive posturc toward the rest of
the world. This position continues
into the twcnty-first Century, even
though new personalitics have as-
sumed Icadcrship in both the rc-
ligious and political hierarchies in
Iran.

42. 32 This Is Islam
five-yearreignwas plagued with political problcms. Following the assassination
of'All in 661 ce, political control passed to his rival Muawiyah and eventually
to the Umayyaddynasty. Throughout this period. however, thesupportersof'Ali
did not stop belicving in the legitimacy oftheir claim and engaged in ongoing
political agitation.
’lhe conflictbetween the Shi'asect and the supporters ofMu'äwiyah reached
a crisispoint in 680 ce with the murderof'Ali's son, Husavn, together with many
members of his family. After this event, the Shi'a Community was not able to
wield much political powerforquitesome time, and consequently spent less time
emphasizing the political dimension ofShi'ism and more time devcloping dis-
tinctive andelaborate theological idcas concerning the nature ofShi'ism. But the
political experiencesofthe early Shi'aCommunity had a directbearingon Shi'ite
beliefs, which emphasize the importance ofmartyrdom and pcrsccution.
Shi’a Imams
Tliere arethreemain branches ofShi'a Islam, all ofwhich areunitedbyacommon
beliefthat theonly legitimate leaderofthe Muslim Community is a dcscendant of
Calligrapher Huaayn ZarrinQalamseightventh-century calligraphic panel uaea
'liqscript for ihr Irttcrx ofthe larger words, which are filled in withdekorative
motif*, animal», and human ligurc* in a style calledqulztir (meaning “rosegarden" or
"full of flowers*). Surrounding ihr largcr, na^ta '/ t./ leltern are »mall Shi’a prayers
exreuted in avaricty ofscripts. I.ilwarvul Crnigrcss

43. Islamic Sects 33
'Ali and his wife Fatima, the daughtcr ofthe Prophet. This leader, known as the
“imam," is considered superior to other human beings because of his bloodline
and ischosen bv God to lead the Muslim Community. The thtcc main Shi'a sects
agrcc on the identitics ofthe first four imanis. Hiev disagree over the fifth, with
the majority belicving that Husayn's grandson, Muhammad al-Baqir (d. 731 ce)
was the rightful imam, and the minority followingal-Baqir'shrother, Zavd(d. 740
ce), rcsulting in their heiligcallcd Zaydis.
^clectcd of ibn
c^bi Tälib
spccchcs, letters. and sav-
J ings of'Ali ibn AbiTalib, the
first imam according to Shi’a Mus­
lims, were collected into the Nahj
al-Bafagbah. A selection ofhis say-
ings follows:
1. He who is greedy is disgraccd;
he who discloses his hardship
will always be humiliated; he
who has no control over his
tonguc will often have to tace
discomfort.
2. Avance is disgracc; cowardice is
a defect; poverty often disables
an intelligent man from arguing
hiscasc; apoorman is astranger
in his own town; misfortunc
and hclplcssncss are calami-
ties; patience is a kind ofbrav-
ery; to sever attachmcnts with
the wickcd world is the greatest
wealth; picty is the bcst wcapon
ofdcfence.
3. Submission to Allahs will is
the best companion; wisdom is
the nobles! heritage; theoretical
and practical knowledgc are the
best signs of distinction; deep
thinking will present the clcar-
est picture ofevery problcm.
4. The mind of a wise man is the
safesr custody ofsecrets; cheer-
fulness is the key to friendship;
patience and fbrbcarence will
conccal manydefects.
5. A conceited and self-
admiring person is disliked by
others; charity and alms are
the bcst remedy tor ailments
and calamities; one has to ac­
count in the next world for the
deeds that he has done in this
world.

44. 34 This Is Islam
6. Live amongst people in such
a männer rhat ifyou die thcv
weep over you and if you
are alive they cravc for your
Company.
7. If you overpower your en-
emy, then pardon him by way
of rhankfulness to Allah, for
being able to subdue him.
8. Untortunate is he who can-
not gain a few sincerc friends
during his life and more un-
fortunate is the one who has
gained them and then lost
them (through his decds).
9. When some blessings come to
you, do not drive them away
through thanklessness.
10. Hc who is dcscrtcd by friends
and relatives will often find
hclp and sympathy from
strangers.
11. Every person who is tempted
to go astray does not deserve
punishment.
12. One who rushes madly after
inordinate desire runs the risk
of encountering destruction
and death.
13. Overlook and forgive the
weaknesses of the generous
people becausc if they fall
down, Allah will help them.
14. Failures are often the re-
sults of timidity and fears;
disappointments are the
results of bashfulness; hours
ofleisure pass away like Sum­
mer clouds, thcrefore, do not
waste opportunity of doing
good.
15. If someone's deeds lower his
Position, his pcdigrcc cannot
elevate it.
Zaydis
Zayd was the first person sincc the massacre ofHusavn and his family at Kar-
bala in 680 ce to try towrest political powerfrom the Umayyads byforce. After
spending a year in preparation in the heavily fbrtified Shi'a city ofal-Kufa in
Iraq, he camc out with a group offollowers but was killed in battle.
Zaydi belief» are similar to those of the major Shi’a sect, that of the
Twelvers. The main differente is in the Zaydi ideas concerning the imam.
They bclicve that any descendant of‘Ali and Fätima can bc the imam, regard-
less ofwhether they are dcsccndcd from Husayn or his elder brothcr Hasan. In

45. Islamic Sects 35
order to be acknowledged as thc imam, a person must have thc ability to resort
to the sword ifnccessarv. For this rcason, no person who remains hidden and
communicates with thc Shi’a community through deputies can bc considered
the rightful imam.
Thc Zaydi imam is also required to posscss high moral charactcr and reli-
gious learning. A person who does not posscss all these requirements cannot bc
recognized as a full imam; there are thus lesser imams focuscd only on war or
on Icaming. Leaders whose political and intcllcctual strength is only enough to
keep the Zaydi rcligious Claim alive are called Ja'is, a term shared by thc third
Shi'a scct, the Ismä’ilis. Hie high Standards requiredofa Zaydi imam combined
with the concept ofthc Ja’i allows for the possibility ofan agc to cxist without
an imam, when the community is lcad by Ja'is as representatives ofthe imam.
Zaydi Shi'ism nevergained a trulylarge followingwhen comparcdwith thcothcr
Shi’a sects; in modern times it is almost cntirelv limited to Ycmcn.
Twelvers
Thosc members ofthc Shi’a community who did not accept Zavd as the rightful
imam remained in agreement for two rnore generations. Thc sixth imam ofthis
group, thc great ScholarJa’far as-Sädiq (c. 700-765 ce), is especially important
bccausc he has such a great reputation that the Sunnisalso rcspcct him.Al-Sadiq
is believcd to have written agreat deal on thcologvand law, and thc major Shi’a
school oflaw is calledJa’fari because ofhim.
After the death ofJa’far as-Sädiq, this Shi’a group divided into two, thc
first rccognizingJa’faras-Sädiq’s elder son Ismä’ll (c. 721-755 ce) as the rightful
leader, leading to their being called Ismä’ilis. Thc sccond group followcd Ja’far
as-Sädiq’s youngcr son, Musa (d. 799 ce). This latter sect continued following a
chain ofimams until the twelfth in succcssion from ‘Ali, Muhammad al-Mahdi
al-Hujjah, vanished around 874. His followers believed that he had gone into a
form ofsupcrnatural concealment and would return as thc Messiah at the end
ofthe world. This meant that hc was the final imam, and as a result his followers
came to bc known as “Twelver Shi’a" bclicvcrs.
Twelver Shi’a believcrs have a complex theory concerning thc naturc of
the imam. which derives from the writings of thc sixth imam, Ja’far as-Sädiq.
According to this belief, there is an imam in every age who represents God on
Earth. This imam designates his successor by a System called nass. Thc System
involves giving thc imam-designate a bodyofknowlcdge that contains both the

46. 36 This Is Islam
^hi'a Practices
♦Zn addition to rcciting the
Qur’an, Shi’a Muslims often
gathcr to rccitc long prayers from
Muhammad and the imams. One
famous praycr iscallcd thc Prayerof
Kumayl (Du’a Kumayl). It was nar-
rated by 'Ali ibn Abi Tälib, whom
Shi’a Muslims recognize as thc first
imam,and theyrccite it onThursday
nights. Following is thc beginning
ofthc PraycrofKumayl:
O Allah! Blcss Muhammad
and his progeny.
O Allah! I bcsccch Thcc byThy
mercywhichencompasses all things
/ Andbylhypower bywhichThou
overcometh all things and submit
to it all things and humble before
it all things / And by Thy might
by which Thou hast conquercd all
things/ And byThymajesryagainst
which nothing can stand up
And by Thy grandeur which
prevails uponallthings/Andbvlhy
authoritv which is cxcrciscd over all
things / And by Thy own seifthat
shall cndurc forever after all things
have vanished/ And byThyNamcs
which manifest Thy power over all
things / And by Thy knowlcdgc
which pervades all things / And by
the light ofThy countcnancewhich
illuminateseverythingOThouwho
art the light!
O Thou who art the mostholy!
O Thou who existed before thc
foremosd O Thou who shall exist
after the last!
O Allah! Forgive me my
such sins as would aflront my con-
tinency / O Allah! Forgive me my
such sins as would bring down
calamity
O Allah! Forgive me my such
sins aswould change divine favours
(into disfavours) / O Allah! Forgive
me my such sins as would hinder
my supplication / O Allah! Forgive
me such sins as bring down mis-
fortuncs (or afflictions) / O Allah!
Forgive my such sins as would sup-
press hopc
O Allah! Forgive every sin
that I havc committcd and every
error that I have erred / O Allah!
1 endcavour to draw mvself nigh
to Thce through Thy invocation /
And I pray to Thee to intercede on
my behalf/ And 1 entreat Thce by
Thvbenevolence to draw nie nearer
to Thee / And grant me that 1
should be grateful to Thee and in-
spire me to remember and to invoke
Thee ...
Tramlaltfi by William Cbattiik in Tbc
Supplication of Kumayl, 'Ali ibn Abi
Tälib.

47. Islamic Sects 37
outer and the inner nieaning ofthe Qur’an, which is not possessedby any other
human being.
The Institution of thc imam is a covenant between God and human bc-
ings, and all Twelver Shi'a bclicvcrs are required to acknowlcdgc and follow
the imam oftheir age. There is a hadith tradition populär in Shi'a circles that
states: “Whoever dies without having known and recognized the imam ofhis
time dies as a disbelievcr." Imams are bclicvcd to be proofs ofG<xl on Earth,
and theirwords are thcwordsofGod. The imam ofthe time is awitness forthc
people and a doorway through which they can rcach God. According to most
Shi’a sect members, the imam is bclicvcd to be immune from sin or error, and
therefore serves as a perfect guide for a virtuous, religious lifc.
Following the disappearancc of the twelfth imam, the Shi'a community
was led by tWr/(envoys) acting on behalfofthc imam. who asserted that they
were in dircct contact with him and were simplycommunicating the Orders of
the imam to Shi'a society. When the fourth uu>4i/dicd in 939ce, the Institution
ofhaving an envoyrepresenting thc imam in thc communityended. Ihe period
from then on camc to be known as the Grcatcr Occultation (concealment), as
distinct from thc earlier Lesser Occultation. Düring thc Greatcr Occultation.
which continues into current time, Twelver Shi'a Islam developed an elaborate
System ofclcrical cducation and a formal clergy that took carc ofthc religious
needs ofthe Shi'a community in the absence of the imam. Ihe higbesr rank
of this clergy is bclicvcd to bc inspired by thc imam and is given the right to
engage in independent reasoning, or ijtihad. In actual fact, since thc sixteenth
Century ce, when Twelver Shi'a Islam bccamc the official religion ofIran and
emerged as thc most populär form of Shi’a Islam in the world, Shi'a clcrics
have been somewhat conservative in their cxcrcise ofijtihad. For all practical
purposcs, they act similarly to thc way Sunni scholars do in thc study of law.
except, ofcourse, that a Shi'a Scholar is bound by the Shi'a canon as opposed
to Sunni belief.
Ismä’ilis
Some Shi'abelievers maintained that lsmä'il, not hisyoungcrbrothcr Musa, was
the rightful seventh imam. Theybelievcd this despite the fact that lsma il died
beforc his father, Ja'far as-Sädiq. According to lsma ili doctrinc, before dying,
lsmä'il designated his son Muhammad ibn lsmä'il as his successor, and the line
ofimams continued with him.

48. 38 This Is Islam
Verv lirtle is known about the doctrincs ofthe early supporters ofthe leader-
shipofIsmä’il and his son Muhammad. Most knowlcdge conceming their belieft
is reconstructed on thebasisoflater Ismä'ili works. A fundamental featureoftheir
thoughtwas thedivisionofall knowledgc into twolevels zabir, an outer, apparent,
exotcric one; and batin, an inner, hidden,esotericone.Theouter, zabirlevelconsists
ofthecommonly accepted and understood divinelvrevealed scriptures and the re­
ligiouslawsastheyare laid out in these scriptures.Thislevelofknowlcdgechanges
with every prophet and everyscripture. The inner, batin level is what is concealcd
underthewords ofthescriptures and their laws. This hidden truth is theirdeeper,
real meaning and is unchanging. Itcan onlybe made apparent through aprocessof
Interpretation that can only be carried out bysomeonc who alrcady possesses this
knowlcdge. This special person would be the imam or one ofhis deputies.
One ofthe most interesting aspectsofIsmä'ili thought is theconcept ofcycli-
cal time. According to this belief, history goes through a cvcle ofseven eras, each
inaugurated by a prophet who publicly announces his message using a scripture.
The first six of these prophets are Adam, Noah. Abraham. Moses, Jesus, and
Muhammad. lhese prophets are accompanied by a silent companion who is the
guardian ofthe hidden dimension ofthe scripture. The silent companions corre-
sponding to the six prophets listed above are Seth. Shem, Ishmael. Aaron, Peter,
and‘Ali. Eachprophcticpairisfollowedbya seriesofseven imams, and the seventh
bccomes the publicorvocal prophet ofthe next cvcle. Thus, in the prophctic cvcle
ofJesus, Muhammad was the seventh imam. who also functioncd as the public
prophetofthenextcycle. In thecycleofMuhammad,Muhammadibn lsmä'il was
the seventh imam, and he will return at some point in the futurc to serve as the
public prophet ofhis own prophctic cycle (the seventh), and bring the entire cycle
ofseven to an end and our world with it. Until his return, Ismä'ilis believe that
the hidden batinknowlcdge should be kept secret and onlvbe revealed to initiated
bclievers on an oath that they will not reveal these sccrcts to Outsiders.
The Ismä'ilis becamc extremelypowerful in North Africa in the tenth Cen­
tury CE and tounded a dvnasty known as the Fatimids. For a briefperiod, the
Fatimids posed a threat to the absolute
political authority ofthe Sunni caliphs of
the Abbasid dynasty (750-1258), which
was based in Baghdad and had succeedcd
the Umayyads in most Islamic lands ofthe
time. Hie great city ofCairo was founded
by these Ismä'ilis in the tenth Century, as
Topie» for w/urth*r ^rudj
Abraham
Empire
Moses
Time, Conccptions of

49. Islamic Sects 39
/ätimn (c. 616-6;; C£)
/*Atima. the daughter of
Muhammad and Khadijah.
married 'Ali, Muhammad's dose
companion, and they had two sons
and a daughter (Hasan. Husayn,
and Zaynab). Fätima was extrcmcly
close to her father: she accompa-
nied him on important occasions
including the surrender of Meeca;
she also took care of him after he
waswounded at the Battle ofühud
that took place near Medina in 625
ce. She died only a few months af­
ter Muhammad, and many people
believe she actually died of grief.
Fätima is the most famous of
Muhammad's daughters largely be-
cause she was the wite of ‘Ali and
the mothcr ofMuhammad's grand-
children. 'liiere is a famous account
in which Muhammad is said to have
gathered Fatima and her family un­
der his cloak and referred to them
as his own family. Illis event is one
ofthe major pieccs ofcvidcncc that
the Shi'asect uses tojustifyitsbelief
in the right of‘Ali and Fätima’s de-
sccndants to lcad the ummah (com-
munitv). Fatimaisso central to Shi’a
Islam that a major Islamic dynasty,
the Fatimids, claimed descent from
herand took her namc.
was Cairos famous university, al-Azhar. This university laterbecame one ofthe
most important centers ofSunni learning, and it continues in that role today.
Overthe centurics.Ismä’ilism hasspürinto a numberofdifferentsects. The
most important division occurred at the end ofthe eleventh Century between
tliose whobelieved that Nizar(d, 1095)was the rightful imam and thoscwho feit
he lacked the moral Standingto be the leaderand that the real imam was Nizar's
brotheral-Musta'li (d. 1101). The rulingpowersofthe Fatimid Empiresupported
the religious Claims ofal-Musta'li. and the followers ofNizar were forced to flec
territories controlled by the Fatimids or eise hide for fcar ofpersecution.
The Fatimid Empire was destroved by the rise to power ofanother Sunni
dynasty, but not before Ismä'ili scholars patronizcd by the Fatimids had left a
lasting impact on Islamic philosophy and mysticism. The followers of Nizar
found refuge among the mountainous regions of Syria and Iran, where they
began a campaign ofintense missionary activity among the Sunni and Twelver
Shi'a population of the region. They also conducted a kind ofguerrilla war

50. MO This Is Islam
againsr the Sunni government and thc Christian crusadcr statcs that existed in
Lcbanon and Palestine at that time.
The Nizari Ismä’ili community wasgovcrned from a fortress called Rock of
Alamut, located in the mountains ofnorthern Iran. Rock ofAlamut feil to the
Mongolswhen they invaded Iran in thc middleofthe thirteenth Century, and af-
ter that the Nizari Ismä’ilicommunitybecame widelydispersed and divided into
scvcral morcsubsects. Oneofthese subsccts, called thc Qasimshahis,continued
in Iran, where their imam became involvcd in regional politics in thc cightccnth
Century. In rccognition ofhis loyalty, thc ninctccnth-ccnturv Iranian monarch
gave the then imamofthc Qasimshahis the title ofAgha Khan, which translatcs
roughlyas "Honorable Lord," a title that has been kept by his desccndants.
Ismä’ilis remain an extremely fragmented and dispersed Collection ofShi’a
sects. Tie strongest concentration of Ismä’ilis bclonging to thc Nizari line is
in Pakistan, particularly in thc northern mountainous regions of l iunza and
Gilgit, although smaller populations arc found in India, Iran, and Afghanistan.
Tic Ismä’ilis ofthe line ofal-Musta’li are concentrated around the Arabian Sea,
on thc western coast ofIndia, and in Pakistan and Ycmcn. Each Ismä’ili group
continues to believe in its own imam, although these figures do not wield the
kind ofrcligious authority they did in thc clcvcnth and twclfth ccnturies.
Mystical Islam—Sufism
Sufism is an umbrella term for a varietv ofphilosophical, social, and literaryphe-
nomena occurring within Muslim socicty. In its narrowest sense, it refers to a
number ofschools ofIslamic mystical philosophy and thcology, to thc phenom-
enon ofrcligious Orders and guilds that have exerted considerable influence over
thc dcvclopmcnt ofIslamic politics and socicty, and to the varied expressions of
populär piety and shrinecultsfound throughout the Islamic regions ofthe world.
In a wider sense, Sufism is offen seen as the spiritual musc bchind much pre-
niodern verse in Muslim litcraturc, thc Idiom ofmuch populär Islamic piety, thc
primarysocial arena open to women's rcligious participation, and a major force in
the conversion ofpeople to Islam in Africa and Asia.
Sufi Orders
Tic Sufi orders served as educational institutions that fostered the rcligious Sci­
ences, music, and dccorativc arts. 'Iheir lcaders sometimes functioned as theo-
logians and judges, combining scholastic and charismatic tbrms ofleadership.
Tiey also challcngcd the power ofthe legal and theological establishmcnt. In

51. Islamic Sects -41
^?uick ^wets: v7slamie Wjjsticnl /Joetry
W
ith the spread of Islam,
the Islamic mystical tra-
dition flourishcd and began to be
expressed in a new form: mystical
poctry. Unlikeotherspiritualpoems,
the mystical poems uscd a special
metaphorical language describing
divine intoxication with spiritual
wine in the tavern ofmystical love.
One rcnowncd poct isjaläl ad-Din
ar-Rümi, who became the best­
sellingpoctin North America in the
twenty-first Century,despite the fact
that he lived in the thirtccnth Cen­
tury and wrote in Persian. One of
Rumi's poems follows:
I Am Wind, You Are Fire
Oyouwho'vegone on pilgrimage—
where arc you, where, oh where?
Here, here is the Beloved!
Oh comc now, comc, oh tonte!
Your friend, he is your neighbor,
he is next to your wall—
You, erring in the desert—
what air oflove is this?
Ifyou'd see the Beloved’s
form without any form—
You arc the housc, the master,
You are the Kaaba, you!...
Where isa bunch ofroses,
ifyou would be this garden?
Where, one soul's pearlyessence
when youre the Sea ofGod?
That's true— and yetyour troubles
may turn to treasurcs rieh—
1 low sad that you yoursclfveil
the treasure that is yours!
TrantlatrdbyAnnemarieSchimmel
modern times (as in earlier times), the Sufi Orders have been praised for their
capacity to servc as channels ofreligious reform while bring criticized for a lack
ofrcspect for Islamic law and for fostcring ignorance and Superstition in order
to maintain their control over the Community.
Origins
TbcoriginsofSufism lie in an informal movement ofpersonal pictythatemerged
in the first Century ofIslam. Iltis movement, which was too informal and un-
formed tobe called a school, was characterized byan emphasison praver, asceti-
cism, and withdrawal fromsociety. Thecarlicst Sufislived in cavesorsimple huts
on the edges of the cities, and theywore coarse woolen robes as a sign oftheir
religious belieft. The term Sufism derives from the practice of wearing wooL

52. 42 This Is Islam
(S«/ls the Arabic Word for “wook") 'Die earliest Sufis also spcnt almosr all their
wakinghours inprayer, and theyfrequentlycngagcd in actsofself-mortification,
such as starvingthemselvesor staying up the cntire night, as a form ofreligious
exercise. They also livcd in complete poverty, having rcnounced their Connec­
tions to the world and possessing littlc other than the clothes on their backs. A
large percentageofthese earlySufis were women; sevcral are rcvered to thisday,
such as Räbi'ah al-'Adawiyah.
Tie earlv Sufi practiccs ofasceticism and the wearing of wool are shared
by Christian mystics and ascetics of the same pcriod, and it is very likely that
the Sufis adopted these practiccs after observing the Christian ascetics who
livcd with theni in Syria and Palestine- Sufis, howcvcr, place the origins oftheir
movemcnt and its practiccs in the Qur’an and in the life ofMuhammad. They
^äbi'nh (c. 715-801 C£j
•äbi allal-’Adawiyah isthe most
famous wonian Sufi mystie in
Islamic history. Shc was the fourth
daughter (Räbi'ah means “fourth")
bom to an cxtremcly poor family
in the cityofBasra (in modem-day
Iraq). Shc feil into slavery as achild
and spent most of her youth as the
propcrty ofa cruel master. But her
deep piety and asceticism convinccd
him to free her, after which she
movcd to a cave in the hills outside
Basra and spcnt the rest of her life
in devotion.
Räbi'ah al-’Adawiyah's reli­
giouspractice emphasizcd a love for
and complete devotion to God. She
is most famous for having praycd
to God that if she worshippcd
him becausc she fcared hell, he
should throw her into hell; if she
worshipped him out ofa desirc for
paradise, he should banish her from
paradisc; but ifshc worshippcd him
for his own sake. then he should
not withhold from her his ctcrnal
beautv. A similar sentiment is ap-
parcnt in a famous poem ascribed to
her: *1 love you with two lovcs, the
love ofdesirc / And the love which
is votir due." Manv miracles are as­
cribed to Rabi'ah al-'Adawiyah. and
she remains a modelofthe Muslim
who is completely devoted to God
with absolutcly no motivation other
than a pure love for him.

53. Islamic Sects 43
are quick to observe that Muhammad lived an exttcmelysimple, almost ascctic
life, and that he often withdrcw from Mecca to mcditate in a cave. Indced, it was
whilc meditating in this way that hc rcccivcd his first rcvclation. Sufis thereforc
see their practiccs as an Imitation of Muhammad, and their goal as similar to
the one he achieved in his relationship with G<k1,
The goal ofSufi practices is to have an intimste, personal expericnceofGod
in this world. According to lslamic.beliet, all Muslimswill havc adirect encoun-
tcrwith God alter theydie (opinions dift’eron what this means), but Sufis do not
wish to wait and instead want to have thc encounter with God before they die.
This desire is expressed in a saying attributed to thc Prophet and very populär
in Sufi circles that encourages Muslims to "Die before you die.”
This direct expericnce with God is considercd so overwhelming that it is
indescribablc and can only be spoken about in metaphors. The most commonly
used metaphors are thosc offalling in love and ofbeing intoxicatcd with wine.
These images are frequently encountcred in Sufi litcrature, particularly in the
vast amount ofSufi poctry that has been written in all Islamic languagcs to try
to express the indescribable joy that Sufis expericnce through their relationship
with God.
Union with God
The concept of Union with God is expressed in many different wavs, and thc
Problems involvcd in understanding how a mortal human being could unite
with the omnipotent, omniscient deity who is unlike us in every way has been
thc basis of much debate in Sufi philosophical circles. Thc union with God
is normallv calledfana, which literally means “destruction” or "annihilation."
This rclatcs to thc Sufi beliefthat the final stagc in an individual's spiritual
devclopmcnt is losing any consciousness ofindividual identity and only being
aware ofthe identity ofGod. In effect, God’s identity replaces the identity of
thc Sufi.
A famous Sufi named Mansür al-Ha!läj (c. 858-922) expressed this feeling
ofloss ofseifwhen he cried out. “1 am DivineTruth!" Hewas killcd for making
such sccmingly blasphemous uttcranccs in public, although what he was trying
to communicatc was thc message that he, Mansür al-1 ialläj, no longer existed
as an individual, because his consciousness had been replaced by thc conscious­
ness ofGod. Similar controvcrsial Statements havc been tnadc by many Sufis
who were attemptingto use shockingorparadoxical Speechtoget their message
across to the rest oftheir society.

54. -14 Tms Is Islam
Quick ^/acts; ^sccticism
sceticism, or the sacrificing
ofworldy pieasurcsin favor
ofspiritual cnlightenment, is com-
mon ro manvmajorworld rcligions.
For instante, in Hindu history, a
group ofascetics rcacted against the
Brahmins, orpricsts, whoeontrollcd
the common peoplc’s access ofre-
ligious texts and knowledge. Thus,
these ascetics retreated to thewoods
to scck spiritual knowlcdgc, and
their efiorts rcsulted in the Hindu
holy texts, the Upanishads. Prince
Siddhartha Gautama, who later
founded Buddhist», was inspired by
an ascetic to lcavc his royal family
andwealth to seek the truth. Chris-
tianity'sJesusofNazareth wasoften
known to challcnge his mind and
body by subjecting himsclf to the
extreme conditions ofthe desert of
Judaea for prolonged periods.
Sufis disagree over whether the final spiritual goal of Sufism is to lose
personal identity complctcly in the identity ofGod, or to reach a stage whcrc
petty human concerns no longer prevent thc bclicvcr front sceing the world in
its truc naturc; in othcr words, to see things the way God sees them. A com­
mon metaphor for the first approach is to dcscribc the Sufis individuality as
a drop that vanishes into thc ocean; it does not cease to exist entirely, for it
is now pari ofthe vastness ofthc sca; it only ccascs to exist insofar as it is an
individual drop. The view that the individual sees things more clearly dcpicts
the human heart (the seat ofthe intcllect in mcdieval Islamic thoughtjust as
it was in mcdieval Christian thought) as a mirror that is normally dirty. The
dirt or tarnish on the mirror is humans' everyday conccrns and petty desires.
Through engaging in mystical cxcrcises, belicvers effectively polish thc tnir-
rors of their hearts and cleanse them to the point where they can accurately
reflect the light ofGod.
The Sufi Path
Sufis believc that thc average human being is unablc to understand the true
nature ofthe world and ofspirituality because most peoplc are too involvcd in
the pettyconccrns ofeverydaylife to see things as they really are. The quest for

55. Islamic Sects -15
l^orth ^ebating
C
an people gain religious en-
lightenmentwithout removing
thcmsclvcs from the constraints
of their daily lives? How does
the starkness of asccticism
enablc spiritual growth? Can
you think of any modern-day
ascetics?
spiritual understanding in Sufism is seen as a path each Sufi must travel un­
der the guidance ofa teacher or master, This path has many stations, and their
numbers and names vary depending on the school ofSufi thought. Usually the
first stage on the Sufi path is repentance. The Sufi is cxpcctcd to repent all bad
deeds and takc a vow to avoid all carthly pleasures; this includes activitics that
are both permissible and forbidden according to Islamic law.
After repenting, the Sufi abandons the things ofthis world, divesting him-
or herseifofcarthly belongings, "Iltis means giving up property and detaching
the seiffrom friends and family, After doing so, the Sufi enters a monastery or
convent and becomes fullv devoted to the difficult task ofgetting rid ofcarthly
concerns. In actual fact, it is extrcmcly difficult, however, to trulv abandon past
habits and cradicatc all familv attachmenrs, so the proccss ofdivestment offen
takes a long time and rcquircs strict, mcditational exercises under the inasters
direction. A Sufi offen thus begins the exercises associatcd with the next stage
before completelv t.-anscending the previous stage. For example, the individual
mightpertorm the exercises associatedwith divestmentwhile still tryingtotruly
repent previous habits.
Meditation (Zikr')
The Sufi path, which consists ofslowlv ridding the seifofworldly concerns,
relies on meditation to accomplish its goals. The various Sufi forms ofmedia-
tion arc called zikr (or dhikr), literally mcaning "repetition," "remembrancc,"
“utterance," or “mentioning.”The term appearsseveral times in the Qur’an and
urges Muslims to frequentlyremember their Lord (“do zikrofhim"). The most
basic levcl ofzikr consists of repeating one ofGod’s names. In Islam, God is
believed to have many names that describe some aspcct ofhis nature. Ninety-
nine names are considercd special and arc callcd the “Most Bcautiful Names."