Introduction to surveying

1. 1
Mine Survey and Mine
Development

2. 1

3. 1

4. 1

5. 1
Fundamental definitions and concepts – Principles of
survey, units of measurements, scales, Linear and
Measurements, map reading, map and plan, measurement
errors, Units, Standardization and Conversion, Application
of Surveying
Introduction

6. Fundamental Definition and Concept:
 Surveying is an art of determining the relative position
of points on, above or beneath the surface of the earth by
means of direct or indirect measurement of distance,
directions and elevation.
 Surveying may be defined as the science of determining
the position, in three dimensions, of natural and man-
made features on or beneath the surface of the Earth.
 These features may be represented in analogue form as
a contoured map, plan or chart, or in digital form such as
a digital ground model (DGM).
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Introduction

7. Geological survey
A geological survey is the systematic investigation of
the geology beneath a given piece of ground for the purpose of
creating a geological map or model.
It is a systematic examination of an area to determine the
character, relations, distribution, and origin or mode of
formation of its rock masses and mineral resources
Techniques/tools:
• walk-over survey
• studying outcrops and landforms
• Intrusive methods: such as hand auguring and machine-
driven boreholes
• Geophysical techniques and remote sensing methods: such
as aerial photography and satellite imagery.
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Introduction

8. Mine surveying
Mining regulations normally require mines to maintain plans and
sections of the surface and any underground workings. Regulations may
require these documents to be provided to the government. Regulations
normally specify requirements for being up-to-date, in months.
 Plan of current and future land users
 positions of any potentially hazardous
 Information on risk of flooding, contamination or other safety
hazards.
 Boundary pillars around mining properties.
 Mine Surveying is an essential component of Mineral Resource
Management that provides technical support in terms of
measurement, reporting, positional accuracy and direction to the
mining process.
 The role of Mine Surveying has changed in recent times, with
changes in legislation, changes in technologies and in work
structures.
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Introduction

9. Principles of Surveying
 Principle of working from whole to parts
 Using measurements from two control points to fix other
points.
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Fixing the third points with the reference of two points
Introduction

10. 1
Introduction
(a) Work from Whole to Part
In surveying large areas, a system of control points are
identified and they are located with high precision. Then
secondary control points are located using lesser precise
methods. The details of the localized areas are measured
and plotted with respect to the secondary control points.
This is called working from whole to part. This principle
in surveying helps in localizing the errors. If the
surveying is carried out by adding localized areas errors
accumulated and may become unacceptable when large
area is covered. A
B
C
D E
F
G
I H
Figure: ABC: Main framework; DEF: Minor framework; GHI: Smallest framework

11. 1
Introduction (b) Establishing any point by at least two
independent measurements.
Survey stations are fixed by at least two measurements,
either linear or angular measurements or both linear and
angular measurements from two control points.

12. 1
Introduction
Quantity SI Units
Length Meter
Time Seconds
Temperature kelvin
Electric Current ampere
Luminous
intensity
candela
Units:
SI Units: The international system of units called the SI
units is derived from the metrics system. The basic
measurable quantities are standardized, and they use the
units listed below in the table are the different quantities
and their units of measurements.

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Length Conversions
US standard meaurement Metric Measurement
1 inch 2.54 cm
1 ft 0.3048 m
1 yard 0.914 m
1 mile 1.609 km
US Standard System of Measurements
Just like the metrics system, the US follows the imperial
system of units, also called the U.S customary units. Here
things are measured in feet, inches, pounds, ounces, etc.
Let us explore them in detail in the following sections.
Introduction

14. Units for measurement and conversion
 Linear measurements
 Measurement of distance: horizontal, vertical, slope: unit: m,
ft, mile, kosh etc.
 Measurement of Area:m2
, ft2
, Hectare, ropani, bigha etc.
 Volume: m3
, ft3
, liter, gallon etc.
 Angular measurements
1 degree (1o ) = 60 minutes
1 minute (1’) = 60 seconds (”)
360 degrees = 400 grads
2π rad = 360 degrees
1 acre = 4046.8564224 m2
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Introduction

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For general overview only
Introduction
S. No Description Unit Symbol
1 Length
Kilometer km
meter m
millimeter mm
2 Area
square meter m2
hectare ha
3 Volume cubic meter m3
4 Angle
degree °
minute ’
second ”
5 Mass/weight kilogram kg
6 Temperature degree Celsius °C

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Introduction For general overview only
S. No Unit Symbol Quantity Covert to Quantity
1 Hectare ha 1 m2
10000.000
2 Acre ac 1 m2
4046.850
3 Hectare ha 1 ac 2.471
4 Square meter m2
1 sq yard 1.196
5 Bigha 1 m2
6772.64o
6 Kattha 1 m2
338.632
7 Dhur 1 m2
16.932
8 Bigha 1 ropani 13.313

17. Scale
 Scale may be defined as the ratio of measurement in the
plan or paper to the actual object.
 Another way to represent the scale is by the
representative fraction (RF), which does not use any unit.
The scale of 1cm = 10m is the same as the RF of 1:1000.
 RF=
𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒏 𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒘𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝑨𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒐𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
 In RF numerator and denominator are in same unit. An
1/1000 can mean 1mm=1000mm or 1cm=1000cm or
1m=1000m.
Scale can be classified in three types according to the need of
applications.
 Reducing scale or civil engineering scale. e.g. 1:10, 1:100, 1:1000 etc
 Enlarging scale or mechanical engineering scale. 2:1, 5:1, 10:1 etc.
 Full scale. e.g. 1:1 20
Introduction

18. Process of surveying
 Field work
 Reconnaissance survey
 Station Fixing and Marking
 Observation and measurement
 Office work
 Data computation and analysis
 Map Plotting
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Introduction

19. Classification of Surveying
1. Primary Division/ Classification
 Plane surveying
 Geodetic surveying
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Introduction

20. 2. Secondary Classification of Surveying
A. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
B. Classification Based on Object of Survey
C. Classification Based on Instruments Used
D. Classification Based on Methods Employed
A. Classification Based on Nature of Survey Field
1. Land Survey
(a) Topographic Survey
(b) Cadastral Survey
(c) City Survey
2. Marine or Hydrographic Survey
3. Astronomical Survey
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Introduction

21. B. Classification Based on Object of Survey
(a) Engineering Survey
(b) Military Survey
(c) Mines Survey
(d) Geological Survey
(e) Archeological Survey
C. Classification Based on Instruments Used
(a) Chain survey
(b) Compass survey
(c) Plane table survey
(d) Theodolite survey
(e) Tachometric survey
(f) Modern survey using electronic distance meters and total
station
(g) Photographic and Aerial survey
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Introduction

22. D. Classification Based on Methods Employed
(a) Triangulation Survey
(b) Traversing Survey
Open Traverse
Closed Traverse
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Introduction

23. Linear Measurement
Distance Measurement Techniques
Measurement of horizontal distance between two points
is essential in surveying to plot a plan or a map. When
slope distance is measured in the field, slope distance
needs to be reduced to horizontal distance as the map is
plotted to a horizontal plane. Linear distance
measurement techniques are:
Direct method (Flat Surface): In direct method, linear
distance measurement between two points is made by
using a chain and/or a tape.
Introduction

24. Linear Measurement
Case: Measurement of Horizontal distance on
Slope Ground
a) Direct Method
This method is used for the measurement of
horizontal distance when the ground is irregular. In
this method, by making small steps, the equivalent
horizontal distance is measured directly in the field.
Generally down-hill chaining. Taping is done during
the measurement.
HD = d1+ d2 + d3
d2
d3
d1
Introduction

25. 2. Linear Measurement
Measurement of Horizontal distance on Slope
Ground
b) Indirect Method (computation method)
It is conducted when the ground slope is regular or
even.
Generally slope(angle) and slope
distance are known.
In this method ground slope are observed
and slope distance is found. (See fig.)
d1 = AB.cosθ1,
d2 = BC.cosθ2,
d3 = CD.cosθ3,
HD = d1+ d2 + d3
Introduction

26. 1
Introduction Measurement Error
Errors in Surveying
• Surveying is a process that involves observations and
measurements with a wide range of electronic, optical
and mechanical equipment some of which are very
sophisticated.
• Despite the best equipment's and methods used, it is
still impossible to take observations that are completely
free of small variations caused by errors which must be
guided against or their effects corrected.
Error = Observe Value – True Value

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Introduction MAP : Generally, MAP is said to be a visual representation of
an area. It can also be said as a symbolic representation
highlighting relationships between elements of that space
such as objects, regions, and themes. Map contains a lot of
information. It shows only the important features of the area.
PLAN : PLAN are a set of two-dimensional diagrams or
drawings used to describe a place or an object, or to
communicate building or fabrication instructions. In plan
details are given in form of symbols. Thus, it can show both
length and breadth.

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Introduction Plan Map
A plan is the graphical
representation, to some scale, of
features on, rear or below the
surface of the earth as projected on
horizontal plane.
If the scale of the graphical
representation on a horizontal
plane is small, the plan is called a
map.
A plan is drawn on a large scale. A map is drawn on a small scale.
Scale: 1 cm = 10 m or < 10 m Scale: 1 cm = 100 m or > 100 m
On a plan, generally horizontal
distances & directions are shown.
On a topographic map, vertical
distances (elevations) are also
shown by contour lines.
A plan is drawn for small area.
e.g. – Plan of house, plan of bridge
A map is drawn for large area.
e.g. – Map of Area

29. Geological Mapping
In simple terms, a geological map shows the surface
distribution of rocks in a particular area.
However, in order to fully understand a geological
map, it is necessary to be familiar with several basic
geological principles, including the laws of
stratigraphy, geological age, and geological
structures.
To the experienced eye, a geological map reflects the
three-dimensional distribution of rocks, and also
serves as a visual guide to the geological history of
the area.
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Introduction

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Introduction “Geologic mapping is a highly interpretive, scientific
process that can produce a range of map products for
many different uses, including assessing ground-water
quality and contamination risks:
predicting earthquake, volcano, and landslide hazards;
characterizing energy and mineral resources and their
extraction costs; waste repository siting; land
management and land-use planning; and general
education.”

31. Application of survey
 To prepare a topographic map which shows the hills,
valleys, rivers, villages, towns, forests etc. for a country.
 To prepare a cadastral map showing the boundaries of
fields, houses and other properties.
 To prepare an engineering map which shows the details
of engineering works such as roads, railways, reservoirs,
irrigation canals, etc.
 To prepare a military map showing the road and railway
communications with different parts of a country. Such
map also shows the different strategic points important
for the defense of a country.
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Introduction

32. To prepare a contour map to determine the capacity
of a reservoir and to find the best possible route for
roads, railways, etc.
To prepare a geological map showing areas including
underground resources.
To prepare an archeological map including places
where ancient relics (physical remains) exist.
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Introduction

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Introduction

34. Responsibilities, Role and Tasks of a Surveyor
Responsibilities of a Surveyor
 Responsibility to the Task
 Responsibility to the Client or Employer
 Responsibility to the Community
 Responsibility to the team
Role of a Surveyor
 The role of the surveyor is that of the leader of the team.
With that role come the responsibilities outlined above.
 The role of the surveyor is to perform the measurements
necessary to complete any task required.
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Introduction

35.  Tasks of a Surveyor
The tasks performed by a surveyor will depend on which
branch of surveying they practice in.
The most common tasks involve the determination of height
and distances. For the Cadastral Surveyor, the main tasks
involve the determination of property boundaries.
For the Topographical Surveyor, the main tasks involve the
location of detail on the earth’s surface for the production of
maps.
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Introduction

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For the Engineer/Surveyor, the main tasks include the setting
out of buildings, sewers, drains, bridges runway and
roadways; determining areas and volumes of regular and
irregular figures; the preparation of detailed drawings and
plans.
For the Mine Surveyor, the main tasks include the setting out
of mine boundaries and the calculation of volumes.
Introduction