The Origin Of Pseudotachylite And Its Parent Rock

The Origin Of Pseudotachylite And Its Parent Rock
The objective of this paper is to inform, and educate one in the origin of pseudotachylite and its parent rock for which it intruded. Pseudotachylite
derives from early 1900 's when it was describe as glassy metamorphosed rock that was "almost a tachtylite" (Superfaults and Pseudotachylite). When
a group of children slide down a snowy hillside on a wintry day, a process known as frictional melting is happening underneath them. At first, they
cannot gain enough speed to fulfill their excitement because of the loosely packed snow. Eventually, their track that they have used over and over
again becomes packed down and looks somewhat more glossy than the snow. Their tracks are frictional melting. As the weight of their sled is pushed
downward by gravity to the snow–packed embankment, the cold dry snow is heated up by the energy of the two masses rubbing together and the
snow melted quickly and was released to the atmosphere after the sled passed over. In geology, the sled and snow are replaced with plate boundaries
that cover the earth (Mcgoughlin, 1992). Frictional melting has caused scientist to be puzzled in how they formed considering that the rock was
somewhat molten and exhibits characteristics of formations that are under low heat and high pressure. In the upper crust, frictional melting can be seen
along in different environments. In some scenarios, it can be visible in areas that prehistoric glaciers were present, and its aftermath of being around
higher
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Sample Resume : On The Temperature Of The Magma
Updated Take Home Answers 1. a. hornblende b. muscovite c. quartz d. olivine e. plagioclase f. clay minerals 2. Bowen 's reaction series shows us how
minerals crystallize based on the temperature of the magma. Different minerals will crystallize at different temperatures. In a discontinuous variations,
the minerals crystallize in steps, as the temperature cools to allow the next mineral to crystallize. The continuous series forms plagioclase feldspars,
because it is the same mineral group but different chemical variations. 3. Wegner believed in a supercontinent, with the areas with proof of glaciers
centered over the South Pole, which would explain the climates better than mulitple continents. 4. Active margins differ from passive... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
6. The asthenosphere can flow, where the lithosphere cannot. The lithosphere is considered rigid, where the asthenosphere is plastic. The boundaries
are found at distinct areas of seismic discontinuity. The lithosphere is the crust and part of the upper mantle, where the asthenosphere is only mantle.
The asthenosphere will migrate into the lithosphere, meaning the lithosphere becomes denser as time goes on, and the asthenosphere thins. 7. The
age of the seafloor is youngest at oceanic ridges and ages symetrically on either side from there. This led Hess to theorize that the seafloor spread to
cause continental drift. The midoceanic ridge is a spreading center, where hot magma emerges from the upper mantle to create new seafloor.
Supporting this is the magnetism of the seafloor, which have bands that are magnetic anomalies parallel to the midoceanic ridges. The bands coincide
with known polar reversals, which supports seafloor spreading theory. 8. The silica oxygen tetrahedra is an anionic group that composed the majority
of silicates in the crust. Isolated tetrahedra don 't share oxygen atoms. Olivine is an example. Signle chains share two oxygen atoms, such as Pyroxene.
Double chains share two to three oxygen atoms, such as amphibioles. Sheet share three atoms, like micas. Framework forms a three dimensional
structure by sharing four atoms, such as quartz. 9. Shield volcanoes tend to be lower sloped and mostly

Frasnian-Famennian Extinction
Abstract
The Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction in the Late Devonian has often been considered as one of the major 5 extinctions through time. Conflicting
interpretations for the cause of this extinction exist, but the role of volcanism is becoming increasingly appealing due to recent advances in
radioisotope dating. New K–Ar and 40Ar/39Ar ages for the Viluy traps in Siberia suggest multiphase emplacement of the Viluy traps with an early
phase likely contributing to the Frasnian–Famennian mass extinction. Other work supports this idea of multiphase emplacement. Changes in earth
systems during the late Devonian support the argument for the role of volcanism as a root in the destruction of multiple marine habitats during the Late
Devonian. One explanation for the Frasnian–Famennian extinction involves an initial pulse of Viluy Trap volcanism which lead to elevated levels in
the atmosphere, marine anoxia and ultimately extinction. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rocks associated with the Viluy traps include dikes, sills, and layered basalt breccia, and are overlain by Late Devonian–Early Carboniferous
sediments (Ricci et al., 2013). Previous analysis on dating the traps has proved difficult due to high rates of erosion and burial by Mesozoic
sediments in the east and Siberian traps to the west (Kiselev et al., 2006). The current extent of the Viluy traps is 800 by 450 km (Gaiduk, 1987;
Kiseleve et al., 2006) with a total thickness of sediments up to 9 km and a volume of about 300X103km3 (Kiselev et al., 2006). However, effects of
erosion and burial through time have likely contributed to a decrease in volume with time, and initial volume likely reached one million cubic
kilometers (Kiselev et al., 2006). Thus, this value is similar to other volcanic provinces which have been associated with major mass extinctions
through time

Apollo 11 : The First Space Mission
Apollo 11 was the first space mission that landed humans on the moon. On July 20, 1969, astronauts Neil Armstrong and Edwin Aldrin landed on the
Moon while Michael Collins stayed in the Command Module. On the surface, Armstrong and Aldrin spent two and a half hours collecting samples,
taking pictures, and exploring the surface of the moon. After they got their samples, they placed a three by five feet American flag on the moon, a
plaque that said, "Here men from the planet Earth first set foot upon the moon. July 20, 1969 A.D. We came in peace for all mankind." They landed
off the shores of Hawaii on July 24, 1969. Apollo 11 landing on the moon exchanged new scientific and technological information in history,
encountered a new region to discover, and started more explorations in space. According to the Lunar and Planetary Institute, Apollo 11 brought back
the first geological substances back from the moon. One of the substances was one–hundred and ninety–three grams of basalt. Basalt are hardened
rocks from molten lava. These rocks are commonly found in Hawaii. Basalt has a dark gray color, so when the moon is looked at, the darker areas
are basalt. These minerals are very similar to the ones on Earth, except for the extra titanium. These basalts from the Apollo 11 landing site are from a
range of 3.6 to 3.9 million years old and come from at least two differently chemically magma sources.
The other substance was two–hundred and thirteen grams of breccia. Breccia are just

Geology of Flin Flon Area
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– Regional history, lithology and structural geology of the Flin Flon greenstone belt and the
broader Trans–Hudson Orogen, with special emphasis on University of Saskatchewan Flin Flon Field School map area 4
––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––– By: Cameron MacKay
Introduction – For the period of Sunday, August 28th – Sunday, September 4th, 2011, students from the University of Saskatchewan geological
sciences department along with professors Dr. Kevin Ansdell and Dr. Kyle Larson took part in a geologic field school in and around the city of Flin
Flon, Manitoba. The purpose of this field school was for students to... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Next, we can see that the rock displays a subtle porphyritic texture with plagioclase comprising the phenocrysts. The overall texture of the surrounding
groundmass is granoblastic equigranular. Under thin section we also see a weakly defined foliation evidenced in the preferential alignment of
actinolite grains and to a lesser extent chlorite grains. Undulose extinction is also observed in quartz indicating the rock was subject to deformation.
The normalized quartz, alkali–feldspar, and plagioclase (QAP) values of this rock indicate that it is classified as a grano–diorite according to the IUGS
QAPF classification system which is consistent with the hand sample interpretation. Interpretation – Pervasive micro–veining throughout the unit was
initially thought to

Exploration Of Mars : The Marine Three And Four Space...
Exploration of Mars
In the course of recent decades, man has gotten himself less interested in his home surroundings which has made him turn into an inquisitive being.
Subsequently, he has looked for asylum in science where he got the chance to extinguish his interest. From science, he could learn about the presence
of different planets which he later observed to be a significant number. Of all the nine planets he had found,Mars captivated him of all. This is the
reason why he decided to send robots into the planet (Tosca and others 2008). A great case to consider of robots that man sent to this planet is the
Marine three and four space robots. Other than trying to extinguish his trinkets nature, he was hoping to fulfill different cravings too. Top of his
motivation list was the objective of hunting down logical answers where he was hoping to portray an assortment of rocks and soils that held pieces of
information to past water action in this complex environment.
Specifically, he needed to gain real examples from this planet he had quite recently found. These specimens he looked for would incorporate those that
have minerals kept by water–related procedures, for example, precipitation, dissipation, sedimentary cementation or aqueous action. In any case, this
was not all that disturbed his mind. He needed to decide the conveyance and structure of minerals, shakes, and soils that made up this planet
notwithstanding figuring out what geologic procedures came about to the

Essay on The Igneous Petroleum of the Etendeka Igneous...
The Parana'– Etendeka flood basalt province is kown as one of the largest continetal igneous province with a volume of about 1 x 106 km (Jerram et
al., 1999) The Etendeka Igneous Province located in Namibia forms in the Eastern parts of the Parana'–Etendeke flood basalt province and represnts
less than 10% of the Parana'– Etendeka with approximatly 800 000 km2. (Ewart et al ,1998). Althouth, it only covers a very small proportion, it
preseves excellent rock exposures in the Namib desert envirnment which makes it a significant area for both the studing of detailed stratigraphy and
significant anylisis of emrical internal stratigraphy which has produced information of the palaeo–volcanic features such as the shield volaneos (Jerram
et... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
(Ewart et al, 1998) The mountain, in addition to the various segments, consist of doletire dykes, sills as well as plugs.The occurrence of certain
chemically unique dykes and lava within the Tafelkop member means that some of the basalts rock emanated from significant volcanic edifice related
to the Messum. (Ewart et al, 1998) The overall sequence consist entirely of mafic lavas which are futher sub–divided into different series which are
low in Ti and Zr and also ones hing in both Ti and Zr. I will denote the low Ti and Zr as LTZ.L and the hing in Ti and Zr as LTZ.H. The LTZ.H
consist of magnesum, alkaline to tholetiitic lavas, with a great amount of oliv + cpx phenecryst assembledge. They are a results of a possible
occurrence of a mantle plum melts. (Ewart et al, 1998) The LTZ.H, on the other hand, contains much less magnesium and are tholeiltic consisting of
largely cpx В± oliv +plag+Fe–Ti oxides phenecryst assemblege and also contain groundmass containing aguite and pigeonite. (Ewart et al, 1998)
Thorough research has been made to investigate the mineralogy of the Goboboseb to contrust a petrological description of the area. Goboboseb quartz
latite pyroxene peneocryst consist of pigionite with traces of aguite and pigeonit В± aguite occuring a bit closer the the Messum, which is belived to
be the source. Pigeonit appears to be the only pyroxene present as a phenocryst phase.. The

The Piedmont Essay
The Piedmont is located between the Coastal Plain and the Mountain regions, in the middle region of the state. The origins of Piedmont are French,
meaning "foot of the mountain", because it's located at the base of the Appalachians Mountains. From the western Coastal Plane to the mountains, the
elevations range from about 300 feet to near 1,500 feet (Seaman 2006). The fall line, or fault zone, lies between the Coastal Plain and the Piedmont.
The rivers that flow along the fault line are formed from shoals, low waterfalls and rapids. As the rivers flow from the Piedmont to the coastal Plain
the rocks become younger and softer. The streams below the fall line are usually lethargic and smooth–flowing. The streams above the fall line are
gravelly and shallow, making boating difficult. As for the land, the Piedmont is called a plateau because it is high and mostly flat. Most geologist
separate the Piedmont into two different areas because the rock suites are so different. The eastern part, known as the Carolina Slate Belt and then the
western part, known as the Inner piedmont. My main area of focus will be the Carolina Slate Belt, with attention to the ancient ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The first one is the Uwharrie suite, and the second is the Virgilian suite that comprises the rest of the belts on the outskirts. It is believed that both
suited began to form while North America and South America were still one continent, and continued to develop after they were separated. Although
geologist do not know when and how the joining of the Virgilian and Uwharrie suites happened, it is known that the Virgilian rocks are slightly older
and probably developed as a primitive island arc on Oceanic lithosphere, while the Uwharrie appears to have been deposited in a rift on a
microcontinent the may have already been separated from South America (Rogers

Compared To The Meled Age Of Earth
APSC 151 MIDTERM FALL 2017 1) Compared to the age of the Universe of about 14 billion years, the currently accepted age of Earth is about
________ years as determined by using radioactivity for dating rocks and minerals. A) 4.6 thousand B) 4.6 billion C) 5.4 million D) 13.7 billion 2) The
________ division of the geologic time scale is an era of the Phanerozoic Eon. A) Paleocene B) Paleozoic C) Permian D) Proterozoic 3) The Earth's
core was formed from ________. A) a massive nickel iron asteroid that was the nucleus upon which Earth condensed B) high density radioactive
carbon C) the left over nickel and iron that would not fit into the earlier formed crust and mantle D) molten iron and nickel that ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
A) along a mid–ocean ridge B) along the length of a deep mantle plume C) along a transform fault D) along a subduction zone 11) Deep ocean
trenches are surficial evidence for ________. A) rifting beneath a continental plate and the beginning of continental drift B) sinking of oceanic
lithosphere into the mantle at subduction zones C) rising of hot asthenosphere from deep in the mantle D) transform faulting between an oceanic plate
and a continental plate 12) Plates are sliding past one another horizontally along a ________ plate boundary. A) Transform B) convergent C) divergent
D) subduction 13) The true colour of a mineral as seen in its powdered form is called it's ________. A) Birefringence B) chatoyancy C) iridescence D)
streak
14) Which one of the following minerals has the greatest hardness on the Mohs hardness scale? A) Feldspar B) calcite C) gypsum D) topaz 15)
Which of the following best defines a mineral and a rock? A) A rock has an orderly, repetitive, geometric, internal arrangement of minerals; a mineral
is a lithified or consolidated aggregate of rocks. B) A mineral consists of its constituent atoms arranged in a geometrically repetitive structure; in a
rock, the atoms are randomly bonded without any geometric pattern. C) In a mineral the constituent atoms are bonded in a regular, repetitive, internal
structure; a rock is a lithified or consolidated aggregate of minerals. D) A rock consists of atoms bonded in a regular,

Colurial Statue Of Pharaoh And The Colossal Statue Of...
Art can be defined as the transference of the author's feelings and emotions into the visual, auditory or tactile form consisting of paintings, sculptures,
music or literature which can be perceived with human senses. There are many forms of art which were influenced by different time periods, cultures
or geographic regions. One of the oldest forms of visual art that has been practiced across different continents is the art of sculpture. Historically,
sculpture was used mainly for ritual purposes, where the worshipers gathered around the statues to pay tribute to their deities. Among these sculptures
are the Colossal Statue of Pharaoh and the Marble Statue of Athena Parthenos. They are pieces of art from two different ancient empires and time
periods; however, both these sculptures represented God to their believers: Athena for Greeks and Pharaoh for Egyptians.
Another, great sculpture available for viewing at the Metropolitan Museum of Art is the Colossal Statue of Pharaoh. The sculpture is long–term loan
from the Agyptisches Museum und Papyrussammlung, Staatlich Mussen zu Berlin–Preussischer Kulturbesitz and it commemorates the Egyptian
culture of the Middle Kingdom period dating back to ca. 1919–1885 B.C. just as the Marble State of Athena Parthenos, the author of the sculpture is
unknown. The artist used granodiorite, "a plutonic rock composed of black biotite, dark–gray hornblende, off–white plagioclase, and translucent gray
quartz" (geology.about.com), as its medium

Field Camp Analysis Essay
During the GEOL252 Borland field camp, a number of different basement and basin rocks were examined. This report will contain descriptions and
interpretations of the basement outcrop which is named the Triangle. This outcrop is best exposed on Borland Road, with a grid reference of 116455
491995, and can be seen in Figure 1 as an X. It will be on the left side coming from the east.
The Triangle is part of the Heterogenous Gneiss, which is a formation of several different types of gneisses that formed in the late Jurassic. This
particular outcrop is about seven meters high, 15 meters wide, and has three types of gneisses and four granite pegmatite intrusions. The purpose of
examining this outcrop was to get an understanding of how cross–cutting relationships can determine relative age, and to see physical properties of
rocks that make up some of the Median Batholith.
Observations:
Orthogneiss: This gneiss, annotated as 1 in Figure 2, is a coarse, dark gray rock that contains clasts of diorite. The observed minerals include biotite,
quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, and hornblende. The rock has a foliated texture, and an orientation of 042/38Вє NW. It is in contact with a granite
pegmatite intrusion annotated as 7 in Figure 2. It is hard, and not easily broken apart.
Quartzofeldspathic gneiss: This gneiss, annotated as 2 in Figure 2, is a lighter ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The mineralogy includes quartz, biotite, muscovite, plagioclase, orthoclase, and small amounts of garnet. The orientations for the intrusions from 4 to
6 are 001/59Вє SW, 005/28 NW , and 064/79Вє NW. An eroded contact is found between intrusions 5 and 6. 4 is cross–cutting 5, and 5 is
cross–cutting 6. There is another granite pegmatite intrusion in the orthogneiss, annotated as 7 in Figure 2, with an orientation of 166/38 Вє NE. It has
the same composition as the other granites, but includes clasts of

Taking a Look at the Lynne Deposit
The Lynne deposit lies within the early Proterozoic Penokean fold belt of the southern province of the Precambrian Shield. The fold belt is divided
into two major terranes in Wisconsin (Sims 1989). The first is the northern Penokean terrane, which contains major oxide facies iron formations and
granitic intrusions (DeMatties 1989). The second major terrane, separated from the Penokean terrane by the Niagara fault zone, is the Wisconsin
magmatic terrane, characterized by a volcanic island arc–basin assemblage (Sims 1989). This southern terrane lacks major oxide facies iron formations,
but contains abundant tonalite–granite intrusions (DeMatties 1989). The Wisconsin magmatic terrane is further subdivided into the northern
Pembine–Wausau terrane and the southern Marshfield terrane, which are separated by the Eau Pleine shear zone, a north–dipping subduction zone
(Sims 1989). Sims et al. (1989) synthesized U–Pb zircon ages for the Pembine–Wausau terrane. Sims concluded that the volcanic rocks were generated
from around 1889 to 1860 Ma as island arcs and closed back–arc basins above the south–dipping subduction zone (Niagara fault zone). Granitoid rocks
in the terrane, emplaced from around 1870 to 1760 Ma, are mainly granodiorite and tonalite but include gabbro, diorite, and granite. These developed
as island arcs above the Eau Pleine shear zone. The Niagara fault zone contains a relict ophiolite, suggesting that the rocks in the Pembine–Wausau
terrane probably accumulated on

Apollo 11 Research Paper
When Apollo astronauts carried samples of the moon's surface back to earth, the rocks and sediments has shown something incredible. It contained
clues to how Earth and the Moon formed as well as the history of the Sun. The scientists looked for what life would be like if humans could live on the
moon. The Apollo 11 mission brought back the first geologic samples from the Moon back to Earth. Astronauts collected twenty–two kilograms of
material which acquired samples of the lunar "soil," fifty rock samples and two core tubes which was found below the moon's surface. All the samples
was not composed with any water which provided no evidence for living organisms in the Moon's history. They figured out that there was volcanic
activity since they ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The astronauts found on the regolith that the highlands have aluminum in its rocks and the regolith in the maria contains iron and magnesium
which happens to be a major component of basalt. There was two main types of rocks found on the Apollo 11 site, basalts and breccias. The first
type of rock was basalts were are solidified from molten lava. Basalts are made up of pyroxene and plagioclase which was formed by two
chemically different magma sources and are dark gray which is why the Moon contains dark areas. The second type of rock are breccias which is
composed of fragments of older rocks by the heat and pressure of meteorites. These samples from the regolith and maria provided facts that the
maria was covered in lava flows and in the highlands provided how earth was like like 4.5 billion years ago. Apollo 12 mission contained basalts
with low amounts of titanium and Apollo 17 mission had a sample of "orange soil," which consists of small orange glass beads. The beads are glass
because they cooled rapidly with no crystals insider and all had different colors from titanium. Scientists conducted on basalts and pyroclastic glass
which showed that they formed when the interior of the Moon partially

Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Period Essay
Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Period
Nicole Jones
Park University
Abstract
This paper examines the Dinosaurs of the Jurassic Period. The paper considers the holistic view of the Jurassic period in addition to the Dinosaurs that
roamed the Earth during this period. Finally, historical consideration evidence leading to the demise or disappearance of the dinosaurs. Analysis is
based upon research conducted from ten academic reference sites. The paper provides an understanding of the different species that lived during the
Jurassic period and the environmental and climatic conditions that supported them. Also discussed is a significant amount of information regarding
palaeontologists' discoveries of great dinosaur faunas, such as the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Thus, oceans engulfed the areas in between, raising the mountains on the seafloor, which raised sea levels higher, flowing onto the continents
(Unknown, n.d.). Hence, the climate changed accordingly; for example, they may have experienced "strong seasonal contrasts of temperature within
large continental areas as well as some polar ice. Monsoonal effects were dominant on the continents and rainfall in low and mid latitudes was
probably strongly seasonal, with arid conditions prevailing at low latitudes" (Hallam, 1993). In the late Jurassic, scientists noted a considerable spread
of aridity in southern Eurasia and attributed this to orographic effects (Hallam, 1993). Although there are no concrete conclusions regarding the climate
during the Jurassic times, we do know that the forests flourished and the dinosaurs grew larger than ever before.
Research has shown the flora distributions of the Jurassic period indicate a wide array of ferns, ginkgoes, conifers, bennettitaleans and cycads, many
of which still exist today (Palmer, 2002). In the Jurassic life, the conifers were the most variegated of the large trees, and among those were the
ginkgos. "Ginkoes carpeted the mid–to high northern latitudes, and podocarps, a type of conifer, were particularly successful south of the Equator"
(Unknown, n.d.). The ostensibly palm–like cyads were very diverse and abundant; so much so that the Jurassic period could also be referred to as "the
Age of the Cycads"

Lab Report Sample Essay
Introduction The exposed roadcut east of the Doc Long Picnic area, about 9 miles north of the town of Cedar Crest on the east side of the Sandia
Mountains, provided an exceptional site to study weathering processes. The exposed Precambrian Sandia Granite offered a place to collect data and
test the hypothesis that biotite content, grainsize, and associated inclusions have influenced the amount of weathering that has occurred. The granite
underlies the "Great Unconformity" and the Madera Formation, which is a carbonate succession with interbedded sandstones, Pennsylvanian in age.
The granitic outcrop composed of the dominant minerals quartz, potassium feldspar (some plagioclase), and biotite (field book) displayed different
degrees of weathering. Different weathering features in the exposure such as grussification, jointing, and corestones suggested that grain size and
biotite content were not the only influences on weathering processes taking place.
Methods
Data collection for assessing our hypothesis consisted of making several observations along the exposed granite. The main observations noted included
mineral composition, weathering rank, mean grain size, percent biotite, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the test between ranks 3 and 4, the absolute value of t (0.62) was less than the value of t critical (1.70) indicating that the difference in means was
not significant. The absolute value of t was 2.48 for ranks 1 and 4, and this was greater than the critical t value of 1.73, which meant that the difference
in means for percent biotite was significant. Alternatively, the p–value [P(T<=t)] or the " probability that test results could be obtained by random
chance" (Davis, 2002), was nearly 1% for ranks 1 and 4 and nearly 27% for ranks 3 and

Disadvantages Of Mountain Uplift
'Mountain uplift is known to greatly enhance rates of physical erosion and chemical weathering compared to the rates in tectonically stable regions...
orogenic events lead to global cooling over geologic time scales by accelerating the rate of CO2 consumption by silicate weathering' (Jacobson &
Blume, 2003, 856). By using 'The National Institute of water and atmospheric research limited, Christchurch' 12 river data sets, Jacobson and Blum
(2003) could interpret New Zealand's Southern Alps have experienced unequal amount of carbonate chemical and 13 times greater mechanical
weathering due to the factors of active tectonic movement up on the higher precipitated western face, to the constant less precipitated stable Eastern
face. The Eastern ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The carbonate weathering involved in the downdraw of CO2 (Wcarb–CO2) is inversely correlated to the silicate weathering involved in the downdraw
of CO2 (Wsil–co2).
Carbonate Ca–Mg weathering is 5.8 times greater in exposed to uplifting to stable landscapes, with silicate Ca–Mg weathering have less prevalence at
3.7 times greater respectably.
Wsil–co2 is 5.6 times lower than Wcarb–CO2 on the uplifting area.
Therefore in summary 'Chemical weathering and mechanical erosion rates are statically different between eastern and western sides of the mountain
range with p<0.002 for Wchem, Wmech, Wsil, Wcarb, and Wcarb–CO2 and p < 0.04 for Wsil–co2' (Jacobson & Blum, 2003, 866).
The difference of WSil and Wcarb decrease the Wchem/Wmech increase there difference – so mechanical erosion and water movement in high attitude
tectonics areas increase sil and car W.
The geology of the western southern New Zealand Alps is calcite metamorphized by continues hydrothermal source; effecting the weathering process
by its 350 times the dissolution reaction of plagioclase in similar conditions.
Global climate CO2 down drawl causing cooling is less significant in Wsil–co2 mechanical erosion in uplifting western side; raised 1.5 times above
global mean and 2 times above Eastern.
п‚«Around the world there is larger extremes similar to New Zealand's Southern Alps in other large rivers, of a negative correlation (plotted I

Magma Contamination And Sulfide Immiscibility Of The...
MAGMA CONTAMINATION AND SULFIDE IMMISCIBILITY OF THE METEORIC IMPACT ZONE IN THE SUDBURY NI
–CU DEPOSITS:
ONTARIO, CANADA
WILLIAMS, Jane B. (University of Wisconsin–Eau Claire, willijan@uwec.edu)
Sudbury, Canada is the location of a world class Ni–Cu deposit phenomena. Numerous studies have produced an explanation for the complex evolution
of its deposition and enrichment thanks to the impaction of a meteorite 1.85 million years ago. The impact of the meteorite is thought to have caused
fracturing that led to the generation of magma from deep in the crust that helped in later filling the crater and producing the igneous complex (Faggart
et. al., 1985). The igneous complex (Figure 1a) has an elongated shape (60 km long and 27 km wide) with circular deposits surrounding it similar to a
bulls–eye. Evidence of the meteoric impact includes brecciation located in the center of the basin (Onaping Formation), deformation of the margin of
the intrusive complex (Huronian Group), shatter cones, and pseudotachylite. The meteor is thought to have flash melted the crust which proceeded to
differentiate into a granophyre and a leuconorite to norite composition. The granophyre makes up 60% of the complex and the leuconorite and norite
make up the remaining 40% (Figure 1b)(Barnes et. al., 2005). About 50% of the ore is found in the sublayer norite and the breccia that is associated
with the norite. This ore is mainly disseminated sulphides. The massive sulphides are located in the center

Assignment : Anorthosite, Calcite Concretion, And...
EARTH 121: Peter Russell Rock Garden Assignment
Anorthosite, Calcite Concretion, and Serpentinite
An–Chi Cheng (20689207)
Anorthosite
Anorthosite is an intrusive igneous rock formed 2.5–0.5 billion years ago during Proterozoic Eon, which subdivided into Paleoproterozoic,
Mesoproterozoic, and Neoproterozoic eras. This Anorthosite, which weighs 8,000 pounds, is one of the large rocks from the Peter Russell Rock
Garden. The slow cooling process of magma below the surface caused it to possess phaneritic or coarse–grained texture, and because it is primarily
composed of feldspar so it is bluish–grey coloured. Anorthosite is produced from basaltic magma, therefore olivine, pyroxene, and plagioclase
feldspar are minerals incorporated into this rock. This specimen, which used to be part of the River Valley pluton, is originally from Dana BlackGranite
Ltd in River Valley, Ontario.
Anorthosite, which often used in tombstones and kitchen countertops, was formed from specific formation called crystal settling of magmatic
differentiation. The earlier–formed minerals of the cooling of magma such as olivine and pyroxene are denser which sink toward the bottom of the
magma, and the lighter minerals such as plagioclase feldspar floating to the top of magma during cooling.
I think it is an important sample to have in the UW Rock Garden because it is one of the few dark–colored rocks in the rock garden and its
dark–coloured provides information regarding the presence of iron and magnesium rich minerals incorporated into this rock.
The Original Location of Anorthosite Specimen in the Rock Garden
Calcite Concretion
Calcite Concretion is a sedimentary rock formed 545–248 million years ago during Paleozoic Era. These samples are ball shaped crystal formations
of calcite that only has a diameter of 50 cm; however, a concretion can be as large as 2 m. It is grey and rounded such that corners and edges of grains
have been smoothed down. The broken piece shows that the crystals have radiating pattern, going from the centre to the outside. The concretions are
mainly composed of calcite but also contain quartz, clay, feldspar, pyrite, and tasmanite in the surrounding shale. These concretions are found along the
shore of Lake

The Geology Of Ontario Through Its Rocks
Minerals are what make–up Rocks and rocks are what make up the geology of an area. In this report, we will focus on the geology of Ontario through
its rocks. We will look at ten difference rocks samples that have been collected from several different places here in Windsor Ontario including the
beach, the river, gravel pits, along highways and roadways as well in parks and campsites. The rocks that were collected are all rocks that have formed
right here in Ontario.
Canada and especially Ontario have very interesting and much filled geologic pasts. Ontario has many types of rocks and minerals that have formed
and are still forming due to the geology. Ontario has sedimentary rocks; igneous rock, and metamorphic rock as well as minerals such as gold, silver,
quartz, and many more. In this paper, we will begin by talking about ten rocks that were collected right here in Windsor Ontario. The rocks were
examined from the outside which tended to be weathered and the inside which were fresh.
Description of rock types:
The collection of the rocks was based on just picking up the most amount of difference looking rocks that was possible and bringing them home to
analyze. This was done for about two months from many difference locations including campgrounds, beaches, rivers, highways as well as construction
sites. After about two months there were many rocks so I started to analyze and take out the rocks that were of the same kind. I found many granite,
basalt and conglomerate rocks.

The Planetary System Of The Earth And Moon
Abstract The planetary system consisting of the Earth and Moon has been closely examined since the birth of man. The Moon is a scientifically
important planet that preserves a unique history of planetary formation and early development, as well as recording the historical space environment
and cosmic radiation for billions of years. Due to its proximity to the Earth, the Moon has also been a target for human exploration and long–term
extraterrestrial habitation. Knowledge of the Moon's characteristics and its resources has become especially important for planning future space travel
from Earth. Relationships between the Earth and Moon in origin, composition, and orbital dynamics are critical to scientific understanding as well as
to the ultimate goals of lunar infrastructure development and habitation. The Moon has several unique characteristics when compared to the Earth
which stem primarily from its lack of water, atmosphere, and biological life. Unlike on Earth, sedimentation on the Moon occurs primarily as a result
of meteoroid impacts, but also by other means. Lunar soil is the fine fraction of the regolith found on the surface of the Moon. Its properties can differ
significantly from those of terrestrial soil. The physical properties of lunar soil result from mechanical disintegration of basaltic and anorthositic rock,
caused by meteoric impact and bombardment over billions of years. Weathering is primarily mechanical, in which the lunar terrain is

Volcanism of Long Valley, California: The Bishop Tuff...
Volcanism of Long Valley, California: The Bishop Tuff Eruption
The west coast of North America has been tectonically and volcanically active for billions of years. The Sierra Nevada Mountains in eastern
California were born of volcanoes, and magma has been erupting in the Long Valley to the east of the mountains for over three million years (Bailey,
et. al., 1989). However, the climactic eruption of the region occurred relatively recently in the region's geologic history. About 760,000 years ago, a
huge explosion of magma warped the Eastern Sierra into the landscape that exists today. The eruption depleted a massive magma chamber below the
earth's surface so that the ceiling of the chamber imploded, forming what is now known as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The youngest of these rocks are dated at about 220,000 years ago. Rhyodacties and quartz latites in the modern caldera area extruded from about
320,000 years ago to 260,000 years ago, and then silica–rich rhyolites at Glass Mountain northeast of the caldera erupted from about 210,000 years
ago to 80,000 years ago. The scattered distribution of the initial mafic eruptions indicates that they were erupted from the mantle, while the slightly
younger domes and flows were from a deep–crustal source. The youngest rhyolite eruptions erupted at the northeast rim of the caldera at Glass
Mountain and were the first activity of the silicic Long Valleymagma chamber (Bailey, et. al., 1989).
This chamber gave birth to the cataclysmic eruption of 760,000 years ago, and is connected to the magma which erupted from the chain of rhyolite
domes that stretch up to the northwest. Eruptions crept sequentially along this line, beginning with the Bishop Tuff eruption and most recently
displaying activity in the middle of Mono Lake at the island Negit. This most recent volcanism of the Inyo–Mono crater eruptions occurred as late as
1850 A.D (Bailey, et. al., 1989).
The cataclysmic eruption which caused the collapse of the caldera and the deposition of the Bishop Tuff was an explosive, fast event. It ejected
coarsely porphyritic biotite rhyolitic ash and viscous lava with an approximate silica content of 76 percent. The total ejecta came to about 600

Gly1000 Exam 1 Study Guide Essay
Minerals Eight most abundant elements in the Earth's Crust: Abundance % by weight – Most common Ionic Form Most Common Coordination
Numbers Relative Ionic Size Oxygen (O) 46.6 % O–2 – – – 1.40 Silicon (Si) 27.7 % Si+4 Si (4) 0.26 Aluminum (Al) 8.1 % Al+3 Al (4, or 6) 0.39 Iron
(Fe) 5.0 % Fe+2 Fe (6) 0.63 Calcium (Ca) 3.6 % Ca+2 Ca (8) 1.00 Sodium (Na) 2.8 % Na+1 Na (8) 0.99 Potassium (K) 2.6 % K+1 K (8, 12) 1.37
Magnesium (Mg) 2.1 % Mg+2 – – – 0.72 Distinction between crystalline and non–crystalline solids Crystalline – term refers to the ordered,
symmetrical, arrangement or the atoms that make up the structure Minerals are naturally occurring solid chemical compounds with crystalline structure
Exhibits cleavage Non–Crystalline... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Some rock's in the Earth's interior that are solid, are so hot that, if the pressure on these were released, or they are convected into a lower pressure
zone, they could begin to melt Volatiles: The melting temperatures of minerals are reduced under high water pressure. Consequently "wet rocks"
(rocks containing water) melt at lower temperatures that do dry rock containing identical mineral assemblages Factors influencing the viscosity of
magmas Higher temperatures cause atoms to spread out and decrease in density, so magma at higher temperature is less viscous and will flow more
easily Dissolved gases make the magma more fluid and buoyant. The higher the temperature the more the gases remain dissolved and the less viscous
the magma The amount of silica in the magma. Silica has close jointing

A Report Of The Bezymianny Volcano During The Kamchatka...
Abstract
Zoning in plagioclase feldspar is often an indicator of magmatic differentiation. This is mainly due to the process of fractional crystallization changing
the chemistry of magmatic bodies, and has been documented in many localities. A case study will examine a 2010 report of the Bezymianny Volcano in
the Kamchatka peninsula of Russia, where researchers studied oscillatory zoning in the plagioclase. An interpretation of the results has shown frequent
replenishments to the magma chamber, and many magmatic differentiation processes including magma mixing, addition of volatiles, and reheating and
convection the melt body (Shcherbakov et al., 2010).
Introduction
Zoning occurs in plagioclase feldspars as they crystallize out of a melt, as composition of the magma changes. These changes occur due to the
formation of minerals consuming certain elements present in the magma (Gill, 2010). Plagioclase is an excellent indicator for this progressive
depletion of elements, as it forms a continuous series of anorthite (calcium rich, CaAl2Si2O8) to albite (sodium rich, NaAlSi3O8) (Nesse, 2011).
Because of the differences in composition, the feldspar chemistry can be used to interpret the magmatic processes which led to the production of these
feldspars. The zoning pattern reflects the chemical changes, which have occurred to the magma body and can show magmatic differentiation processes
such as magma mixing and changes in temperature, pressure and water content (Churikova

Science Of Space Exploration And Identification Of The Moon
Is there a single person who has not been over the moon? Who has not reached for the moon, mooned over someone, or promised the moon away?
Every once in a blue moon, one might find a person who has seemingly hung the moon and stars. Yet we know far more about Earth's lunar companion
than just the idioms associated with it. Humans have been observing the moon for thousands of years. Scientists have been documenting, discovering,
and debating this body for ages. Centuries of research have catalyzed discussion concerning the Moon's origin, innovative development of space
exploration, and identification of the Moon's features. By addressing and analyzing scientist's data on these topics – lunar formation theories, moon
landing missions, and specific lunar features – we may gain further understanding of the history and characteristics of Earths' Moon. Five main
theories exist to explain how Earth attained its moon. The first suggests that the Moon formed somewhere else in the solar system. Then Earth's
gravitational pull disrupted the Moon's original orbit, capturing it and locking it in a new orbital path. While this theory does explain how the Moon
came to revolve around the Earth, it does not give specific information about its actual formation. Senior writer for Space.com, Mike Wall (2014),
points out a few flaws in this hypothesis, "the most serious" problem being the "geochemical similarity" of the Earth and Moon (Capture, para. 2). If
the moon had formed far away from

Alabama Geography
When people hear Alabama they probably think about football and the South, however, what many people don't realize is that Alabama is made up
of a vast array of geologic properties and has a lot to offer Geologists. Rock formations date back from 2.5 billion years old to 1,800 years old and vary
in type from sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic (Tew. Ebersole, 2013).Alabama also consists of piedmonts, fossils, fossil fuels, and waterways. If
you travel from the Southwest corner of the state up to the Northeast corner of the state you will come across many different rocks and landforms.
Alabama is composed of about two–hundred various minerals and was ranked twentieth in the nation for having valuable minerals (Lewis, 2012).
Alabama consists ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Rocks in this region are from the Mesozoic and recent times and therefore are considered geologically young compare to other regions in the state
(Tew. Ebersole, 2013). The Piedmont Upland region in East Central Alabama is composed of the oldest rocks in Alabama. In this region you will
find granitic gneiss (a gneissic rock with a general granitoid composition), amphibolite (a crystalloblastic rock consisting mainly of amphibole and
plagioclase with little or no quartz), and migmatite (a composite of mixed rock) dating back to the Precambrian and Paleozoic ages (Schweitzer,
2013). This is the only part of Alabama with this type of rock composition, but it is also where the southernmost part of the Appalachian Mountains
dips into Alabama. This part of the Appalachian Mountains are characterized by low rolling hills and the reason there is a special combination of
rocks in this area is because piedmonts usually consist of the remnant of a mountain (Schweitzer, 2013). The Piedmont Upland only consumes about
nine percent of all of Alabama (Tew. Ebersole, 2013). The North and Northeastern parts of Alabama are special because they consist of mostly the
Appalachian

St. Francois Mountains
A search for scholarly reviewed material involving the St. Francois Mountains and Butler Hill formations returned a four notable sources. Gary
Lowell and Alex Blaxland produced one article each while J. Ronald Sides produced two articles on the subject. However, the University of Tennessee
at Martin has a limited journal selection and the available material is that of J. Ronald Sides articles.
Literature Review
Ronald describes the mountains as a shallow composite batholith located in southeastern Missouri (1980). This batholith, or large igneous intrusion, is
tilted to the southwest and beveled by erosion. The complex is about one and a half billion years old and mostly comprised of silicic intrusive units
and rhyolitic pyroclastic rocks. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Francois batholith and probably helped control the structural development of the batholith itself. The Butler Hill Pluton was originally thought to be
two different units, however, Ronald points out that the contact between the two is gradational so therefore he refers to it as one singular pluton
referring to it as the Butler Hill Granite. The granite is markedly more fine grained on the southwest side of the pluton and exhibits quartz, orthoclase
micropherthite, and minor albite, muscovite, chlorite, hematite, and fluorite. Ronald notes that the overall texture is hypidiomorphic, partly
idiomorphic or containing some crystalline features, but locally porphyritic. To the northeast, the pluton consists major of quartz, orthoclase, and
plagioclase, with minor chlorite, biotite, hematite, fluorite, and amphibole. The overall texture is hypidiomorphic granular with a larger grain size than
that of the opposing side. The north easternmost rocks have rapakivi texture, or plagioclase rims around orthoclase in a plutonic rock. The size
difference between the two sides is contributed to that of the cooling rate associated with the volcanic activity and the entrapment caused by the roof.
Ronald sampled along three lines of traverse to compile data for chemical data. Samples were tested at University of Kansas by X–ray fluorescence and
by flame spectrophotometric methods.

Cat Hills Volcanic
Cat Hills Volcanic Field for Major and Trace Element Analyses
By Nathanael Roybal; Geological Sciences, Undergraduate Research Scholars
ABSTRACT
This project focuses on preparing samples for major and trace element analyses of the Cat Hills volcanic field. Fourteen rock samples were collected
from different locations from the Cat Hills volcanic field. Whole rock samples were crushed with a Chipmunk jaw crusher to obtain gravel–sized
particles. Samples were separated using sieves with a mesh spacing of 0.0037 inches and 0.0195 inches. Gravel–sized samples collected from the
0.0195 sieve fraction were leached in 5% nitric acid for 25 minutes, rinsed in distilled water, and allowed to dry. After drying, gravels were powdered
using a tungsten carbide ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Kundo, 1982). The basalts have become under saturated that is moving toward a nepheline compositions. The andesites become less abundant that
moving toward silica–rich, high alumina, and K20, Pyroxenes, and hornblende. Cat Hills is going through crystal fractionation and also crustal
contamination that explains the observed trends (Albert M. Kundo, 1982). The basalt compositions are that are being controlled by the intersection of
the Jemez lineament with the Rio Grande Rift and cause magma to be a trap in the mantle diapir below the rift. Cat hills have an existence of a high
alumina alkali basalt that is over 40 km south of the transverse zone. This indicates that deep trapping of the magma has occurred away from the zone
(Albert M. Kundo, 1982). The shallow origins indicated in the south of low–alkali olivine tholeiite and high–k andesites at Albuquerque and Los
Lunas. The low–alkali olivine in Albuquerque volcanoes that is abnormal. The geothermal gradient is most of the basaltic magma, which is generated
deeper below the zone that has high–alumina alkali basalts are formed (Albert M. Kundo,

Classifying Rocks Essay
Classifying Rocks
Rocks are classified to make it easier on people to identify them in the future. This can be done by a numerous amount of ways. Each rock type has
their own specific ways, but there are two distinct characteristics that apply to all. These are texture and composition. These two, along with many
others helps to classify igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic rocks.
Igneous rocks are classified first by texture. This is broken down mainly into grain size. First there are intrusive, or plutonic igneous rocks. These types
of rocks cool within the crust and forms large, visible crystals. The opposite would be extrusive, or volcanic rocks. These cool at the surface rapidly,
forming small grains. Acombination ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Depending on what the sedimentary rock is formed by, determines whether is known as clastic or chemical. Clastic rocks are composed of
particles from weathering. They are then sorted by grain size, gravel being the largest and clay being the smallest. A few examples would be
sandstones and shales. Chemical sedimentary rocks are biochemical, and contain ions in the solution from weathering. These are also further
classified. First you have limestone, which can be either organic or inorganic. An example would be fossiliferous or chalk. Next is dolostone, and
it is formed from dolomite. Chert is next; and can be organic or inorganic also. Flint and jasper are some examples of chert. Rock salt and gypsum
are what are known as evaporites. These form from the evaporation of saline waters in an arid environment. Finally there is coal, which is organic
and forms from buried plant remains and carbon. There is one more type of rock that is classified the same way as the previous two.
Metamorphic rocks are pre–existing rocks that are changed by heat and pressure. The pre–existing rock is called the parent rock, or protolith.
Metamorphism occurs in these rocks when the minerals become instable. There are two types of metamorphism, contact and regional. Contact is high
temperature, low pressure. It is basically a massive rock that is baked. Regional is high pressure and low temperature. Strong fabric, or layering,
develops from

What Is Petrogenetic Evolution And Magma Genesis?
Petrogenetic Evolution and Magma Genesis
The petrographic and chemical data suggest that the potential source region of the studied volcanic suite is the subcontinental lithosphere mantle. The
analytical data suggest that the composition of primary magma was largely controlled by partial melting which is the critical factor in distinguishing
these continental volcanic rocks. Regarding to mineralogy of silicic rocks, the common presence of irregular and rounded margins which are observed
for a large number of plagioclase crystals that engulf K–feldspar exhibiting rapakivi texture, beside combination with sieve textures point to marginal
melting of these crystals and consequently a process of disequilibrium (in this case thermal) (e.g. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Depletion in Nb, Ti, and P is considered to be associated with fractionation of Ti–bearing phases such as ilmenite and titanite, and apatite. Low CaO
(1.4–3.15 %) contents and moderately to strongly negative anomalies of Ba indicate an extensive fractionation of plagioclase and/or K–feldspar (Wu et
al., 2003). This latter type of fractionation coupled with K–feldspar rich composition especially in rhyolite (Table 1, Fig.6A) point to final fractionation
at low pressures (see discussion of liquid–feldspar relations in Carmichael et al., 1974, p231–235). This is also favored by their high Or/Ab ratios
(Table 2, Blundy and Cashman, 2001). This could also be a viable explanation for the exclusively felsic composition of products of the IsbilVolcano.
Thermodynamic modeling on major elements using the MELTS program (Ghiorso and Sack, 1995) has been made in order to evaluate potential
fractional crystallization processes in the felsic magmatism. The evolution of Al2O3 and MgO contents closely matches the whole rock data, when
modeled with a pressure of 2 kbar, a water content of 2 wt.% and fO2 at QFM + 1, in which crystallizations of amphibole, biotite, muscovite, feldspar
and quartz are considered. However, CaO, FeO, and TiO2 deviate from the observed rock compositions. These discrepancies could be due to the
limitations of the MELTS program when applied to

Virginia Horn Project Essay
1.0 Summary Historic data analysis, 3D models, interpretations of geophysical data, prospecting results and a mineral potential map of the Virginia
Horn (VH) project are presented. Comparison of data from the VH to analog gold–hosting rocks in Canada suggest that future exploration should focus
on identifying Au–bearing veins in the Midway sequence, within 300 meters of the Pike River fault (PRF). Specifically, exploration drilling should be
conducted in the buried area north of the Jola and Sopp excavation pit, where the PRF is inferred to have experienced compressional bending and a
silicified/arsenopyrite–rich metasediment (?) boulder has been discovered. A high–resolution aeromagnetic (or electromagnetic) survey would enhance
a geologic interpretation of the VH, but may not be necessary as currently available data justify further exploration in the high–potential area outlined in
this report.
2.0 Introduction
The VH is located in northern MN, USA, approximately 60 miles north of Duluth and 3 miles southeast of Virginia. It is named for the abrupt bend in
the Proterozoic Biwabik iron formation and subsequent horn–shape of exposed Archean bedrock. Rocks in the VH are part of the southern exposed
margin of the Neoarchean Wawa... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the PFR is considered to be a 2nd order splay off the Fayal Fault (FF), most holes in the VH were drilled outside the 300 meter buffer that is
prospective for hosting significant gold deposits. Although drill holes in the 2009 and 2010 campaigns did intercept significant Au mineralized zones
800+ meters from the PFR, currently available data suggest these mineralized zones are likely small ore shoots that will not constitute a large (+1
Moz) and mineable

The Melanesian Arc Of Papua New Guinea
The Melanesian arc initially formed from at least ca. 45 Ma, at which time the Pacific plate subducted to the southwest beneath the Australian plate
(Fig. 4) (e.g. Hall, 2002; Petterson et al., 1999; Schellart et al., 2006). This subduction and arc development is one of the most poorly understood
elements of the southwest Pacific. The Melanesian arc comprised New Britain, New Ireland and Bougainville of Papua New Guinea, much of the
Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Fiji (e.g. Abbott, 1995; Kroenke, 1984; Musgrave, 1990; Petterson et al., 1999). Since the time of arc formation,
however, these terranes have undergone complex tectonic reorganizations within the southwest Pacific by multiple episodes of arc/forearc collision,
subduction cessation and subsequent subduction polarity reversal to displace and reorientate the fragments of arc–basement (Hall, 2002; Petterson et
al., 1999; Schellart et al., 2006).
It is well understood that New Britain was previously part of the Melanesian arc where the Pacific plate subducted to the southwest at the Melanesian
trench (Fig. 1 and 4; Petterson et al., 1999). However, the timing for initial arc formation is poorly constrained. The main body of New Britain is
composed of typical island arc magmatic rocks of Eocene and Oligocene age (Fig. 5). The Baining Volcanics represent the initiation of arc magmatism
at the convergent plate boundary between the Australian and Pacific plates (Lindley, 2006; Madsen and Lindley, 1994), and deposited between

Petrified Wood
2. Background on the mineralogical composition of petrified woods
A diverse suite of minerals and phases have been found in petrified woods from all over the world. The common species found range from pure opal to
pure quartz whereas others include calcite, dolomite, pyrite, goethite, phosphates (apatite), laumontite, uraninite, sphalerite and organics (Nowak et al.,
2005). In coal deposits inundated by sea–water (Yossifova et al., 2011), the woods can be permineralized by quartz, plagioclase, muscovite, smectite,
kaolinite and nacrite (a typical hydrothermal mineral).
Cross–polarized light shows that opal–CT has very low interference colours, in contrast to the brighter colours typical of chalcedony (Mustoe, 2008).
However, polarizing microscope images alone cannot resolve the degree of crystallinity of phases. For this, XRD and Raman microscopy are required
to clearly identify chalcedony, moganite, orthorhombic–silica, opal–CT, opal–C and quartz (HatipoДџlu and TГјrk, 2009). It is not easy to ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Organic constituents of cell walls have a strong affinity for silicic acid molecules (Leo & Barghoorn, 1976). Opal–mineralized woods have densities )
are attached to the interior surfaces of cell walls, where they are enclosed within colourless chalcedony that later permineralized the cell lumina
(Mustoe, 2008). The observed alternating crystallization of quartz and chalcedony may be caused by variations in the degree of silica saturation of the
mineral–forming SiO–bearing fluids. These results confirm the earlier conclusions of Heaney and Davis (1995) and GГ¶tze et al. (1998) who showed
that the agate structure can probably be interpreted as an alternating formation of fine–grained, highly defective chalcedony intergrown with moganite,
and coarse–grained low–defect quartz (GГ¶tze et al.,

Red Chris Deposit Technical Report
Technical report on the geology of the Red Chris deposit Authors: Curtis Woods Christian Dye November 19th 2014 Table of Contents 1 List of Tables
and Figures................................................... 2 Summary......................................................................... 3
Introduction..................................................................... 4 Geology.......................................................................... 4.1
Regional.............................................................. 4.2 Local..................................................................... 5 Specific
Geology................................................................ 5.1 Deposit................................................................... 5.2
Intrusions............................................................... 5.3 Minerals & Mineralogy.............................................. 6
Conclusion....................................................................... 7 Bibliography.................................................................... 1 List of Tables and Figures Figure
1............................................................................. Figure 2............................................................................. Figure
3............................................................................ 2 Summary:... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Porphyry deposits can occur in a variety of settings, an island arc is a distinctive feature of the Red Chris deposit (Sinclair, W.D., n.d.). The Red Chris
deposit displays features of both alkalic and calc–alkalic porphyry deposits. Features like; large tonnage, strong association of copper sulfides and
quartz veins, unusually high copper–gold grades, and magnetite bearing potassic alteration (Gillstrom, Anand, & Robertson, February 14, 2012). It is
estimated that the Red Chris deposit contains 1.2 billion tons of ore, grading at 0.327% copper, and 0.327g/t gold. The Red Chris deposit is not
considered a gold rich deposit, because it is commonly considered that in order for a porphyry deposit to be a gold rich deposit, it must contain an
amount greater than 0.4 g/t of gold (Sinclair, W.D.,

Volcanic Rocks And Plutonic Rocks
Formed by the solidification of magma. Has different environments for its formation, the cooling rates that are involved help create the texture which
makes and defines the two major groupings in igneous rocks, the major groupings include Volcanic rocks and Plutonic rocks. The Volcanic rocks start
to form when magma reaches the surface and erupts. When the magma has erupted the cooling rate is rapid. Volcanos are the visible producers of
igneous rocks. OVer 90% of all active rocks are usually near the boundaries of the tectonic plates. Tectonic plates were created at mid
–ocean ridges and
some rift valleys, tectonic plates then were destroyed and sunken deep into the ocean trenches. When a new plate material forms, it is created in
ocean ridges where the molten rocks rises from the interior it the hardens. This new plate then gets topped by the oceanic crust, therefore the surface
of the crust then becomes the sea floor. The ridges become the extension of the tectonic boundaries. When the solidifying of the material splits along
the ridges, each of the parts then extend away from each other and they form gaps. When the gaps do form, they are filled with the igneous rocks,
These new plates will then become the colder more dense part of the thermal convection currents. Igneous rocks have been produced at extension
boundaries for over 65 million years and that is at a yearly average of 21 km.
Basalt: Basalt is a fine grained dark coloured igneous rock. It is mostly composed of

Compare And Contrast How Magmas Are Generated At Mid-Ocean
COMPARE AND CONTRAST HOW MAGMAS ARE GENERATED AT MID
–OCEAN RIDGES AND SUBDUCTION ZONES. According to
Middlemost (1988)'s basic definition, magma is a heated rock–forming substance that is created within a planet and exists only below Earth. When
magma escapes to the Earth's surface and is extruded, they are known as lavas. Grotzinger and Jordan (2010) suggests that magma mainly comes from
the asthenosphere– the upper part of the mantle. Magmas are usually generated when rocks are under the right temperature and pressure conditions to
undergo partial melting (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2010). At high temperatures and low enough pressures, rocks would reach its melting point easily. It is
known for a fact that temperature increases with depth... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Subduction zone magmas are formed by convergent plate boundaries between oceanic–continental plates or oceanic–oceanic plates (at least one
tectonic plate has to be oceanic) (see Fig.1). According to Grotzinger and Jordan (2010), when the oceanic lithosphere gets subducted, there is fluid
induced melting occurring to the mantle wedge. Therefore, this generates magmas of varying composition. From Prichard et al.'s findings, mid–ocean
ridge magmas are usually basaltic in composition whereas subduction zone magmas are andesitic and more silicic. Subduction zone magma
compositions also depend on the materials being subducted. Hence, in terms of chemical composition, the subduction zone magmas and are definitely
more varied compared to the mid–ocean ridge magmas. Subduction zone magmas range from basaltic to rhyolitic– with andesitic magmas being the
most common (Grotzinger and Jordan, 2010). Fig.2 Geothermal gradient varying in different geological settings: also showing the solidus for MOR
and subduction zone mantle rock MAGMA GENESIS Middlemost (1988) states that in the mantle at depths between 60–250 km (i.e. the low–velocity
zone), magma can be generated through either of the 3 ways; when you add

Unit 2 Compare And Contrast Quantitative And Qualitative...
Questions 1–3, 5, 6a,d–e: 1) Calcite and halite share many similarities such as being white to transparent, having three cleavage points, and also has
roughly the same hardness (calcite has a hardness of three whereas halite has a hardness of 2.5). However, there are also some ways to differentiate
between the two. One way to do this, although it is not highly recommended to do this without proper identification, is to taste it. Halite has a salty
taste since it is salt. Another way to know what mineral is calcite and which mineral is halite is by looking at their cleavage points. Calcite has
rhombohedral cleavage planes (75В°) while Halite has a cubic cleavage point (90В°). 2) A mineral that was challenging to identify was potassium
feldspar.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This describes graphite, but doesn't speak of any quantities or statistics. To make this observation more quantitative, I could relate this information to
the hardness scale. The hardness scale states that a fingernail has a hardness of 2.5. From this, I can conclude that graphite has a hardness less than
2.5 since harder objects scratch softer objects. 5) An observation is something that you can look at and record. Observations can be qualitative and
quantitative data. Inferences, however, are conclusion that can be made using observations and your prior knowledge. For example, a person might
note that iodine becomes purple when put on a potato chip. From this, we can infer that the potato chip has starch in it. 6) a) Graphite (pure carbon) is
a mineral. d) Synthetic diamond is not a mineral. In order for an object to be a mineral, it must be naturally occurring, inorganic, solid, have orderly
crystalline structures, and definite chemical compositions. Synthetic diamond isn't classified by a mineral because it is human

Chosen Rock: Basalt
Chosen rock: Basalt
Where the rock is found: Much of the mountains in the north of California and southern Oregon is pieces of broken up seafloor crust estimated to be
150–450 million years old. While most of eastern Washington and Oregon (the Columbia River Basalt), and north eastern California (the Modoc
Plateau Basalt) are underlain by flood basalt.
How is this rock formed (with links to location): Basalt is formed when magma cools and solidifies.
What are the properties/ characteristics of the rock? (With links to formation): It is a mafic extrusive (formed when magma makes its way to the earth's
surface) rock. It contains more than 90% of all volcanic rocks. Due to its low silica content basalt lava has a comparatively low viscosity,

Plate Geology
Structural Geology and Plate Tectonics
Geology is an overall study of planet Earth–"its composition, structure, process, and history" (Shipman, Todd, & Wilson 602). Geology also plays a
role in the study of the Moon and other solar system objects is primarily the province of astronomy. "None of the remarkable scientific advances of the
twentieth century revealed with certainty the composition and structure of the Earth's interior" (603). Present ideas presently rest on indirect evidence
provided by earthquake body waves, their speed and direction identifying the types of materials through which they move, meteorites whose
composition is believed to be similar to the Earth's, spacecraft measurements of gravity and magnetic variations, and laboratory ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
However, it was not until this century that nuclear age technology was developed that uses measurements of radioactivity in certain types of rocks to
give us ages in numbers of years. These ages, usually called radiometric ages, are used in conjunction with relative dating principles to determine at
least an approximate age for most of the world 's major rock formations (USGS). "Radiometric dating is the determination of age by using radioactivity,
has become geology's best tool for establishing absolute geologic time" (Shipman, Todd, & Wilson 704). The atomic nuclei that decay of their own
accord are said to be radioactive. The decay product–or daughter nucleus, as it is commonly called–may be stable. If so, the transformation reaches
completion in a single step. However, the daughter nuclei of many naturally occurring isotopes are themselves radioactive and hence undergo further
decay"

How Does Olivine Affect The Concentration Of Iron Or Silica?
1. Olivine decreases the concentration of magnesium in the melt. It helps decrease the amount of iron in the melt as well. On the graph of magnesium
versus silica cation percentage the Magnesium amount decreases and the silica percent increases in the melt when olivine starts forming. This creates
a downward sloping line. This downward slope is also true for the Iron versus silica graph. Plagioclase decreases sodium and potassium concentrations
in the melt. Both Plagioclase and Olivine decrease the amount of silica and oxygen in the melt. On the graph of silica versus calcium it also shows a
rapid downward trend just like olivine because they are both made up of compatible elements. However, potassium has an upward trend versus silica
because ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a magma that is involving equilibrium crystallization only a few minerals if any are not interacting with the melt. In a system with complete
equilibrium fractionation the mineral modes would increase from 0% to 100% at the different steps. In fractionalization crystallization, each step
adds to 100% on it's own. For example, step two would not equal 75% Olivine and 25% Plagioclase because these minerals would interact with the
two previously crystallized Olivines as well as the melt. Therefore the percent of olivine and plagioclase would be completely different and would
be a percentage of the melt that was crystallized. If the whole melt became a rock, then you would have a step that everything is equal to 100%, but
you won't have any earlier step equal 100%. This then will change the types of rocks formed and their IUGS

The Origin Of Pseudotachylite And Its Parent Rock

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The Origin Of Pseudotachylite And Its Parent Rock