antibiotic resistant bacteria
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This was for a Conservation Biology class.
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antibiotic resistant bacteria
- 2. Up to 500 species can be found as normal oral flora There can easily be 25 species living in a single mouth a milliliter of saliva can contain as many as 40 million (4 x 107) bacterial cells6 108 bacterial cells present in the cecum (the initial part of the colon) per milliliter of content is normal and many of these species are different from those found in the mouth
- 3. •Digestion •Vitamin Synthesis •Biotechnology •Genetic Engineering •Pest Control
- 4. E. faecalis P. aeruginosa M. tuberculosis S. aureus
- 5. oMisuse of antibiotics •Medicine, agriculture, and household products oAnomalous combinations •Cohabitation between two different bacterium oEnhanced transmission of resistance factors •Budget cuts in hospitals, bacteria sharing w/other bacteria oThe reservoir hypothesis •Bacterium having a threshold level where some survive
- 6. oBacteria interference oBacteriophage therapy oBacterial vaccines oQuit letting doctors over prescribe antibiotics
- 8. Works Cited "Actionbioscience | Bacteria: More Than Pathogens." ActionBioscience - promoting bioscience literacy. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2013. <http://www.actionbioscience.org/biodiversity/wassenaar.html>. "Antibiotic Resistance: New Approaches to a Historical Problem (ActionBioscience)." ActionBioscience - promoting bioscience literacy. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2013. <http://www.actionbioscience.org/newfrontiers/kardar.html>. "Antibiotic resistant bacteria | Better Health Channel." Home | Better Health Channel. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2013. <http://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/bhcv2/bhcarticles.nsf/pages/Antibiotic_resistant _bacteria>. "Google Image Results." Google. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2013. <http://www.google.com/imgres?hl=en&sa=X&tbo=d&biw=1024&bih=587&tbm=isch &tbnid=ns5aLcPMguuExM:&imgrefurl=http://wordoftruthradio.org/2012/01/antibioti c-resistant-bacteria-found-in-37-u-s- states/&docid=295PhvOznZT7fM&imgurl=http://wordoftruthradio.org/wp-co>. "Pseudomonas." Online Textbook of Bacteriology. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Jan. 2013. <http://textbookofbacteriology.net/pseudomonas_2.html>. "Rediscovering Biology - Online Textbook: Unit 5 Emerging Infectious Diseases." Learner.org - Teacher Professional Development. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Jan. 2013. <http://www.learner.org/courses/biology/textbook/infect/infect_4.html>.
Editor's Notes
- Bacteria were the first living organisms found on Earth.They inhabit deserts, ice caps, oceans and hot springs.The number of bacterial species worldwide is estimated to be more than a thousand million.11 Their individual sizes may be insignificant, but their number and diversity is unimaginably large.Bacteria contribute substantially to the total biomass in marine environments. And, since oceans cover 70% of our planet’s surface, bacteria make up a significant part of the total biomass on Earth.
- Gut flora contribute enzymes that are absent in humans for food digestion- Some bacteria living in the gut of cattle, horses and other herbivores secrete cellulase, an enzyme that helps in the digestion of the cellulose contents of plant cell walls. Cellulose is the major source of energy for these animals. Generally plant cells contain cellulose. The bacteria present in the stomach of cattle will help in the digestion of cellulose.95% of total organisms in intestine and colonVitamin synthesisEscherichia coli that lives in the human large intestine synthesize vitamin B and releases it for human use. Similarly, Clostridium butyclicum is used for commercial preparation of riboflavin, and vitamin B.Biotechnology and bacteriaBiotechnology or Industrial microbiology is defined as the application of micro organism such as bacteria, fungi and algae to the manufacturing and services industries. These include:Fermentation processes, such as brewing, baking, cheese and butter manufacturing, Bacteria, often Lactobacillus in combination with yeasts and molds, have been used for thousands of years in the preparation of fermented foods such as cheese, pickles, soy sauce, sauerkraut, vinegar, wine, and yogurt.Chemical manufacturing such as ethanol, acetone, organic acid, enzymes, perfumes etc. In the chemical industry, bacteria are most important in the production of enantiomerically pure chemicals for use as pharmaceuticals or agrochemicals.[1]Genetic engineering and bacteriaGenetic engineering is the manipulation of genes. It is also called recombinant DNA technology. In genetic engineering, pieces of DNA (genes) are introduced into a host by means a boy of a carrier (vector) system. The foreign DNA becomes a permanent feature of the host, being replicated and passed on to daughter cells along with the rest of its DNA. Bacterial cells are transformed and used in production of commercially important products. The examples are production of human insulin (used against diabetes), human growth hormone (somatotrophin used to treat pituitary dwarfism), and infections which can be used to help fight viral diseases.Using biotechnologytechniques,or bio medical technology bacteria can also be bioengineered for the production of therapeutic proteins, such as insulin, growth factors or antibodies.[2][3]Pest controlBacteria can also be used in the place of pesticides in the biological pest control. This commonly uses Bacillus thuringiensis (also called BT), a Gram-positive, soil dwelling bacterium. This bacteria is used as a Lepidopteran-specific insecticide under trade names such as Dipel and Thuricide. Because of their specificity, these pesticides are regarded as Environmentally friendly, with little or no effect on humans, wildlife, pollinators, and most other beneficial insects.
- - Today in the U.S. more than 20% of all enterococcal infections, that is, infections caused by intestinal colonizing bacteria in the genus Enterococcus, are resistant to vancomycin, once considered the antibiotic of last resort.Cephalosporin and Vancomyocin for Enterococcus.Pseudomonas aeruginosa is notorious for its resistance to antibiotics and is, therefore, a particularly dangerous and dreaded pathogen. The bacterium is naturally resistant to many antibiotics due to the permeabiliity barrier afforded by its Gram-negative outer membrane. Also, its tendency to colonize surfaces in a biofilm form makes the cells impervious to therapeutic concentrations antibiotics. Since its natural habitat is the soil, living in association with the bacilli, actinomycetes and molds, it has developed resistance to a variety of their naturally-occuring antibiotics. Moreover, Pseudomonas maintains antibiotic resistance plasmids, both R-factors and RTFs, and it is able to transfer these genes by means of the bacterial mechanisms of horizontal gene transfer (HGT), mainly transduction and conjugation. Only a few antibiotics are effective against Pseudomonas aeruginosa, including fluoroquinolones, gentamicin and imipenem, and even these antibiotics are not effective against all strains. The futility of treating Pseudomonas infections with antibiotics is most dramatically illustrated in cystic fibrosis patients, virtually all of whom eventually become infected with a strain that is so resistant that it cannot be treated.- Tuberculosis has become a threat again in the modern era of antimicrobial warfare, because its unique characteristics give it enormous potential for developing resistance to even the strongest antibiotics. Tuberculosis combines one of the slowest division rates among bacteria with a hardy cell wall defense system (2). Both of these factors stretch treatment into a multiple month process, creating a massive window for human error in the form of incorrect or missed dosages (1). Similarly, this slow pace of infection increases the possibility of evolution-based antimicrobial resistance by giving tuberculosis bacteria time to mutate (2). For these reasons, multi-drug resistant tuberculosis is one of the biggest health threats of this generation and the discovery of new treatment methods will be essential in the ongoing fight against this disease.- Staphylococercusaureus is a prevalent bacterium carried by humans that can cause a number of problems, from mild skin infections to serious diseases including food poisoning, wound infections, pneumonia, and toxic shock syndrome. The World Health Organization (WHO) recently reported that more than 95% of S. aureus worldwide is resistant to penicillin, and 60% to its derivative methicillin.
- Misuse of antibiotics occurs in medicine, agriculture, and household products. Common examples include erroneous antibiotic prescriptions for nonbacterial infections and the addition of antibiotics to livestock feed and cleaning agents, which have helped create a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.Several factors contribute to resistance, including misuse of antibiotics.Anomalous combinations have perpetuated drug-resistant microbes. For example, one study on Rhesus monkeys reports that mercury in dental amalgam fillings fostered a 61% increase in antibiotic-resistant bacteria. Upon removal of the amalgam fillings, drug-resistant bacteria dropped 58%. In another example, S. aureus was shown to acquire vancomycin resistance genes through cohabitation with the vancomycin-resistant bacteria, Enterococcusfaecalis, in the wound of a hospitalized patient. Through mechanisms of genetic exchange between bacterial species, the mere coexistence of these two particular bacteria helped to bring about drug resistance in S. aureus.Enhanced transmission of resistance factors, or the increased efficiency with which resistance genes are exchanged, is another important way that antibiotic resistance is perpetuated. Factors that contribute to enhanced transmission include the survival of patients with chronic disease, an increased number of immunosuppressed individuals, substandard hospital hygiene, more international travel, and budget cuts in health care administration.The reservoir hypothesis suggests that antibiotic-resistant bacteria have evolved because of the selective pressures applied by antibiotic drugs; moreover, the hypothesis states that each antibiotic has a threshold level that is required to induce and maintain antibiotic resistance. After a decline in the populations of susceptible bacteria from antibiotic treatment, naturally resistant bacteria begin to thrive, creating a reservoir of antibiotic-resistant bacteria.
- It is a fact that selection of multi-drug-resistant bacteria has occurred throughout history. Unfortunately, however, drug-resistant bacteria have been met with antibiotics that are nothing more than recapitulations of earlier drugs. There has been an urgent need for new avenues of therapeutic treatment, and a new era of prophalytic (preventative) treatment has begun. Here the most plausible approaches are described:bacterial interferencebacteriophage therapybacterial vaccinesBacterial interferenceOne way is to inoculate hosts with nonpathogenic bacteria.Bacterial interference, also known as bacteriotherapy, is the practice of deliberately inoculating hosts with nonpathogenic (commensal) bacteria to prevent infection by pathogenic strains. To establish an infection and propagate disease, pathogenic bacteria must find nutrients and attachment sites (adhesion receptors). Infection by pathogenic bacteria is prevented by commensal bacteria, which compete with pathogenic bacteria for nutrients and adhesion receptors or spur attack through secretion of antimicrobial compounds. This treatment has had promising results in infections of the gut, urogenital tract, and wound sites. The major advantage of using bacteria in a positive way to benefit health, known as “probiotic” usage, is that infection is avoided without stimulating the host’s immune system and decreases selection for antibiotic resistance. Understanding how bacterial species compete, an essential criterion for research, has been known for at least 20 years but its practical application has yet to be realized. Bacteriophage therapyBacteriophages (commonly called “phages”) are viruses that infect bacteria and were recognized as early as 1896 as natural killers of bacteria. Bacteriophages take over the host’s protein-making machinery, directing the host bacteria to make viral proteins of their own. Therapeutically, bacteriophages were used as a prophylaxis against cholera, typhoid fever, and dysentery from the 1920s to the early 1940s. The practice was abruptly stopped when synthetic antibiotics were introduced after World War II. Now that there is a plethora of multi-drug-resistant bacteria, bacteriophage therapy once again has become of keen interest. Pathogens may be targeted through manipulation of phage DNA.Bacteriophage therapy is quite attractive for the following reasons:phage particles are narrow spectrum agents, which means they posses an inherent mechanism to not only infect bacteria but specific strains other pathogens may be targeted through manipulation of phage DNAexponential growth and natural mutational ability make bacteriophages great candidates for thwarting bacterial resistanceBacterial vaccinesDevelopment of bacterial vaccines has become an increasingly popular idea with the advent of complete genomic sequencing and the understanding of virulence regulatory mechanisms.Drugs can be developed by scanning the bacterial genome.Bacterial genomics allows scientists to scan an entire bacterial genome for specific sequences that may be used to stimulate a protective immune response against specific bacterial strains. This approach expedites the drug discovery process and, more importantly, provides a more rational, target-based approach.The best targets are essential bacterial genes that are common to many species of bacteria, which code for proteins with the ability to gain accesses through lipid membranes, and possess no homology to human genes.Regulatory genes that control virulence protein production are excellent vaccine candidates for priming the human immune system or inhibiting virulence production.Bacterial genomics can also detect conserved sequences from bacterial species and strains worldwide. This technology will inevitably yield superior clinical vaccine candidates.
- Card 6As seen in the first few slides, bacteria is very important from digestion to insecticide. Without it there could be a lot of problems associated with it. Antibiotic resistant bacteria on the other hand is increasingly on the rise. Educate yourself and others about this problem. With antibiotic resistant bacteria we could once again see diseases we once thought were gone.Much of the problems associated with antibiotic resistant bacteria boil down to us. If you feel your doctor is just pushing meds, ask them to test you. If you know you should be taking the entire dose, do it. Educate others on this same topic.We aren’t at the end yet, don’t let it get there!