Long Bones Essay

Long Bones Essay
Skeletisation of a dead body has made identification of the remains trickier. As humans, we become
accustomed to recognise others from outer body appearances, not their insides. However, it is well
established that morphological and metric changes occur on certain bones through a human's
lifetime (e.g. Pelvis: Phenice, 1969, Skull: Meindl and Lovejoy, 1985, Long bones: France, 1998)
making identification possible. To complicate matters, morphological and metric changes can differ
within and between human population groups due to intrinsic and extrinsic factors (DiGangi and
Moore, 2012). An example of this is nutritional deficiency, which effects males more than females
and causes reduced sexual dimorphism (Ross, Baker and Falsetti, 2003). Recently, there has been a
global trend to establish population specific standards for identification due to such variation.
Compared to America, much of Europe and other areas have not had as much opportunity to
conduct research on modern populations, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Epiphyseal (growth plates) fusion (Krogman and İşcan, 1986), dental eruption and wear (Ubelaker,
1989; Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994), cranial suture (elastic tissue that connects the bones of the
skull) closure (Meindl and Lovejoy, 1985), features of the pelvis such as the pubic symphysis (Todd,
1921a, 1921b; Brooks and Suchey, 1990) and auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985b) are some
examples of commonly used methods for age determination. Other features of the pelvis such as the
morphology of the subpubic region (Phenice, 1969) are a commonly used method for sex
determination. Morphology and metrics of the skull, including the mandible, have been beneficial in
determination of sex (Buikstra and Ubelaker, 1994). Additionally, metric measurements of
appendicular bones have also shown to be useful at determining sex (France, 1998). This study is
limiting the discussion to the skull and
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Cortical Bone Fusion
Due to a powerful corrective force in the 3–dimensional plane and improvement the stability of
spinal fusion constructs[1–3], the pedicle screw has been trusted and applied by majority of the
orthopedic and neurosurgeons. But the diameter of the thoracic pedicle is small, the thoracic spinal
cord and large vessels are adjacent to the pedicle, so the screw misplacement in thoracic has the
potential for serious complications, such as spinal cord or nerve root injury, and the inferior vena
cava, the thoracic duct, the lungs, the sympathetic chain endanger[2, 4, 5]. In an attempt to minimize
these risks, multiple techniques and difference start points have been described for placement of
these implants, for example, the freehand technique[5–9], Funnel Technique[10], open–lamina
technique[11], in–out–in technique[12], minilaminotomy technique[13], and percutaneous pedicle
screw technique[14].
Sterba et al[15] found that the screw inserted vertically without convergence showed greater pullout
load than traditionally technique. Santoni et al[16] report the cortical bone trajectory (CBT) in 2009,
which meant a more medial–to–lateral directed. The cortical bone trajectory (CBT) technique is a
theoretical benefit to the fixation of osteoporotic vertebrae which involves maximizing the thread
contact with ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
CBT screw that is inserted through a more medial starting point by following a more vertical
trajectory showed greater pullout load[30] and similar ROM to traditional pedicle trajectory
screw[18]. CBT technique has four major advantages: 1. Direction with caudocephalad path
sagittally and laterally directed path in the transverse plane protects the screw away from the nerve
tissue. 2. It needs less tissue trauma and less recovery time.3. Osteopenic or osteoporotic patients
will earn more advantage[18–20, 31, 32], 4. The incidence of postoperative radiculitis[33]

Soft Bone Fractures
The argument still takes place among parents as to whether or not weak or soft bones result in more
fractures in children of young ages. Lack of nutrition in a child's overall health can result from soft
bones due to missing core vitamins and other necessary nutrients. The well–known childhood
disease known as Rickets is the "deficiency of bone mineralization that is mostly recognizable at the
growth plate." (The Lancet; October 2003, Wharton, Bishop) Rickets occurs when the ossification
process where cartilage is transformed into bone does not occur which results in the softening of the
bone at the end.
Soft bones are due to the lack of the ossification process taking place correctly, where the bone is
hardened. Bones that are soft as a result of those deficient in calcium, phosphate, or vitamin are
more commonly adults suffering from ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The fractures were consistent with failure of the bones to handle the load of falling or accidents, and
they can be "distinguished from fractures seen in non–accidental trauma." Therefore, in this study
Vitamin D did not pose as a major cause of the fractures in infants or toddlers. The data researched
and presented in the Pediatric Radiology Journal states, "that there is not any comparable
information that poor mineralization in infants results in easier fracturing." However, lack of or
reduced bone mineralization can result in fracturing of bones in elderly people and older children.
Nonetheless, Rickets is not a major contributing cause of fractures in young infants and toddlers.
Although, it is still beneficial to consume appropriate amounts of Vitamin D, Calcium, and
phosphorous in daily diets for an overall nutritional health regardless the age of the individual and
the results of studies regarding "load bearing

Hyoid Bone
This article focuses on the hyoid bone of a Neanderthal that was found in the Kebara cave located in
Israel. A hyoid bone is a u–shaped bone which is located in the neck and helps supports the tongue.
The hyoid certainly plays a dynamic role in speech and is a sign of the vocal tract. This hyoid bone
found in 1989 heated up a scientific debate on the evolution of speech and complex language.
According to the article "The mechanical performance of whole bones is partly controlled by
internal trabecular geometries, regulated by bone–remodelling in response to the forces applied.
Here we show that the Neanderthal and modern human hyoids also present very similar internal
architectures and micro–biomechanical behaviors". The anatomy of the Neanderthal

Periodontal Bone Regeneration
Bone and gum tissue regeneration are procedures intended to restore tissue that has been lost due to
periodontal disease. The ideal outcome is to return these tissues to their original state, undoing the
damage caused by gum disease. Fortunately, periodontists have more effective treatments than ever
before, offering better results for patients.
Dr. Leonard Koltun in Encinitas has extensive experience repairing the damage done by periodontal
disease, and he can recommend an individualized treatment program to meet your needs. With the
latest surgical innovations, there is always a solution, even for situations that were at one time
considered hopeless.
Healthy bone and gum tissue are designed to fit snugly around the teeth, but periodontal ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Membrane barriers are often an essential component of the regeneration procedure, allowing
periodontal tissue to grow in a protected environment.
The combination of bone grafting and membrane barriers has made it possible to regenerate bone in
areas that were at one time considered hopeless. Furcations, the areas between tooth roots, are one
example. In previous decades, it would have been considered almost impossible to grow new bone
there. However, the combination of bone grafting with membrane barriers amplifies support for
teeth, decreasing the chances of tooth loss in such cases.
Soft Tissue Regeneration
The process of soft tissue regeneration is used to treat receding gums and to cover exposed tooth
roots with a type of durable, keratinized gum tissue. A variety of grafting materials, such as donor
tissue, membrane or tissue from a tissue bank, can be used. The new gum tissue covers exposed
roots with a healthy bed of gum tissue, and it also improves the cosmetic appearance of root

Haversian Bone
Journal article write up Spatial organization of the haversian bone in man
The strength of the human bone depends on the microstructure contained inside. Every human bone
contains osteons, these are aligned in a certain way, osteonal orientation. Usually in humans they are
grouped in two antirotary system of opposite direction in the shaft of the bone (diaphysis).There is a
general hypothesis that the direction of these osteons is a functional adaptation and depends on the
direction of the first stress that acts on the bone. There are a few others who looked into this
hypothesis but they considered a sheep tibia. Here the writer of the article is trying to determine the
osteonal direction in a human femurs and evaluate the results to see if the above hypothesis was
good. In this study the angle of osteonal orientation was measured and also the direction. ... Show
The adult bones had normal structure and polio affected the bone structure causing bending in the
diaphysis. To study the structure the primary layer was removed by electrical grounding, later India–
ink was used to stain the structure of the bone. Then a metallographic paper was used on the
structure of the bone to give it a high lusture and then the structure was studied. The osteonal
direction was measured in the area where the bone had a nearly circular cross section. A cylindrical
loading model was used to compare the results to that of the femurs. The cylindrical model was
loaded in with bending force in the frontal plane and torque in the perpendicular

Bone Formation And Bone Break Down
Bone formation and bone break down is a very important maintenance of the human body. After
tooth eruption teeth move and need new bone to form constantly. Due to the wear of enamel on the
interproximal and occlusal surfaces teeth are constantly moving in the mouth. For that reason,
Osteoclasts are activated and they begin to breakdown old bone. On the opposite side of the tooth
osteoblasts lay down new bone. With age however bone begins to change. When a person is young
they have healthy, dense and smooth bone. When people age bone becomes less dense and jagged.
When this begins to occur it is known as osteoporosis. Osteoporosis is a very common condition
that affects the bone. This condition causes the bone to become very brittle and break down rapidly.
This condition affects men and women worldwide. It is more common to occur in women than in
men. Worldwide an estimated two hundred million women are affected with the debilitated
conditions of osteoporosis (5). Women are diagnosed with this more often than men, it is because of
the effects of menopause. Osteoporosis occurs when certain nutrients levels are not where they are
supposed to be. Estrogen is one of the key nutrients to be low and become an onset for osteoporosis
(7). Although women suffer more frequently from osteoporosis, men however tend to suffer more
fatalities after a hip fracture due to osteoporosis (7). Other factors can play a role in the development
of osteoporosis such as; people who smoke, have eating

Broken Bone
What is a fracture? A fracture is also known as a broken bone. A bone that may be entirely broken or
may be comparatively broken. The causes for such fractures may depend on the age group or on a
accident. As a person ages, their bones may weaken because of the lack of natural bone tissue.
For women who have had menopause, their decrease in female hormone production causes their
bone to become thinner. Other factors may also be involved in the weakening of the bones: certain
medications, smoking, alcohol, or any medical conditions. Because your bones become more frail
and brittle as one ages, something as simple as stepping with more force can lead to a fracture in
your bone. Having a fracture is very painful and very hard to miss because they is aching around the
site of the injury. However, there might be times in where you might not feel the pain of the fracture
and might only be visible through an x–ray. When an accident occurs and to much force is being put
upon the bone, it may break. Depending on the force, the bone may break to only a small crack, or it
can break thoroughly. However, in some situations, the bone may shatter. There are a few different
type of common types of fractures: stable fracture, open, compound fracture, transverse fracture,
oblique fracture, and comminuted fracture. Stable fracture is when the fractured ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
For the most part, your bones will heal by themselves but they have to be lined up and placed
properly in order for them to heal correctly. It is highly important for the pieces to be put back
together correctly and for very limited movement. They have to gain strength, motion, and
sensitivity. If worst comes to worst, then surgery would be needed to fix a bone or to an internal
fixation would be placed. There's a few variety of treatments a doctor uses to treat fractures: cast
immobilization, functional cast or brace, traction, external

Improving Bone Health
Aging tends to take a toll on our bone health. However, with proper care and attention, bone health
can be improved, lowering the risk of painful and debilitating conditions, including osteoporosis and
compression fractures.
Fick Chiropractic Centers , which is home to some of Springdale, Ohio's best chiropractors, has
compiled the following list of helpful tips for people looking to take control of their bone health:
Take Calcium Supplements: Our bones need proper nutrition to thrive, and calcium is among one of
the most important supplements they need. Chiropractors say many of their patient's diets alone do
not contain the proper amount of calcium, so to ensure you're getting enough, take a calcium
supplement regularly. A visit to your ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Smoking is known to increase the risk of osteoporosis by limiting blood flow to the bones. In return,
this slows your body's production of bone–forming cells and its ability to absorb calcium properly.
Consider Bone Density Testing: If you're concerned about your bone health, talk with your doctor
about having a bone density test done. Bone density testing, called a DEXA scan, is quick and
painless and is a great way for your doctor and yourself to better understand your bone health.
Depending on the results, your doctor may suggest increasing your vitamin intake, or even prescribe
osteoporosis–fighting medications.
For more information on these and many other tips for improving your bone health, consult
Springdale's best chiropractors at Fick Chiropractic Centers. To schedule an appointment to meet
with one of their highly skilled chiropractic providers, call them today at (513) 851–8686. You can
also browse their website to learn more about their state–of–the–art chiropractic center, or to see a
complete list of the services they offer, including back pain relief, injury treatment, postural
screenings, and even corrective lifestyle

Alveolar Bone Essay
Alveolar bone is an intramembranous bone structure and it is formed from mesenchyme
condensations during embryonal development. Growth of this bone is linked to the whole process of
mandible formation but it mainly influences teeth. Their interactions with alveolar bone are crucial
for the proper function of dentition. Abnormalities in expression of signaling molecules (RUNX2,
BMP, PTHrP, etc.) and receptors (PTH1R, VDR, etc.) in most cases lead to several developmental
disorders such as an alveolar bone invasion into a dental pulp, tooth eruption problems and many
other (Liu et al., 1998; Mekaapiruk et al., 2002; Philbrick et al., 1998).
The first structures of alveolar bone are observable at E14,5 on the buccal side of the first molar
(Alfageeh et al., 2013) and at E15,5 alveolar prominences are forming around the first molar's tooth
germ (Cho et Garant, 2000; Radlanski et al., 1998). At E16,5 and E17,5 the bone extends also
lingually and higher around the dental epithelium (Zhang et al., 2003).
Parathyroid hormone, parathyroid hormone–related protein, calcitonin and calcitriol belong to the
most important signal molecules, which contribute to the regulation of ossification and calcium
levels in bones and blood. Although not all of them are probably essential in embryonal
development (Fudge and Kovacs, 2010; ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is involved in a calcium ion homeostasis and it is expressed in high levels mainly in bone and
kidney. In mouse there is also evidence of its expression in placenta, uterus and brain (Karperien et
al., 1996) and of a great role of Pth1r in chondrocyte proliferation and hypertrophy (Lee et al., 1996;
St–Jacques et al., 1999). Unlike PTH, Pthrp can act as a paracrine and an intracrine factor (Jans et
al., 2003) and affect surrounding cells without an access to blood

A Description Of The Biology Of Bone
4
Chapter 2
Background
2.1 Introduction
Chapter 2 will describe the essential background information needed to understand this
thesis project. A description of the biology of bone will be provided first and its focus
will be limited to femurs and tibiae, since those are the structures we have used
throughout this project. As well, we will briefly describe the analysis techniques that are
currently used to evaluate bones. Furthermore the theory behind the used technique and
instrumentation will be addressed. Previous bone studies using transcutaneous in vivo
Raman spectroscopy will also be described, as well as the differences between them and
the present thesis project.
2.2 Bone Structure and Composition
Bones ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
12 Both the cortical and
trabecular structures provide ions like calcium phosphate, phosphorous, sodium and
magnesium that are basic to maintain the homeostasis of the bone.
Figure 1. Hierarchical structure of bone. Cotical bone is made of osteons (10–500 µm). Osteons are
composed of concentric lamella (3–7 µm) and a Haversian cannal. A lamella is composed of
mineralized collagen fibers, which are made up of collagen fibrils (0.5 µm each). A fibril is made up

of collagen molecules and apatite nano–crystals.11
The three major components of bone tissues are: type I collagen, water and dahllite
crystals. 13 Dahllites are plate–shaped carbonated apatite crystals, which have "small but
significant amounts of impurities such as HPO4, Na, Mg, citrate, carbonate, K". 14,15 The
apatite crystal lattice is then responsible for the degree of mineralization in bone tissue.
Type I collagen is the primary matrix component and its molecules are secreted by
Cortical bone
Osteons
Haversian canal
Concentric lamella
Mineralized collagen fibrils
Collagen molecule
Apatite nanocrystals 6 osteoblasts, these molecules will then arrange into collagen fibrils and
subsequently to
collagen fibers, which are the basis to lamellae.
Type I collagen despite being the primary protein is not the only one present in
bone tissue, which also contains non–collagenous proteins.

Bone Supplements
This is as true of bone supplements as it is of any other, and particularly true of supplements
containing both calcium and glucosamine. Glucosamine is manufactured in small amounts during
the normal biochemistry of your body, but decreases as you age. Glucosamine is a chemical that is
used by your body for the manufacture of cartilage that protects the bones in your joint by providing
a cushion between them. Without cartilage the bone ends of your joints would rapidly wear, a
condition commonly known as osteoarthritis.
The main structural components of the cartilage in your body are substances known as
glucosaminoglycans, and they are responsible for connective tissues such as tendons, ligaments,
veins and arteries, heart valves, skin and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Omega 6 is good for you, but only in moderation relative to your Omega 3 intake. Omega 9 fatty
acids can reduce the chances of you developing atherosclerosis, with a consequent reduction on the
possibility of heart disease and strokes. It is a strong antioxidant and can help to reduce your
cholesterol level and blood pressure, and together with Omega 3 and 6 reduce the risk of breast
cancer.
When you consider all of these benefits of the Omega fatty acids, and also of calcium and
Glucosamine supplements in association with Vitamin D and magnesium, any supplement
containing all of these would of extreme benefit, not only to those suffering from arthritis and other
bone conditions, but also of high cholesterol levels and high blood pressure.
Such a supplement in liquid form would render it even more potent due the much faster and more
efficient absorption by the body. The benefits of liquid calcium supplements would then be
augmented with substances that not only improve the absorption and beneficial effects of the
calcium, but also provide the additional benefits of antioxidant and anti–inflammatory properties
that help to allay the painful effects of bone and joint

Dr Bones Anthropology
Bones is an American crime drama television series that originally ran on the Fox network on
September 13, 2005. There are many characters in this show, such as Dr. Bones, special agent
Booth, Dr. Zack, Dr. Hodgins, and Angela. All characters on this show behave like ordinary human
beings. They laugh, cry, get angry or even fall in love, except Dr. Bones. Viewers feel that Dr. Bones
came from a different planet. She is a beautiful woman and scores 11 on intelligence test from 1 to
10. However, when it comes to feelings and emotions she scores a zero. For example, her definition
of making love is an activity that a male and a female conduct to release their physiological needs.
Also, telling someone "Oh, I've just seen your wife with your best ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
When it comes to men, they have the role of doing the donkey work, all they do is arrest people and
interrogate them, as for the thinking, cracking mysteries, and tracing suspects is mostly dont by
laidies. An indication that point to empowering women is that most of the women in this show have
high positions, such as Angela, she is the tech girl who runs all the helograms and computer analysis
to track down criminals, Caroline the persocuter for the department, even the boss is a women and
the list goes on. As for Dr. Bones, she is an extremely smart woman who has the talent to notice
details her colleagues miss, which makes her the best at forensic anthropology and kinesiology, and
for that reason, her co–workers keep on depending on her if they are facing any issues. Most of the
time she is mistaken to have no emotions but when it comes to her kids she finds it hard to
concentrate, as when she said "I find it difficult being seperated from my children", her childern
were taken to a secret safe house to keep them safe from a phyco who was trying to kill Agent Booth
and his family for revenge, which brings up the next argument this show is

The Bones Of The Human Body
The bones of the human body are made of living tissues. From the moment we were born to the
moment we reached adulthood, our bones are developing and growing in strength. Our bones gives
us support and protects our body. It works with our skeletal muscles to allow movement for our
human body. It is a mineral and growth factor storage and also a triglyceride (fat) storage in the
yellow bone marrow. It also produces hormones for bone growth and formation. The bones in our
body grow in length and thickness. We stop growing in length by the age of 18–25 years old, but we
never stop growing in thickness because it responds to our stress of muscle activity or weight. We
also have osteoblasts in our bones, which are bone forming cells. It ... Show more content on
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It reduces the mass of our bones, which makes it very brittle. It is a silent process that takes place
and needs to be medically diagnosed by a professional. If our bones become too weak, then there
will more risks for fractures, especially for the elders. It affects every bone in our body, but it is
more likely to occur on the wrists, hips and vertebral column.
PATHOPHYSIOLOGY Estrogen deficiency is a major factor of osteoporosis for both males and
females, which contributes to its pathophysiology. Estrogen stimulates osteoprotegerin (OPG)
production, which is a protein, in the osteoblast that causes it to exert anti–resorptive effects on the
bone. It also goes together with parathyroid hormone (PTH) levels. Estrogen deficiency will cause
the bones to become more sensitive due to PTH. We know that osteoclasts, osteoblasts, and
osteocytes contribute to the building and the breaking of the bones. These three key bone cells
provides support for future osteoclasts, T–cells, β–cells, and most other cells in the human bone
marrow (Becker, 2008). The deficiency of estrogen levels leads to an activation of T–cells, which
also contributes to the pathogenesis of osteoporosis. These T–cells produce proinflammatory
cytokines, which are important in cell signaling. This can cause osteoblasts differentiation and
apoptosis, which is a process that causes the premature death of osteoblasts. But there are other

Osteoporosis: Bone Disease
Osteoporosis
Osteoporosis is a bone disease that occurs when the body loses too much bone, or makes too little
bone. As a result, bones become weak and may break from a fall or other stress to the bones. In
more serious cases, a simple sneeze or cough can cause a bone to break. Osteoporosis is the most
common reason for a broken bone among the elderly, (Eastell, 2014). The majority of osteoporosis
cases affect women over 50 years old, and studies suggest that one in two women will break a bone
due to osteoporosis.
Osteoporosis is a Greek word meaning "porous bone", (Merriam Webster, 2017). When a healthy
bone is viewed under a microscope, it looks like a honeycomb. The honeycomb appearance of bones
affected by osteoporosis is much larger ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
With millions of families affected by osteoporosis, it is imperative that we encourage early
prevention and continued medical research aimed at finding a cure. I am confident that with
continued awareness and dedication, we can acquire a cure in the near future.
References
Eastell, R. (2014) Treatment of Postmenopausal Osteoporosis. New England Journal of Medicine;
338: 736.
Fulton, J. P.(2009). New guidelines for the prevention and treatment of osteoporosis. National
Osteoporosis Foundation. Med Health R I 82: 110–1.
Merriam Webster. Retrieved February 3rd, 2017, from website: https://www.merriam–
webster.com/dictionary/osteoporosis.
Nelson, H. D. (2002). Screening for postmenopausal osteoporosis: a review of the evidence for the
U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Ann Intern Med 137: 529–41.
Osteoporosis Fact Sheet. Retrieved February 3rd, 2017, from National Institute on Aging website:

Bone Remodeling Essay
Bone remodeling is required to repair old the bone and to prevent the aging effects and its
consequences. This process requires balance between bone formation and bone resorption and direct
communication among different bone cells. Cells of the osteoblast lineage (osteoblasts, osteocytes)
and bone–resorbing cells (osteoclasts), together with their precursor cells, are organized in
specialized units called bone/basic multicellular units (BMU) (145). We have already detailed the
origin of osteoblasts, responsible for bone matrix synthesis and its subsequent mineralization, and
osteoblasts–derived osteocytes. On the other hand osteoclasts are large, multinucleated giant cells
formed from the fusion of mononuclear progenitors of the monocyte/macrophage ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
Along with IGF–I, PTH induces Receptor Activator of Nuclear factor κB Ligand (RANKL) and
Macrophage Colony–Stimulating Factor (MCSF) from mature osteoblasts to promote
osteoclastogenesis (150). PTH elevates cAMP levels and inhibits Mef2–stimulated Sost promoter
activity in osteocytes, leading to decreased expression of sclerostin and an elevated bone formation
rate (151). Vitamin D3 stimulates osteoblastogenesis via differentiation of mesenchymal stem cells
to osteoblasts (152). Calcitonin suppresses bone resorption by inhibiting the activity of osteoclasts
(153). Estrogen inhibits bone resorption by directly inducing apoptosis of the bone–resorbing
osteoclasts (154). Androgens can also indirectly inhibit osteoclast activity and bone resorption via
effects on osteoblasts/osteocytes and the RANKL/RANK/OPG (OPG: Osteoprotegerin) system
(155, 156). In addition to systemic hormonal regulation, it is known that growth factors such as
Insuline Growth Factors (IGFs), TGF–β, FGFs, Epidermal growth factor (EGF), WNTs, and BMPs
play significant roles in regulation of physiological bone remodeling

What Is Written In Bone
Written in bone
According to the Macmillan dictionary the definition of social studies is a school or college subject
that includes the study of history,government, and world cultures. I believe Written in Bone
perfectly fits that description. Written in Bone belongs in a social studies classroom because of the
way it transports you decades into the past and informs about the daily lives of the people before us.
The book also includes photos and maps which tremendously help explain how life was years ago
and how much we have changed.
In Written in Bone the readers were informed about the difficulties of the past and how we have
improved on them. For example on pages 90–91 the author wrote about Rickets, a disease caused by
not enough sunlight

Bone Health
Common knowledge is that the key to improved bone density and overall bone health is plenty of
calcium–rich foods, but does that theory really hold in practice?
According to this study, magnesium, which is commonly found in sesame seeds, sunflower seeds,
basil, broccoli and spinach, may be the real key to stronger and healthier bones.
Looking Critically At Calcium
It has been scientifically shown that increased levels of calcium, especially the use of calcium
supplements, is linked to higher risk of for heart attack, particularly in women.
The National Osteoporosis Foundation says that calcium supplement are a poor substitute for dietary
calcium, and too much calcium supplement is directly related to kidney stones and other health
issues. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
"Lots of nutrients are key for children to have healthy bones. One of these appears to be
magnesium," said Abrams. "Calcium is important, but, except for those children and adolescents
with very low intakes, may not be more important than magnesium."
Since this was confirmed, it became worrying that calcium is only promoted to be beneficial for the
bones, whereas magnesium was not even mentioned.
What concerned researchers was the fact that while calcium intake is widely promoted for better
bone health, other relevant minerals such as magnesium were going relatively unremarked on. They
suggest that parents in particular make sure their children get plenty of magnesium for healthy bone
growth – and would like to see more awareness about the role magnesium plays in bone health
increase in general.
Magnesium intake isn't just important for children – the elderly, who are at increased risk for bone
fractures, should be getting plenty of magnesium as well, according to a report by Kathryn M. Ride
and colleagues from the University of Memphis,

Bone Health
strength in the spine. Furthermore, any adjustment to increase physical activity during work or
leisure evokes change. For instance, one can choose to walk the stairs instead of the elevator.
Another great option is to walk to run errands closer–by rather than drive.
Furthermore, for mineral balance, Dr. Carolyn Dean, author of "Magnesium is crucial for bone
health", from Natural News.com recommends along with exercise to eat a diet lush with green
vegetables, nuts, and seeds and intake a magnesium diet supplement. According to author Tweed,
the top product selection for magnesium are Garden of life, relax and restore whole foods
magnesium, flordix magnesium liquid, and natural vitality natural bath. Many may not realize that
magnesium can ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, Goldschmidt explains that drugs used to treat osteoporosis bisphosphonates also has
corrosion components used in fertilizer and oil industries. Common drugs prescribed for
osteoporosis are Actonel®, Boniva®, Fosamax®, Reclast®, Aclasta®, Forteo®, Evista®,
Protelos®, Miacalcin®, Fortical® (Goldschmidt). Unfortunately, Goldschmidt believes physicians'
persuade patients to ingest drugs for personal interest. Additionally, Goldschmidt conveys
pharmaceutical companies have a monopoly on sales from scientific research and marketing.
According to Goldschmidt for every one dollar spent on research two dollars allocates to
advertising. Therefore, the consumer pays the price for drug advertising. Author Barbara Bushman
author of Complete Guide to Fitness & Health: Physical activity and nutrition guidelines for every
age share none of the drugs are 100% efficient. Additionally, Bushman affirms bisphosphonates may
reduce osteoporosis symptoms however safety is a concern over

Bones Essay
In the past decade, network television has been bombarded by crime shows attempting to make their
mark on viewers. All of these programs–CSI, Lie to Me, Numb3rs, Law & Order–have the same
general set up of a male lead with a hot–head who is complemented by his team of FBI agents. As a
loyal viewer and fan of Bones, I often wonder what makes it stay afloat with so many shows out
there like it. Could it be that Bones isn't like any of the other crime shows? Through its crimes and
unsolved murders, Bones helps its viewers make sense of the disastrous world around them. The
world we live in is full of danger and unsolved crime, but after watching Dr. Brennan, her team of
"squints" and Agent Booth solve even the most bizarre murders, the ... Show more content on
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Finally, Nguyen also says that while the actors portray their roles very well, and it is clear that the
"slight chemistry between Deschanel [Dr. Brennan] and Boreanaz [Agent Booth] doesn't seem to be
headed for any successful route," which he obviously thinks is an old, worn–out scenario. The
chemistry between them is undeniable, and as we have seen in the most recent season, Booth has
accepted his feelings for Brennan and, in the early episodes of season five, has been trying to tell her
how he feels. In the real world, many crimes remain unsolved, but in Bones every murder is solved
and the killer is brought to justice. As Letizia, the author of a TV review entitled "Bones", asserts,
"fans root not just for crimes to be solved, but for [Booth and Brennan], working in tandem, to solve
them." The viewer begins to trust these two characters and think of them as real people they have let
into their lives. Another difference, pointed out by Letizia, that Bones offers is
Where an episode of CSI leaves one with the feeling that 'evil' exists no matter what we do about it,
Bones makes the case that there is also 'good.' Granted, truly happy endings are rare when it comes
to murder investigations, but the victims depicted in Bones often find some sort of redemption at the
end–even if it simply means their families learn what really happened to them.
This subconsciously

Bones Brittle Causes
It makes bones brittle and makes them more likely to break. It occurs when bones loses minerals
like calcium, faster than they create it. Also when the body doesn't have enough vitamin D because
we need it to absorb calcium. It makes the bones much thinner and more hollow inside the bones
which makes them weaker.
§ Not doing weight bearing activities and cause the bones to become weak and brittle. Also when
running outside get vitamin D and helps absorb calcium.
Drinking lots of alcohol – reduces calcium. Increases parathyroid hormone which reduces calcium.
Anorexia – Because no eating reduces things like calcium. Affects hormones like estrogen that
controls bone health.
Cigarettes – Nicotine is toxic to bone cells. Interferes with calcium

Healthy Bones
One of the best ways to have healthy bones is carrying a food with fresh, unprocessed foods, which
maximizes natural minerals, so that the body can have the raw materials needed to perform their
functions.Nutrients that play a fundamental role in bone health are calcium, phosphorus,
magnesium, fluorine, vitamins D and K, macronutrients such as proteins, carbohydrates and fats,
and other dietary components such as oxalates , phytates, fiber, sodium and caffeine. Getting enough
calcium is essential to maintain adequate bone mass from early adulthood to old age
Calcium is the main mineral part of the bone (99% of body calcium found in bone) and bone tissue
is the major reservoir of calcium in the body; therefore, an appropriate supply of said element is
essential to maintain homeostasis or bone balance in all stages of life. The control of the calcium
concentration in the blood is achieved by regulating the resorption rate of bones and blood passage
and, in turn, transfer of blood calcium to the bones.
During childhood high calcium intakes are required to allow proper accumulation and leading to a
high peak bone mass. In ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is estimated that one in five children 1 to 11 years old do not get enough vitamin D, this has a
well–defined on paper bone health because it increases intestinal calcium absorption, mobilizes
calcium and phosphorus bone resorption and increases renal calcium and phosphate. Although
calcium was for years the most common antidote that was used against weak bones, in recent years,
vitamin D has come to the fore to take their own role in health promotion system bone, as well as
the important role that calcium has on bone health. An important part of people worldwide currently
do not receive an adequate dose of vitamin D through exposure to sunlight or take enough doses
through the diet to

The Types Of Bone Tissue
Bone tissue is a connective tissue with an abundant matrix of intercellular substances that encloses
widely separated cells. The bone matrix is made up of an inorganic component known as mineral
salts that hardens the bone, and an inorganic component – collagen fibres and an amorphous mixture
called ground substance, which gives the bone its strength (Tortora, Grabowski 2001). There are
three types of cells that can be found in the bone, they are osteoblasts, osteoclasts and osteocytes.
Osteoblasts are the cells that synthesizes a specialized organic material called osteoid which is
important in the build–up of mineralized bone, osteoclasts are relatively larger multi nucleate cells
made up of mitochondria and lysosomes that are responsible for the continuous erosion of bones.
Lastly the last cells found in the bone are osteocytes, these are adult osteoblast cells found in the
lacunae that have been surrounded by mineralized matrix. (Thibodeau, Patton 2003).Osteocytes are
responsible for maintaining metabolism within the bone such as the exchange of nutrients with the
blood.
There are four types of bones – short bones, long bones, flat bones and irregular bones, which have
different characteristics so at to be able to function effectively. Long bones are greater in length than
width and is made up of varying numbers of ends and a shaft, an example is the humerus which is
located in the arm. Short (sesamond) bones are almost as broad as they are long, such bones can be
found

Bone Synthesis Essay
Studies have indicated that a 25% bone loss occurs in the first year post extraction and up to 60% of
bone loss occurs over a 3–year period.25 It has been reported that alveolar ridge preservation is
effective in limiting physiologic ridge reduction as compared with tooth extraction alone. Ridge
preservation with a biomaterial (BioOss Collagen ) did prevent reduction in the cross–sectional area
of the alveolar ridge compared to ungrafted controls in humans (Araujo et al. 2015). The use of
autographs, allographs, xenographs, and alloplasts are alternative bone–grafting materials with
various advantages and disadvantages.2 DCBB, which was utilized in this case, is processed
chemically to remove proteins and other organic substances. The chemical ... Show more content on
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15The use of bone substitute, such as bovine bone mineral, has been reported to stabilize the bone
clot to preserve the alveolar ridge, thereby maintaining the volume at the site and stimultaneously
serving as an osteoconductive guide rail to facilitate continued bone formation.–12–17
PRF has been reported to retain statistically higher levels of growth factors compared to the surgical
blood clot. 23–25,5,6 It provides a more physiologic mode of growth factors delivery compared
with exogenous recombinant growth factors . Clinically, it has also been found that PRF can
improve clinical periodontal parameters in intrabony and furcation defects with pocket reduction,
clinical attachments gain, and enhanced bone defect fill. 7, 8
In this case, DCBB and PRF were used for alveolar bone preservation following tooth extraction to
reduce bone loss and induce bone formation. This technique prevented bone loss in the extraction
site and provided enough hard and soft tissue for future implant site preparation. This case report
showed sufficient new bone formation using DCBB with PRF for ARP 7 months post– operatively.
The patient had an ideal implant to restore function and esthetics. The implant crown–apical ratio
was moderate compared to the adjacent teeth and treatment was

Chicken Bone Dissection
Student's Name
Professor's Name
Subject
DD MM YYYY
Chicken Bone Dissection: Structure of Bone
The skeletal system is made up of cartilage and bone. Both bone and cartilage are connective
tissues, that is, they are composed of cells in a matrix with intracellular fibers. Just imagine
connective tissue as a gelatin salad with grapes and coconut. The grapes would represent cells, the
gelatin the support material for matrix, and the pieces of coconut the intracellular fibers. By
changing the amounts of each ingredient and adding extra substances, we can produce a material
that is very hard like bone and can withstand weight or softer like cartilage which can be used as a
cushioning material. In this exercise, we will examine a fresh raw chicken bone to study bone ...
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How does spongy bone differ from compact bone? What differences did you see in the appearance
of the spongy bone and compact bone? What color was the spongy bone?
Compact bone forms the outer layer of the bone and spongy bone is surrounded by the compact
bone. On close examination, the compact bone had thin lines of closely packed materials making it
hard to compress, while the spongy bone appeared like a network and was soft to touch. This is
because spongy bone are made up of thin cells (trabeculae) separated by spaces (lacunae). For color
difference, compact bone is cream colored while spongy bone is reddish in color.
2. How does cartilage differ from bone? How did each one feel when pierced with the knife?
Based on color, the cartilage was whitish in color while the bone was cream colored. The cartilage
was relatively more flexible than the bone. On composition, bone is made up of calcium while
cartilage is made up of hyaline materials. Upon piercing with a knife, the bone is resistant to
piercing. On application of more force, it cracks and breaks unevenly as compared to the cartilage
that is less resistant to piercing and was cut clean through upon application of a relatively lesser

Bone Voyage Summary
Stanley Rhine's Bone Voyage
The book Bone Voyage by Stanley Rhine describes, in stunning detail, the work of forensic
anthropologists. The author works for the New Mexico Office of Medical Investigations. The OMI
is in charge of investigating any death in New Mexico that is sudden, unnatural, untimely,
unattended, or suspicious deaths. They work together with multiple agencies in many different
jurisdictions. Bone Voyage gives a lifelike, almost sickly, reality to the important jobs dealt to
forensic anthropologists.
The field of forensic anthropology is relatively young, with roots in the 1960's and 1970's. Its
popularity continues to grow today, with TV shows like "Bones" and novels like "Coroner at Large."
The work of a forensic anthropologist is important in a historical and medicolegal context. Without
the study of bones and death, lots of history would be lost forever, and murders would go unsolved.
The first trial in the United States to use forensic anthropologist techniques was the Leutgert
Sausage Trial in 1897. In this case a man who owned a sausage company was found with residual
human skeletal remains in his vats at the sausage factory. George Dorsey, Harvard alum, identified
the bones in the vat, and testified at trial. Although these techniques were not modern by any means,
it paved a way for forensic anthropology in the US legal system. Again the importance of forensic
anthropology was revealed during the outbreak of World War II. The

Orthopedic Bone Essay
Bone is a miraculous triphasic organ that contains cellular components, hydrated extracellular
organic matrix and an extracellular mineral phase which is primarily composed of calcium
phosphate in the form of hydroxyapatite (HA), playing leading roles in critical functions in human
physiology including support, movement and protection of other critical organs, storage and
homeostasis of calcium, blood production, mineral and blood pH regulation. Bone injuries and
defects are serious health problems especially those caused by complex breaks and pathological
fractures arising from malformation, osteoporosis and tumors that have resulted in over 2.2 million
bone transplantation procedures in different fields including orthopedics, neurosurgery ... Show
Alternatively, modifications in mechanical properties of natural and synthetic biomaterials can be
introduced through enzymatic, physical, or chemical crosslinking. Thermosetting resins (or
thermosets) play an important role in industry because of their high flexibility for tailoring preferred
ultimate properties leading to high modulus, strength, durability with thermal and chemical
resistances provided by high cross–linking density. In view of the fact that being prepared from
phenol and formaldehyde and having desirable characteristics and dimensional stability along with
high resistance against various solvents, acids and water, phenolic resins are broadly used as
commodity and engineered materials in transportation industry showing the versatility for having
potential to cope with challenges of advanced technology. Phenolic resins can be synthesized under
both acidic and alkaline conditions [48]. Acid–catalyzed resins called as Novolacs are prepared at a
formaldehyde/phenol ratio between 0.75 and 0.85, whereas alkaline–catalyzed resins called Resoles
are prepared at a formaldehyde/phenol ratio higher than 1.(resol ftir for synthesis) Phenol
formaldehyde resins (PF) are characterized by their capability of forming hydrogen bonds with the
polymer containing complementary hydroxyl groups (resin theory boron novolac). As a synthetic
polymer, resol is soluble in

Dr. Brennen Bones
Dr. Brennen, a forensic anthropologist, finds remains all throughout the book in different scenarios.
She finds human bones among lots of bear bones in a bag in the woods and she examines the
remains of a baby found in a wood stove, in a plane crash, privy, and a submerged car. She briefly
goes into discussion of what she does as a forensic anthropologist. She uses her knowledge of bones
to identify the cause and manner of death in victims that are too compromised for autopsy; meaning
there is little to no tissue left for a proper autopsy. (Reichs 2004:16). She also uses various methods
throughout the book to identify the sex, age, stature, and ancestry, as well as securing an
identification of the victim.
At the beginning of the book, Dr. Brennen is examining bones of a baby found in a wood stove. By
the look of them, she concludes that the baby was full term, however ... Show more content on
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Especially with identifying the demographic characteristics of the bones, and it was made a point
that even though Dr. Brennen knew approximately what the sex, age, ancestry, and stature of the
remains were, they were not completely certain, because of the intermediate traits that were
indistinguishable. No tests for the demographic characteristics are 100% accurate. They can give
you a good estimate but will not be exact. Estimating sex using the skull is only 90% effective,
while using the os coxa is 96%. But, it is better to use the entire skeleton, if it is available. In Dr.
Brennen's case, she did not always have the complete skeleton; the privy remains only provided her
with the os coxa, and not the skull or hands, which could have been used in identification of the
victim. Dr. Brennen, however, did not describe using the os coxa for sex estimation, just the skull.
And another thing that is not very accurate is her using histology as a method for determining the
sex of the individual. Histology is not used often and is very time consuming and expensive to

Essay On QUS Of Bone
techniques are also used in order to estimate quantitative parameters and assess tissue properties.
Advantages of US methods can be related primarily to the fact that they do not cause radiation
exposure. In addition, US devices have the advantages of small size and portabil¬ity providing
quick and simple measurements In addition, low costs and shorter investigation times compared
with both DXA and QCT (43).
QUS of bone has been applied about two decades ago as a method for evaluating bone structural
features and elastic properties of bone tissues that could not be assessed using densitometric
approaches (43), particularly in post–menopausal os¬teoporosis (44). The recent technical creations
of some of the available devices have made it ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
More complex parame¬ters have been applied from combination of SoS and BUA producing
amplitude dependent speed of sound (AD–SoS), stiffness and quantitative ultrasound index (QUI)
(45). In osteoporosis diagnosis, these latter have proved to be more useful in identifying subjects
with low BMD and therefore at high risk of fracture (47).
Several studies have been prformed to evaluatethe per¬formance of US systems in terms of stability,
accuracy, and ability in the detection of patients with osteo¬porotic fractures. Most of these studies
include com¬parison of the QUS method with X–ray methods such as DXA or QCT (48).
It has been shown that ultrasonography provides useful information, such as the distribution of the
mineralized matrix within the bone (the connectiv¬ity and the thickness of the trabeculae) and the
different resistance of the bone tissue loading according to the trabecular orientation (49).
A large number of studies in the last decades, have confirmed the usefulness of QUS to predicte
osteo¬porotic fractures of the calcaneus (particularly in elderly women aged 65–70 years or older),
the distal metaphysis of the phalanx, the radius and the tibia (50).
Recently, new QUS techniques to assess the femur and the spine have been p. In vitro studies have
shown a high correlation between QUS measurements and BMD in human femur cadaver
specimens

Osteoporosis and Bone
Dorothy Nicoll
A & P 171
Izy Grooms
Osmosis: Marissa, Jeremy, and Eleanor
Question on front of packet
Calcium helps to keep bones strong but just drinking milk doesn't mean that you won't get
osteoporosis. You may be genetically inclined to get it even though you drink milk every day. There
are also many other things that contribute to getting osteoporosis, like not eating enough calcium,
doing steroids causes bones to become weak and look like sponges when looking at it under a
microscope. Scenarios A,B, and C help to explain that it's not just the calcium that can cause
osteoporosis
Scenario A:
1. The skeleton is a metabolically active organ that undergoes continuous remodeling throughout
life. Bone remodeling involves the removal ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Scenario B:
1. It is essential for muscle contraction, but also essential to the structure and health of bones. Bones
are continually remodeling and reforming and calcium is a vital part of this process. Without
calcium bones can become very thin. Bones are structured to provide strength, protection, and
movement. In addition the structure allows the bones to serve as a reservoir for several minerals
including calcium because calcium can quickly move between the bone and the blood.
2. Foods high in calcium consist of spinach, kale, okra, collards, soybeans, white beans, some fish
(such as sardines, salmon, perch, and rainbow trout), some orange juice, oatmeal and breakfast
cereal.
3. Vitamin D promotes calcium absorption in the gut and maintains serum calcium and phosphate
concentrations to enable normal mineralization of bone and to prevent hypocalcemia tetany. It is
also needed for bone growth and bone remodeling by osteoblasts and osteoclasts. Without
significant vitamin D bones can become brittle, thin, or misshapen. Vitamin D sufficiency rickets in
children and osteomalacia in adults. Together with calcium and vitamin D also helps protect older
adults form osteoporosis.
4. Men and women have different allowances such as men : 19–50 1,000mg 51–71 1,000mg 71–
older 1,200mg
Women
19–50 1,000mg 51–older 1,200mg
And there are also supplements Calcium carbonate (40% of elemental calcium) Calcium citrate
(21% elemental

Tibia Bone
Fibula– it is a long bone in the lower leg. It runs parallel to the shinbone (tibia). Its plays a role of
stabilizing the ankle and also supporting the muscles of the lower leg.
http://www.innerbody.com/image_skelfov/skel27_new.html
Tibia– it is a large bone located in the lower front leg. It is also known as the shinbone and is the
second largest bone in the body. http://www.healthline.com/human–body–maps/tibia–bone
Carpals– they are 8 small bones that are together to make up the wrist and connects the hand.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/carpal_bones
Metacarpals– they are long bones that are in the hand that connect to the wrist bones (carpals) and to
the finger bones (phalanges). The top of the metacarpals form the knuckles where they

Bone Repair: Existing Fracture In A Bone
BONE REPAIR
Bone repair happens when there is an existing fracture in a bone. The first process in bone repair is
when a clotting process begins in the fractured area of the bone in which it forms the hematoma or a
blood filled swelling. This connects the bone's blood vessels together after it had been destroyed by
the fracture. The next process is when the break is splintered by the fibrocartilage callus made by
fibrous tissue and cartilage which was formed by the action of fibroblasts. After that, the
fibrocartilage callus was converted to a bony callus made up of a spongy bone. The final process of
bone repair is when the bony callus was remodeled by the action of both osteoblast and osteoclast.
HEMATOPOEISIS
Hematopoiesis or blood cell formation began in the yolk sac during embryonic development. It
continues in the liver until the last site, which is the red bone marrow. The blood cells arises from
the hematopoietic stem cell which is the precursor of what kind of blood cell it will be. These blood
cells forms into three groups which are the red blood cells (erythrocytes), the white blood cell
(leukocytes) and the platelets (thrombocytes). The leukocytes divides into three subgroups which are
the granulocytes, lymphocytes and monocytes. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both the osteoblast and osteoclast plays a role in this process. The osteoblast produces new bone
tissue whereas the osteoblast resorbed older bone tissue. Bone remodeling are assisted by vitamin A,
C and D, and minerals such as calcium, phosphorus and magnesium. It also requires the secretions
of calcitonin, growth and parathyroid hormones. The cycle continues until adolescence

Is Osteoporosis A Bone Disease?
Yadira Gregorio
Bio 200A – 05
Osteoporosis
Introduction: Osteoporosis is a bone disease that is most common in women than in men. To
understand this disease is important for us to understand the structure, and the types functions which
makeup all of our bones. The structure of a typical bone is as follows. Our body is composed of 206
bones which can be classified as long bones, short bones, flat bones, and irregular bones. In this
research we will be focusing in long bones, and irregular bones. An example of a long bone is our
hips which is known as the femur. An example of an irregular bones is the vertebrae which gives us
support. Before we continue with this research we need to understand the functions of our bones.
There are seven ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The bone consists of the diaphysis and epiphysis. The diaphysis is the middle part of the bone and
the diaphysis are the ends of all long bones like for example the hip bone. This structure only
qualifies for all typical long bones in our bodies. In this disease of osteoporosis cells of bone tissues
are also involved such as osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. Osteoblasts are involved in bone forming cells
and they secrete calcium and binding proteins. Osteoclasts are involved in dissolving a damage bone
and is a way that the bone can be repaired.
Main Text:
What is osteoporosis?
Osteoporosis is a disease in the bones that usually start for women after menopause. Osteoporosis is
a disorder in the skeletal that is characterized by low bone density and the deterioration of bony
tissue. According to the Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published in 2009 states that
osteoporosis happens when bone density has been reduced. Osteoporosis lies on fractures that occur
in our lives and the most common fractures associated with osteoporosis occur in our distal
forearms, hip bones, wrists and most importantly it occurs in the vertebrae discs, which result in a
major health problem. According to the Postgraduate Medical Journal published in 2003 it states
that the deterioration of bony tissue results in an increase in fracture risk. It also states that by the
age 85, white women have a 3% annual incidence of hip

BONES: A Case Study
Introduction The television show BONES is a program that chronicles cases investigated by Dr.
Brennan (portrayed by Emily Deschanel) and her team. Even though this program makes a
significant effort to be accurate, it is apparent to those with knowledge of forensic anthropology that
a few corners have been cut along the way. In the twelfth episode of season five, "The Proof in the
Pudding," Bones and her team are asked to find the cause of death of a "John Doe." Approximately
ten minutes into the episode Bones begins to age and sex the remains, in which time she states that
the development of the costochondral junction is indicative of an individual 39 years of age or older,
noted by the "late phase development in the costochondral junction." ... Show more content on
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They focus on the costochondral ossification of the first rib in different populations which included
European Americans, Lebanese, Solomon Islanders, and a veterans group (Semine & Damon, 1975).
The measurements of costochondral ossification was determined from chest roentgenograms and the
extent of ossification was rated from 0, being no ossification seen, to 4, meaning ossification was
almost completed. Within all the populations and sexes measured, the shapes of the age's curves
were similar. However different dietary habits of the Solomon Islanders delivered marginally
skewed results. The ossification of the first rib was greater in males than females, regardless of age.
For the lower ribs, males showed greater ossification before age 45, but women showed greater
ossification after age 45, although the differences between the two can be attributed to different
endocrine factors. Overall there are many different factors that can skew the age differences on the
costochondral junctions, therefore it cannot give an accurate age or even a small age range. The
mineral rich diets of the Lebanese population caused them to have greater ossification than the other
populations, whose diet was mostly carbs. The study concludes that determining sex from the
costochondral ossification is highly accurate since the data from the first rib ossification
measurements show that males ossify more than females throughout all the populations, however it
is less likely to garner an accurate age. The study concluded that the population differences in
costochondral ossification were significant enough to warrant separate standards for disparate
populations (Semine & Damon, 1975). Unless the race and diet of the individual of the individual is
known, the need to increase the estimated age range increases as well. There are just too many
factors that go into aging through

Bone Formation Essay
? During fetal development, the bones of the fetus are composed of cartilaginous tissue it resembles
osseous tissue but is more flexible and dense because of the lack of calcium salts in its intercellular
spaces .As the embryo develops, the process of depositing calcium salts in the soft, cartilaginous
tissue occurs and continues throughout the life on the individual after birth.
2. What are the roles of osteoclasts in bone formation? Osteoclasts are large cells that function to
reabsorb, or to digest bone tissue. They digest bone tissue from the inner sides of bones thus
enlarging the inner bone cavity so that the bone does not become overly thick and heavy.
3. How does osteoblast assist when recovering from a fractured bone? When a bone breaks
osteoblast lay down the mineral bone matter (calcium salts) and osteoclasts removes excess bone
debris (smooth out the bone).
4. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Which bone in the skull has an opening to allow the spinal cord to pass through, and what is the
opening called? The Occipital bone forms the back and base of the skull. It joins the parietal and
temporal bones, forming a suture. The inferior portion of the occipital bone has an opening called
the Foramen Magnum through which the spinal cord passes. 8. The vertebral column consists of 4
different curves, what are they? The 4 different curves are the sacral and thoracic curves are present
at birth. The cervical curve develops when an infant holds there head erect. The lumbar curve
develops as the infant begins to stand and to learn how to walk.
9. Describe the location of the coccyx. The coccyx is the tailbone, and it is a fused bone, having
been formed from four small coccygeal bones.
10. Describe the difference between metacarpals and metatarsal bones. Metacarpals are the bones in
the palm of your hand. Metatarsals are the bones of the mid foot, there are five of those bones that
are similar to metacarpals and metatarsal they both articulate with the phalanges of the

Bone Decay
Despite popular belief, bones can decay. Depending on numerous factors, the rate of decomposition
can be somewhere between a year to fifty years for the typical human corpse. For coroners and
medical examiners, information regarding bone decay is vital for identifying bones and the people
they belong to. If a body is unrecognizable, features of the bone are used to calculate the age range,
gender, ethnicity, and height to narrow down the possible candidates. For bone anthropologists, bone
is studied to determine what conditions may have been like for specific organisms. During this
process, bone is carefully studied for marks & abrasions, evidence of chemical or physical changes
in the bone, and the possible pressure applied to the bone while ... Show more content on
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The function of all three help is to maintain calcium homeostasis and provide enough calcium to
effectively maintain bone strength. In an depth analysis on bone and bone structure; the dynamics of
calcium homeostasis are simplified; "When blood calcium levels decrease below normal, calcium is
released from the bones so that there will be an adequate supply for metabolic needs. When blood
calcium levels are increased, the excess calcium is stored in the bone matrix. The dynamic process
of releasing and storing calcium goes on almost continuously, and is carried out by different bone
cells" (Gray–Wilson & Wilkin, 2016, p. 9). Osteoblasts assist this calcium homeostasis by forming
into osteocytes when trapped in the bone matrix, and cause the under stimulation of the production
of osteoid. With less focus on the production osteoid, attention is directed to the production of
calcium and the directing of calcium into the blood where it is transported to provide for numerous
functions in various other systems of the body. When calcium levels begin to decrease again, the
cycle begins anew when osteoclasts break down the bone matrix to dissolve calcium

Bone Dissection Essay
The skeletal system is made up of cartilage and bone. Both bone and cartilage are connective
tissues, that is, they are composed of cells in a matrix with intracellular fibers. Just imagine
connective tissue as a gelatin salad with grapes and coconut. The grapes would represent cells, the
gelatin the support material for matrix, and the pieces of coconut the intracellular fibers. By
changing the amounts of each ingredient and adding extra substances, we can produce a material
that is very hard like bone and can withstand weight or softer like cartilage which can be used as a
cushioning material. In this exercise, we will examine a fresh raw chicken bone to study bone
structure. Materials
Note: To complete both experiments, you ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Compact bone looks dense and solid, yet it is filled with passageways that serve as conduits for
nerves, blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels (Marieb, 181). When observing the spongy bone, I
noticed that it appeared dark and porous. It was flexible. The compact bone made up the majority of
the chicken leg and was difficult to pierce with the knife. The spongy bone had a dark gray/blackish
color.
2. How does cartilage differ from bone? How did each one feel when pierced with the knife?
Cartilage doesn't contain any nerves or blood vessels and is surrounded by a layer of dense irregular
connective tissue, the perichondrium (Marieb, 176). Bones contain various types of tissues which
makes them organs. They are used for support, protection, movement, mineral storage, and blood
cell formation (Marieb, 178–179). The cartilage was tough and flexible, and it was difficult to cut
through. The bone, however, when I finally was able to cut through it, had blood within it. This
proves that bone is the site for blood formation. The bone was more difficult to cut through than the
cartilage.
3. How did the periosteum and endosteum differ in thickness? The periosteum seemed thicker
because it was more difficult to peel away from the chicken leg. The endosteum wasn't that difficult
to pull away from the spongy bone. So based on what I saw, I believe the periosteum is thicker than
the endosteum. 4. Was the bone

Hierarchical Bone
Hierarchical architecture and mechanical properties of the various constituents of the bone are
important to understand the origin of toughness and stiffness and their alterations with age and
disease.
3.1. Macrostructure: cortical and cancellous bone
At the macrostructural level, bone is divided into the cortical (or compact) and cancellous (or
trabecular) types based upon their degree of porosity or density. Histologically, it is composed of a
cortical bone wrapped around older cancellous bone having irregular, sinuous convolutions of
lamellae. It is still not clear whether cortical and cancellous bone matrices consist of the same
material or have intrinsically different mechanical properties. Based upon the nanoindentation
studies, on an ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, cancellous bone material being much more active metabolically, is remodelled more often
than cortical bone, and hence, it is "younger" usually than cortical bone. Based upon the mechanical
measurements at the macroscale, cancellous bone tissue were found to have slightly lower values of
moduli as compared to the cortical bone. Cancellous bone, can be described in terms of structural as
the extrinsic properties of trabeculae and pores. The description of cancellous bone in terms of
material properties defines the trabecular struts and plates. Mechanical properties of both cortical as
well as cancellous bone at the macrostructural level usually vary from bone to bone and within
different regions of the same bone due to variation in mineralization level and apparent density
values.

Trabecular Bone
The purpose of the article "Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Trabecular Bone: A Review" was
to provide an evaluation of the relationship between the mechanical properties of trabecular bone
and its intrinsic biological nature. The authors then expand on the classic and modern procedures
used to analyze trabecular bone at the microscopic and macroscopic level as well as the elastic
properties and strength.
From the background provided on trabecular bone biology and tissue properties, the major
highlights included: cell populations, mechanosensation, mechanotransduction, tissue composition,
and tissue elastic properties. In the cellular matrix of trabecular bone, three main multicellular units,
osteoclasts, osteoblasts and osteocytes, exist. Osteoclasts function in bone resorption as part of the
bone remodeling process. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These methods included: bucking analysis, nano–indentation, ultrasonic measurements, and
combinations of mechanical testing and finite element modeling. "Trabecular bone is a highly
anisotropic and heterogeneous structure whose mechanical properties are highly dependent upon
anatomical site and species". This particular element lead to the main conclusion that out of the
many methods mentioned, microfinite element analysis and individual trabecular segmentation
(ITS) are the tools that will provide researchers with the power to evaluate different aspects of
mechanical properties of trabecular bone with high accuracy. Following this theme, previous
research established that the elastic modulus is highly variable across anatomical sites and species as
well. As for strength, yield and ultimate strain are good predictors of failure but it fundamentally
depends on the compositional level of collagen and

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