· Review the Learning Resources for the week before answering the .docx

· Review the Learning Resources for the week before answering
the week 5 discussion.
· This week's readings in the Learning Resources on advertising
provide examples of both good and ineffective ad campaigns.
Please answer the following prompts regarding advertising and
public relations:
A) Post a link to one of your favorite ads and in short essay
format, answer the following questions:
B) Does it persuade you?
C) How?
D) Why do you like it?
E) Is there anything problematic about the ad?
F) Also included a link to an ineffective ad, providing evidence
that the ad campaign failed (cite your source in proper APA or
MLA format). In your summary, explain (in your opinion) why
one ad succeeds and the other fails.
· After reading this week's Learning Resources, provide an
example, (other than those listed in the readings) where public
relations campaigns have been effective or ineffective, and
provide a link to information about that example.
A. Answer, in short answer format, why was the campaign
successful or unsuccessful?
B. Provide a link to the example.
21st Century Communication: A Reference
Handbook
Social Marketing Campaigns

Contributors: Timothy Edgar & Megan J. Palamé
Edited by: William F. Eadie
Book Title: 21st Century Communication: A Reference
Handbook
Chapter Title: "Social Marketing Campaigns"
Pub. Date: 2009
Access Date: February 12, 2019
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781412950305
Online ISBN: 9781412964005
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n91
Print pages: 822-829
© 2009 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please
note that the pagination of the online
version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
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http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n91

Social Marketing Campaigns
Social marketing is a perspective that is frequently used by
people within the communication discipline to
guide them on how to influence behavior. Social marketing can
be traced to the writings of the sociologist G.
D. Weibe, who in the 1950s asked the question “Why can't you
sell brotherhood like you sell soap?” (Weibe,
1951–1952, p. 679). Weibe was trying to make the point that
marketing professionals over the years had de-
veloped very successful techniques for how to market to large-
scale audiences in order to sell soap, cars, and
other tangible goods. Weibe wondered why similar techniques
could not be used to sell people an idea or a
cause. In the 1960s and 1970s, other scholars began to follow
his lead and began to develop the principles
of what became known as social marketing.
To better help you understand what social marketing is, this
chapter will be divided into two parts. The first part
will provide an overview of the basic concepts and principles,
and the second part of the chapter will offer two
case studies of actual social marketing campaigns that will
illustrate the concepts. The first case study tells
the story of the VERB campaign that was aimed at 9- to 13-
year-olds to increase their physical activity; the
second case, which focused on environmental concerns,
provides a unique example of how social market-
ing sought to help restore a threatened ecosystem in the
Chesapeake Bay through an innovative campaign
called “Save the Crabs, Then Eat 'Em.”
What is Social Marketing?
Answering the question of “What exactly is social marketing?”
has proved to be a challenge historically. It is
not its own academic discipline; it is not a science; and it is not

a formal theory or model. Perhaps it is best
described as a tool or framework for behavior change. In an
attempt to distinguish social marketing from other
types of initiatives, the noted social marketing expert Alan
Andreasen (2002) offered six defining criteria:
1. Behavior change is the benchmark used to design and
evaluate interventions.
2. Projects consistently grounded strategy in audience research.
3. There is careful segmentation of the target audiences to
ensure maximum efficiency and
effectiveness in the use of scarce resources.
4. The central element of any influence strategy is creating
attractive motivational ex-
changes with target audiences.
5. The strategy attempts to use all four Ps of the traditional
marketing mix—product, price,
place, and promotion.
6. Careful attention is paid to the competition faced by the
desired behavior.
In the paragraphs that follow, we offer a portrait of the basic
principles of social marketing by using An-
dreasen's six criteria as the organizing framework.
Behavior Change
As stated in the first of the six criteria, social marketing
ultimately is about behavior change. That may sound
like a simple idea, but it can be quite complicated. In many
instances, people do not want to change their be-
havior because they see no reason to do anything that is
different, and their current pattern feels comfortable.

The other reason is that it is difficult for social marketers to
agree on the exact behavior they want people
to change. Too often, campaign planners become sidetracked
when they fail to make careful choices about
their precise focus, and in the end, they confuse themselves and
their target audiences. For example, sup-
pose that you wanted to create an initiative in which your
ultimate goal is to significantly reduce the rate of
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21st Century Communication: A Reference Handbook
unplanned pregnancies among high school girls. To achieve
your goal, the key behavior that you might ask
the young women to engage in is to always insist that their
boyfriends use a condom whenever they have
sexual intercourse. Or the behavior that you might ask them to
adopt is to make an appointment with their
family physician to get a prescription for the oral contraceptive
pill. Or yet a third behavior you might choose
would be to have them abstain from sexual intercourse
altogether. All three behaviors are directly tied to the
goal, but each is a unique behavior in which an individual can
engage without necessarily performing the
others. When a behavior or set of behaviors becomes too
complicated, there is a high risk that an audience
will ignore the initiative completely and retreat to past
behaviors that are comfortable, familiar, and simple to
process.

Audience Research
A second important feature of social marketing is that those
who design and implement an initiative must thor-
oughly understand the members of the target audience whose
behavior they are attempting to change. All
this might sound obvious on the surface, but there are many
examples of failed campaigns where designers
were well intentioned but chose a strategy that was expert
driven rather than audience driven. Those who
take an expert-driven approach assume that the message they
wish to convey will be received and acted on
by target audiences simply because the experts believe that it is
in the best interest of the audience to listen,
attend, and behave accordingly. The social marketing
perspective emphasizes that without using audience
research to gain a deeper understanding of the lives of audience
members and how people view a particular
issue, there is little chance of persuading people to change their
behavior.
Good social marketers typically begin with what is known as
formative research, which allows them to gain
insight into the mindsets and actions of potential audience
members. Two of the most common ways of gath-
ering data about an audience are surveys and focus groups.
Surveys allow social marketers to ask audience
members very specific questions over the telephone, through
paper-and-pencil instruments, or through an
online questionnaire. In focus groups, social marketers can
bring together members of the target audience
in groups of about 8 to 10 people to have an in-depth
conversation about how a particular problem affects
their lives. In addition to surveys and focus groups, social
marketers might also use other data-gathering tech-

niques, such as immersion hikes (day trips with members of the
target audience that permit relaxed, open
discussions), ethnography (observing target audiences in their
everyday environments), and person-on-the-
street-interviews (interviewing unscreened respondents in
locations where the behavior takes place) (Smith,
2006).
Once social marketers have gained insights into their target
audience through formative research, they then
typically engage in a process of pretesting message concepts
and final executions of the messages to make
sure that they resonate with the audience. The planning team
might come up with what to them seems like
a good idea based on their original audience research only to
find out once they test it with actual audience
members that it is not a good fit. Once implementation is under
way, they should also engage in what is
known as process evaluation to make sure that the audience is
exposed to the message as intended. Social
marketers also heavily emphasize outcome evaluation, which
allows them to determine whether or not the
strategy worked. That is, did members of the target audience
actually change their behavior? If there is no
evidence for behavior change, then the initiative cannot be
considered successful.
Segmentation of Audiences
According to the social marketing approach, one of the most
common reasons why behavior change initiatives
fail is that planners target broad populations and assume that
they can implement a message strategy with a
“one-size-fits-all” approach. That is, an assumption is made that
everyone within a population will respond to

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the same message in the same way. Although it is possible for
that to happen, it rarely does. Social marketers
pay special attention to what is known as audience
segmentation, which refers to the process of dividing a
population into distinct segments based on characteristics that
influence their responsiveness to interventions
(Forthofer & Bryant, 2000). For example, suppose that you
wanted to develop an intervention to persuade
women in the 40-to-65 age range to get a regular mammogram
for the prevention of breast cancer. Audience
research might tell the social marketers that women in their 40s
who are still raising children will respond to a
message that is very different from one that will appeal to
women who no longer have children at home and
are close to retirement. If that is the case, then it is crucial to
carefully segment the audience in such a way
that the end goal remains the same for both groups of women
but they receive a different type of message to
motivate them.
Exchange
One of the most important principles that guides social
marketers is the idea that people will only change their
behavior when they feel that they are getting something fair and
attractive in exchange. In other words, peo-

ple only change when they clearly see that there is something in
it for them. The basis for this principle comes
from exchange theory, which is derived from psychological and
economic principles and “assumes that we
are need-directed beings with a natural inclination to try and
improve our lot” (Hastings & Saren, 2003, p.
309). Social marketers see exchange theory as a key principle
that differentiates their approach from other
strategies for behavior change, such as education, which
assumes that knowledge in and of itself leads to
change, and an approach based on regulation, which emphasizes
law enforcement as the most effective way
to change the behavior of people (Smith, 2006). The challenge
for social marketers is to be able to frame
the behavior in the minds of the audience so that they clearly
see a benefit for themselves. The challenge
becomes even greater if the benefit is not perceived by the
audience as immediate. If social marketers try to
present a payoff to an audience that is perceived as too far in
the future, then they are not likely to respond
in a positive way. A great example of this challenge comes from
initiatives to try to convince teenagers to
quit smoking or to not even begin. An obvious benefit is that
people who do not smoke greatly reduce their
risk of dying of lung cancer. However, enjoying the benefit of
an additional 10 years of life is not something
that someone can easily relate to when one is only 16 years old.
Instead, social marketers have to present to
teenagers an exchange that presents a benefit in the here and
now. For instance, a more attractive exchange
for 16-year-olds might be to quit smoking so that they do not
have the constant unpleasant smell of tobacco
and, thus, are more desirable as dating partners for the opposite
sex.
Marketing Mix

The identifying characteristic with which many people associate
the social marketing approach is what is com-
monly known as The Four Ps. This component, which is
borrowed from principles of commercial marketing,
includes promotion, product, price, and place. According to
social marketing purists, an initiative cannot truly
be referred to as social marketing unless all four Ps are part of
the overall approach to behavior change.
The P that receives the most attention in any social marketing
initiative is promotion. People who study com-
munication often are most attracted to this element of the
marketing mix because it most directly relates to the
creation of the message for a campaign. Promotion receives the
most attention typically because the actual
message becomes the face of an initiative, and it is the part
people can most easily identify. Having a carefully
crafted promotion certainly is essential to success, but rarely
will promotion alone lead to behavior change.
The communication options available to a social marketer are
many and varied. One can, for instance, pro-
mote behavior change through advertising, public relations,
education, counseling, community organizations,
interpersonal networks, direct mail, signage, special events and
displays, printed materials, and entertain-
ment media (Grier & Bryant, 2005; Maibach, 2002; Smith,
2000). More specific promotional tools include TV
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and radio public service announcements, small-group
discussions with target audience members, prescrip-
tion pads for use by health care professionals, refrigerator
magnets, newspaper articles, coloring sheets for
children, and satellite broadcasts. The most successful
promotional strategies typically incorporate a variety
of channels through which the message is communicated to the
audience.
The second of the four Ps is product. Whereas commercial
marketers typically are trying to sell tangible prod-
ucts such as paper towels or computers, the social marketer has
the challenge of trying to “sell” an intangible
product that takes the form of an idea, social cause, or, as we
have discussed most frequently in this chapter,
a change of behavior. In many ways, the job of the social
marketer is a more difficult one, because members
of the target audience cannot easily hold or touch a behavior in
the same way that they can paper towels
or computers. The challenge, then, is for the social marketer to
make “these ‘intangibles’ tangible in a way
that appeals to the target audience” (Lefebvre & Flora, 1988, p.
306). A tangible product also is more easily
defined. If a commercial marketer asks a potential customer to
buy Bounty paper towels instead of Brawny,
consumers can easily find Bounty on the shelf in the
supermarket once they know the name of the product
and perhaps the brand logo. As we discussed in the section on
behavioral focus, social marketers sometimes
make the mistake of not carefully defining the behavior for the
audience, and when that happens, target au-
dience members often do not know what to do. For example,
one of the greatest challenges in developing

physical activity campaigns for adults is to carefully define the
“product” so that there is no doubt in the mind of
the target audience how to engage in the appropriate behavior.
If, for instance, the message of the campaign
tells people that they should engage in 20 minutes of physical
activity 5 days a week, the initiative might not
be successful because people are confused about whether
physical activity refers to any physical movement
or if they have to reach a minimum heart rate for the activity to
count as part of the 20 minutes.
The third P is price. In commercial marketing, price usually
refers to the monetary value placed on a product
(Edgar, 2008). In social marketing, dollars also factor into the
price someone pays to change behavior, but
price refers primarily to the totality of barriers that an
individual must overcome to engage in the proposed
action (Smith, 2000). That is, to engage in the proposed
behavior, people typically are going to have to give
up something they do not want to relinquish. Nonmonetary
barriers can be social, behavioral, psychological,
temporal, structural, geographic, and physical (Lefebvre &
Flora, 1988). As we discussed when we talked
about the idea of an exchange with social marketing, people are
not willing to give something up unless they
believe that there is a comparable payoff that will make the
price that they have to pay worth it. Many peo-
ple are willing to go into a restaurant and pay $50 a person for a
meal because they are convinced that the
pleasure associated with a fine meal and the ambience of a nice
dining establishment is part of a fair trade
for that amount of money. The customers give the restaurant
$50 per person (plus tip, of course), and the
restaurant provides them with a memorable evening. If social
marketers ask members of a target audience
to reduce their body weight, then people have to decide whether

the advantages of not being overweight are
worth the price they will have to pay to reach that goal, such as
bypassing the enticing tastes of favorite foods,
taking time throughout the week from one's busy schedule to
engage in an exercise program, and/or feeling
embarrassed in front of family and friends at social occasions
when they have to forgo desserts. The burden
is on the social marketer to present the choice in such a way
that audience members will view the price as a
reasonable one.
Place is the final P and refers to “the process by which the
product is made available to members of the target
market at the time and place when it will be of most value to
them” (Maibach, 2002, p. 11). For social mar-
keters to take advantage of the most ideal places, they have to
identify what Grier and Bryant (2005) called
“path points,” which are locations people regularly visit; times
of the day, week, or year of their visits; and
points in the life cycle where people are likely to act. The
ultimate goal of the place strategy is convenience.
That is, the social marketer wants to communicate to the target
audience about the product at a time and
place where it is easy for them to process the information, and
the social marketer must find convenient ways
for people to actually engage in the desired behavior. The
importance of the place strategy illustrates why
social marketers cannot concentrate on promotion alone. To be
successful, social marketers might also have
to take steps to make changes to the everyday environment of
the target audience or, at the very least, get
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audience members to view their environment in a different way.
For example, for an initiative aimed at getting
adults to walk more, part of the overall social marketing
strategy might be to increase the number of walking
paths within a community so that the target audience members
have more places where they can actually
engage in the behavior. Or if the social marketing team is not
able to create new walking paths, then part of
their place strategy might be to redefine existing places that
people had never before considered as potential
sites for walking, such as a local shopping mall. A place
strategy also includes consideration of the role of in-
termediaries, who are people and/or organizations that provide
goods, services, and information and perform
other functions that help facilitate behavior change (Grier &
Bryant, 2005). For the shopping mall example,
social marketers might enlist the cooperation of the owners of
the mall to get them to agree to open the prop-
erty earlier in the morning so that people can use the mall as a
safe place for walking before any of the stores
open. The mall owners might be persuaded that there is benefit
in the arrangement for them because the
morning walkers might be enticed to stay and shop once
businesses open.
Competition
In the same way in which commercial marketers analyze their
position within a competitive marketplace, so-
cial marketers must identify the behaviors that compete with the

ones they want their target audience to adopt.
For example, if a social marketer creates a campaign to help
save the environment by asking consumers to
drive their cars less and burn less gasoline, then they must
carefully analyze how a reduction in car use com-
petes with the need to get to work and complete everyday
errands. Part of the overall strategy for a social
marketer is to provide a way for the target audience either to
eliminate the competition completely, which in
many cases is not possible, or to get the audience to think about
the competition in a different way so that the
conflict is less glaring. In the gasoline reduction example, for
instance, social marketers might try to get their
audience to think about the commute to work and the
completion of errands as merged rather than separate
behaviors. In other words, they might encourage the audience to
plan activities such as grocery shopping and
picking up the dry cleaning on the way to and from work rather
than doing the errands at different times of the
day.
Case Studies VERB
The number of obese children in the United States continues to
rise, creating a population at risk for lifelong
health problems. The percentage of overweight children has
even doubled in the past 20 years, bringing a
needed effort to offset this trend. Reports indicate that
childhood obesity in America stems from unhealthy
eating and the lack of physical activity in children's lives.
What Was the Behavior Social Marketers Wanted to Change?
To combat this epidemic, the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention (CDC) was awarded $125 million in
2001 to create a social marketing campaign targeted toward

tweens, a term used to refer to children aged 9
to 13 years, to increase their participation in physical activity.
VERB was launched in 2002 to do just that. The
campaign focused solely on increasing the physical activity of
tweens. Because campaign planners neither
specified the exact type of physical activity in which tweens
should engage nor the amount or frequency with
which tweens should be physically active, some social
marketing purists might have a problem with the way in
which the planners of the campaign approached the definition of
the behavior. However, as you will see when
we talk more about the product within the marketing mix, the
campaign planners were intentionally vague to
more fully engage the tweens.
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What Was Learned from Audience Research?
The CDC knew that they wanted to target tweens, but to apply
the principles of social marketing appropriately,
they knew that they had to understand the tweens themselves as
well as the important people in their lives.
The campaign planners decided that because tweens are still
dependent on their families, the campaign had
to target their mothers as well (ages 29–46). It was also
important to reach community members who influ-
ence adolescents, such as teachers and youth program leaders.

To get this information about the audiences'
needs and wants, the CDC conducted multiple focus groups with
tweens and mothers. One of the most im-
portant lessons learned from the research was that most tweens
wanted to be in control of choosing the ac-
tivities in which they engaged rather than having the decision
made by their parents.
How Was the Audience Segmented?
Because the campaign planners suspected that the issues
surrounding physical activity might be different
for various ethnic groups, separate focus groups were conducted
for tweens of European white descent,
African Americans, Hispanic/Latino, American Indian, and
Asian Americans. The research revealed that, in
fact, there were unique beliefs surrounding physical activity and
unique barriers for each group that prevent-
ed the tweens from engaging in physical activity. Based on
those results, the campaign planners developed
unique variations of the VERB message for each of the major
ethnic groups.
What Was the Exchange?
The planning team realized from the start that the exchange that
they were offering tweens and their parents
would not be an easy one to sell. For tweens to engage in more
physical activity, they had to reduce the time
spent doing some of the activities they currently enjoyed, such
as playing video games and watching TV. With
regard to the parents, increased physical activity on the part of
their children had the potential to mean dollars
spent. To counterbalance the loss that tweens and their parents
might experience, the campaign planners po-
sitioned physical activity as something that would allow them to

have fun, spend time with friends and family,
and gain the admiration of their peers and community.
How Was the Marketing Mix Developed?
The product in social marketing is typically a precise behavior
that the audience should engage in, cease, or
maintain. VERB's product was physical activity, but as we
discussed earlier, the campaign planners did not
precisely define the type of physical activity in which the
tweens should engage or say how long they should
do it. They did this intentionally. They knew that just like with
any product on the market, physical activity had
to be perceived as the winning item over other activities in
tweens' lives. The type of physical activity tweens
wanted to do was up to them, giving them a sense of choice and
exploration. That is, the tweens were actively
involved in defining the specifics of the product.
The price of physical activity potentially is financial,
psychological, environmental, and/or time related. The
benefits of the behavior had to outweigh the costs and barriers
for tweens, their parents, and the community.
Research gave insight as how to market the benefits, so that
tweens and parents would be more likely to
prioritize physical activity within their own “budget.”
Marketing materials had to convince tweens and their par-
ents that physical activity makes tweens happier, healthier, and
even “cooler” than those who did not partici-
pate. In other words, VERB had to anticipate that tweens would
make excuses for not “feeling good enough”
when they play, by counteracting it with a message that it is
much “cooler” to participate than to play video
games or watch TV all day. Another barrier was the cost of
buying equipment or enrolling in sports teams. If

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financial cost was a barrier, tweens and parents had the
opportunity to go to the campaign's Web site to learn
about fun and safe ideas that were free or very low in cost.
One has to have a place to engage in physical activity, such as a
park, school, backyard, or recreation depart-
ment. VERB planners had to make sure that places for engaging
in activities existed and that choices would
be available year round. To make this happen, the campaign
planners could not act alone. An important part
of the place strategy was to develop partnerships within
communities so that the demand could be met. For
example, in communities where there were limited outdoor
venues for physical activity, the campaign part-
nered with community centers to make sure that kids had a safe
environment in which to play. Part of the
place strategy also meant strategically marketing the message of
VERB in locations where tweens would be
exposed to the messages in their everyday lives, such as school;
the campaign planners also bought TV ad-
vertising time on their favorite shows.
The promotion strategy was a very complex one, because the
campaign planners used a large variety of
channels and types of message executions to reach the tweens
and their parents. Many social marketing

campaigns are at a disadvantage because they lack sufficient
financial resources, but the VERB campaign
was fortunate to have a multimillion dollar budget. The CDC
carefully strategized to make the VERB brand a
part of tweens' lifestyle by intertwining a positive image of
VERB and the product. To make the idea of VERB
“cool” and relatable, the campaign planners used fun and
colorful visuals. The tagline at the forefront of the
campaign was “VERB—It's what you do,” which gave tweens
the sense of making their own decision rather
than having their parents in control.
Here are only a few examples of how VERB was communicated
nationally and locally:
• Paid television advertisements: Rather than using free public
service advertising, over which the
CDC would have limited control on when or how often the ads
would be aired, the campaign planners
spent a large portion of their budget on a sophisticated paid
advertising initiative by buying time on
cable networks that tweens regularly watch, such as
Nickelodeon.
• Print ads: Print ads were placed in magazines that tweens read
as well as in those their parents read.
• Other media opportunities: Celebrities and characters from
tweens' favorite television shows, such
as Gilmore Girls and Kim Possible, starred in VERB
commercials. CBS produced a VERB public ser-
vice announcement directed toward parents that featured the
sports legend Deion Sanders.
• Web sites: The campaign Web site
(http://www.VERBnow.com) was a key element of the

promotion
strategy. A “game generator” gave tweens the opportunity to
create their own physical activities.
Tweens could even write on a blog and talk about their favorite
activities.
• Schools: Book covers, planners, and lesson plans were given
to schools to integrate into their class-
rooms to start the conversation about physical activity.
• Community-based events: VERB joined cultural events such as
pow wows to engage Native Ameri-
can tweens. Street teams distributed T-shirts, Frisbees, and
temporary tattoos for tweens while cre-
ating a buzz about VERB.
What Was the Competition?
All these elements combined created hype about VERB and
physical activity for tweens. This hype, or energy,
in the campaign had to transcend beyond the competition that
challenges tweens to refrain from engaging
in physical activity. The planners knew that tweens wanted to
play video games, preferred to do nothing at
all, or had family obligations. Video games or television shows
could not be eliminated as an option, but the
campaign had to reprioritize so that physical activity was on the
list of things to do for tweens. Parents also
had to see the benefit of spending money or taking the time to
help their tween engage in activity.
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http://www.verbnow.com/
Outcome
A random sample of 3,120 tweens from across the country along
with their parents was surveyed over the
phone. The results showed that 74% of American tweens were
aware of the VERB campaign within 1 year of
the launch of the campaign. This exceeded the CDC's goal of
reaching 50% of tweens. In the first year, the
surveyed tweens also reported 34% more physical activity than
tweens who were unaware of VERB.
Further Readings
For more details on VERB, read two journal articles written
about the campaign by Wong and colleagues
(2004) and Huhman and colleagues (2005). You can also see
examples of the promotional campaign at
CDC's Web site, http://www.cdc.gov/YouthCampaign.
“Save the Crabs, Then Eat 'Em”
The second case study tells the story of a campaign with a very
different topic from VERB, which like the
majority of social marketing initiatives focused on personal
health issues. This campaign instead focused on
the environment and attempted to make the environment, which
typically seems impersonal to most people,
personal. The problem involved the Chesapeake Bay near
Washington, D.C.

What Was the Behavior Social Marketers Wanted to Change?
The Bay has suffered from an overload of nutrient pollution,
which threatens the quality of life and water in
the bay. We usually think of the word nutrients in a positive
way, but in the world of environmental health, they
mean agricultural waste, waste from sewage treatment plants,
and lawn fertilizers. Many people who lived in
the area already knew that the Bay was severely damaged as an
ecosystem, but most people either were
not motivated to do anything about it or did not know how to
contribute. Because lawn fertilizers make up
11% of the nutrients that load into the Bay, a reduction in lawn
fertilizer usage had the potential to make a
significant difference. In 2005, the Academy for Educational
Development, funded by the Chesapeake Bay
Program, identified the people who live in the greater
Washington, D.C., area as their primary audience and
aimed to change their behavior by convincing residents to
fertilize their lawns only in the fall and to forgo lawn
fertilization altogether during spring.
What Was Learned from Audience Research?
Before the campaign began, a random-digit telephone survey of
602 homeowners in the Bay area was con-
ducted to learn about what people think. Results indicated that
most people cared about the environment but
did not engage in behaviors to bring about meaningful change.
The research also showed that an attractive
lawn was important to most residents. In addition, the team
found that of the homeowners in the area, 84%
did their own lawn work, while 16% used lawn services. Of
those who did their own lawn work, most preferred
to fertilize their lawns in spring. The latter finding introduced a
major challenge for the campaign, because the

goal was to stop spring fertilization completely.
How Was the Audience Segmented?
Although the campaign planners chose not to segment residents
into subaudiences, the research indicated
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http://www.cdc.gov/YouthCampaign
that they would have to incorporate the lawn services as an
audience as well. Partnerships had to be created
with the service providers to promote environmentally sound
practices that could last beyond the campaign.
What Was the Exchange?
The campaign planners decided that if they were going to ask
people to give up fertilizing in the spring, then
they had to offer something as an attractive exchange other than
a good feeling about improving the envi-
ronment. The team cleverly decided to position the exchange in
a humorous manner by framing it within the
context of food. Thus, the delightful taste of the Chesapeake
Bay's blue crab became the bargaining chip for
the campaign, which became known as “Save the Crabs, Then
Eat 'Em.” The blue crab is a culinary favorite
of area residents, and the survival of the species in the Bay,

whose population hit an all-time low in 2003, due
in part to nutrient pollution, also is vital to the restaurant and
fishing industries of the area. The goal of the
campaign was to get people to accept the primary exchange of
not fertilizing their lawns in spring in return for
the benefits of a bountiful blue crab harvest.
How Was the Marketing Mix Developed?
The product in this campaign was not to fertilize lawns in the
spring and to only do it in the fall. Lawn services
that became partners with the campaign were asked to engage in
using appropriate fertilizers approved by
the Chesapeake Bay Program. Lawn services were given the
opportunity to create a Bay-friendly lawn treat-
ment that could be done in the spring.
For the price strategy, social marketers had to convince
homeowners in the greater D.C. area that the benefits
of fertilizing only in spring outweighed the barriers to adopting
the new behavior pattern. The primary barri-
er was the strongly held belief that spring fertilization was a
necessity for having a great lawn. In addition to
offering the benefit of more crabs, the intervention team also
attempted to counterbalance the “spring fertil-
ization is good” belief by introducing information to the
community that fall fertilization provides an advantage
because there is less rain in the fall. Less rain means less runoff
of fertilizer, which in turn means better root
growth, which creates a stronger lawn. Because those who own
and operate lawn services also were en-
gaged as an audience (and they were concerned about losing
revenue), the campaign planners had to offer
them a fair “price” as well. The lawn services that became
partners in the campaign by using these special
treatments, received free advertising and recognition for being

environmentally friendly.
The campaign reached the target audience in many different
places, including their homes through television
advertisements and on their way to work through posters placed
on public transportation. Drink coasters were
also used at participating restaurants, and restaurant staff were
trained on how to answer questions about the
coasters.
Unlike VERB, “Save the Crabs, Then Eat 'Em” was local and
had a limited budget of only $550,000 for a
1-year campaign. More than half of that money was spent on
advertising, putting pressure on the planning
team to make the promotion strategy as efficient and cost-
effective as possible. The approach was to incorpo-
rate a humorous take on eating crabs. For example, one ad
placed in The Washington Post stated, “Protect
the Crab-cake Population” and at the bottom provided a
statement about fertilizing one's lawn in the fall along
with a Web site link.
Many different elements were brought into the execution for the
promotion of the campaign, including the fol-
lowing:
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• Television advertisements: The campaign aired paid ads that
were pretested by focus groups that
liked and understood the connection between the blue crab and
lawn care.
• Print ads: Major newspapers ran ads with a list of the names
of lawn services that were part of the
campaign. Flyers and drink coasters also were distributed at
subway stops.
• Web site: Information on the Web site included facts about the
Bay, lawn treatments, and even
seafood recipes. In addition, “Chesapeake Club” lawn services
were provided.
• Promotional items: Participating lawn care services were
given window stickers and lawn signs that
said, “No appetizers were harmed in the making of this lawn.”
By displaying these items, homeown-
ers could show they were participating in a good thing.
What Was the Competition?
One of the primary sources of competition that concerned the
campaign planners was the fatigue the public
might experience as a result of being bombarded with so many
messages about saving the environment.
They had to rise above the competition by offering an
innovative way to get the attention of residents. The
blue crab angle was the approach they offered to cut through the
message clutter.
Outcome
A random-digit dial telephone survey was conducted after the
campaign, which included 599 homeowners

who reported that their lawn had been treated with fertilizer at
some point in the past year. They found that
72% of those surveyed recalled something about the campaign
and there was a decrease in intent among
residents to fertilize in spring.
Further Readings
For more details on “Save the Crabs, Then Eat 'Em,” read the
journal article written about the campaign by
Landers, Mitchell, Smith, Lehman, and Conner (2006). You also
can see examples of the promotional cam-
paign and recent articles about the campaign on the Web at
http://www.chesapeakeclub.org.
Challenges and Future Directions
Social marketing has served as a very important tool for
decades for individuals who want to change behavior
to better the lives of others. By presenting the case studies on
VERB and the Chesapeake Bay initiative, we
only scratched the surface on the types of problems that social
marketing can address. Social marketers have
used the framework throughout the world to change the
behavior of populations around issues as diverse as
condom use, smoking, emergency preparedness, diabetes, food
allergies, offering new food choices to chil-
dren, mosquito netting, and hand-washing behavior.
In the years to come, the potential for social marketing to bring
about continued change is enormous. For that
to happen, however, the field of social marketing must take care
to “market” itself so that its core tenets stand
in clear contrast to other approaches to behavior change. One
challenge that social marketing faces is that
the term becomes so ubiquitous that it takes on a generic

meaning that equates to all forms of campaigns and
initiatives that use communication as the primary tool for
creating messages about health and social causes.
All social marketing, in fact, relies on communication as a key
component in the promotion of an idea or be-
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http://www.chesapeakeclub.org/
havior, but not all communication campaigns follow the
principles of social marketing as we have articulated
in this chapter (e.g., a focus on all four Ps, careful assessment
of the competition, the needs of the audience
as the driving force). The future utility of social marketing will
depend in great part on the ability of the field to
draw clear distinctions between itself and other change
strategies.
To maximize its potential, social marketing must also keep up
with the times. Adherence to core principles
is key, but social marketers must be able to apply those
principles within the context of a changing world.
Continued devotion to innovation is crucial as the tastes, needs,
and sophistication of audiences evolve. For
example, R. Craig Lefebvre, who is one of this country's leading
experts on social marketing, has argued that
social marketers will fail in their efforts if they do not adapt
their approach to the role that new technologies

and new communication forms such as cell phones, game boxes,
wireless digital assistants, blogs, podcasts,
and MP3 files play in our lives. He has stated that “these new
technologies have implications for how we think
about the behaviors, products, and services we market; the
incentives and costs we focus on; the opportuni-
ties we present; and places where we interact with our audience
and allow them to try new things” (Lefebvre,
2007, p. 32). The challenge for social marketers will be for their
innovations in technique and strategy to keep
pace with technological advancements.
TimothyEdgar and Megan J.Palamé Emerson Colleg
References and Further Readings
Andreasen, A. R.Marketing social marketing in the social
change marketplace. Journal of Public Policy & Mar-
keting213–13. (2002).
Andreasen, A. R.The life trajectory of social marketing.
Marketing Theory3293–303. (2003). http://dx.doi.org/
10.1177/147059310333004
Andreasen, A. R.(2006).Social marketing in the 21st century.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Bloom, P. N.Novelli, W. D.Problems and challenges in social
marketing. Journal of Marketing4579–88. (1981).
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251667
Edgar, T.(2008).Social marketing. In W. Donsbach (Ed.), The
international encyclopedia of communication
(pp. 3686–3689). Oxford, UK: Blackwell
Forthofer, M. S.Bryant, C. A.Using audience-segmentation
techniques to tailor health behavior change strate-
gies. American Journal of Health Behavior2436–43. (2000).
http://dx.doi.org/10.5993/AJHB.24.1.6
Grier, S.Bryant, C. A.Social marketing in public health. Annual
Review of Public Health26319–339. (2005).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144610

Hastings, G.(2007).Social marketing: Why should the devil have
all the best tunes?Amsterdam, The Nether-
lands: Elsevier/Butterworth-Heinemann
Hastings, G.Saren, M.The critical contribution of social
marketing. Marketing Theory3305–322. (2003).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059310333005
Huhman, M.Potter, L. D.Wong, F. L.Banspach, S.W.Duke, J.
C.Heitzler, C. D.Effects of a mass media
campaign to increase physical activity among children: Year-1
results of the VERBTM campaign. Pedi-
atrics116e277–e284. (2005).
Kotler, P., & Lee, N. R.(2008).Social marketing: Influencing
behaviors for good (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA:
Sage
Kotler, P.Zaltman, G.Social marketing: An approach to planned
social change. Journal of Marketing353–12.
(1971). http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1249783
Landers, J.Mitchell, P.Smith, B.Lehman, T.Conner, C.“Save the
Crabs, Then Eat 'Em”: A culinary approach
to saving the Chesapeake Bay. Social Marketing Quarterly1215–
28. (2006). http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
15245000500488443
Lefebvre, R. C.The new technology: The consumer as
participant rather than target audience. Social Market-
ing Quarterly1331–42. (2007).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000701544325
Lefebvre, R. C.Flora, J. A.Social marketing and public health
intervention. Health Education Quarter-
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059310333004
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059310333004
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1251667
http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144610
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/147059310333005
http://dx.doi.org/10.2307/1249783
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000500488443
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000500488443
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000701544325
ly15299–315. (1988).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500305
Maibach, E. W.Explicating social marketing: What is it, and
what isn't it?Social Marketing Quarterly87–13.
(2002). http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000309119
McKenzie-Mohr, D.Promoting sustainable behavior: An
introduction to community-based social marketing.
Journal of Social Issues56542–554. (2000).
Smith, W. A.Social marketing: An evolving definition.
American Journal of Health Behavior2411–17. (2000).
Smith, W. A.Social marketing: An overview of approach ad
effects. Injury Prevention12(Suppl.
1)i38–i43(2006).
Walsh, D. C.Rudd, R. E.Moeykens, B. A.Moloney, T. W.Social
marketing for public health. Health Af-
fairs12104–119. (1993).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.12.2.104
Weibe, G. D.Merchandizing commodities and citizenship on
television. Public Opinion Quarterly15679–691.
(1951–1952). http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/266353
Wong, F.Huhman, M.Heitzler, C.Asbury, L.Bretthauer-Mueller,

R.McCarthy, S., et al.VERB™: A social mar-
keting campaign to increase physical activity among youth.
Preventing Chronic Disease11–7. (2004).
• lawns
• social market
• crabs
• physical activity
• campaigns
• verbs
• audiences
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n91
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http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/109019818801500305
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/15245000309119
http://dx.doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.12.2.104
http://dx.doi.org/10.1086/266353
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n9121st Century
Communication: A Reference HandbookSocial Marketing
Campaigns
21st Century Communication: A Reference
Handbook

Media Planning for Advertising Campaigns
Contributors: Donald W. Jugenheimer
Edited by: William F. Eadie
Book Title: 21st Century Communication: A Reference
Handbook
Chapter Title: "Media Planning for Advertising Campaigns"
Pub. Date: 2009
Access Date: February 12, 2019
Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc.
City: Thousand Oaks
Print ISBN: 9781412950305
Online ISBN: 9781412964005
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n89
Print pages: 805-814
© 2009 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
This PDF has been generated from SAGE Knowledge. Please
note that the pagination of the online
version will vary from the pagination of the print book.
javascript:void(0);
http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412964005.n89

Media Planning for Advertising Campaigns
Media selection is critical to advertising success. right audience
through the correct media.
There are several other reasons why the media are an essential
part of advertising campaigns. For one thing,
media compose most of the advertising budget, far more than
the research, message, or production facets
(Wilson, 2007). At the same time, the media are often the least
understood part of the campaign; most busi-
ness executives understand marketing, and all media consumers
understand the messages, but the media
portion is more esoteric and thus less comprehended by most
people. Also, the advertisers see their advertis-
ing campaign in the media that are selected, so an easy way to
make sure that the advertiser client sees and
hears the advertising is through proper media selection. That
same proper media planning uses the advertis-
ing budget most fully and can free up money for additional
advertising or for new promotions. So the media
portion of advertising is critical to campaign success (Kelley &
Jugenheimer, 2004).
Keep in mind that the media themselves are general types of
channels, such as television, newspapers, or
the Internet. Then come the media vehicles, which are the
individual outlets of the media, such as ESPN, The
New York Times, or Google. Finally, come the media units, the
specifications of the advertisements, such as
a full-page four-color advertisement in a magazine.
Advertising Media Process
To understand how advertising media work, it is first necessary

to understand the process of analyzing and
selecting the media for an advertising campaign. First, one
analyzes the product, service, or idea to be pro-
moted, along with a competitive analysis and a survey of the
marketing situation. Next come the objectives
and goals, what is to be achieved with the campaign: marketing
objectives, more specific advertising objec-
tives, and even more specific media objectives. Then come the
strategies, which are plans to achieve the
objectives. The strategies include the campaign targets,
including geographic targets (target markets), cus-
tomer targets (target groups), and media targets (target
audiences).
From all these analyses, it is possibleto evaluate the
characteristics of all the available mass mediainterms of
the campaign objectives and tobegintoselect the best media
types for the campaign. Media tactics are the im-
plementation of the plans and involve the specific media
vehicles and units to be used, along with the sched-
ules. The advertising media plan must also consider any media
promotions, continuityor “fall-back” plans, the
media calendar, the budget and the integration of the marketing,
advertising, and media strategies and tac-
tics.
The Role of Media in the Advertising Media Process
Four basic factors are most important in selecting mass media
for use in advertising: reach, frequency, impact,
and continuity.
Reach involves the audience with which communication is being
made. Numerical reach is the number of
persons, households, female heads of households, or other target
groups, whatever categories of individuals

are being sought. Percentage of reach is the portion of the target
group with which communication may be
made.
Frequency is the number of times an advertisement is used in a
campaign. Frequency of insertion is how
often the advertisement is run in the media, but because no
audience member will see or hear every adver-
tisement every time it appears, more important is the frequency
of exposure (often called effective frequency),
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the average number of times an audience member sees or hears
an advertisement. Effective reach refers to
an advertisement being seen or heard a minimum number of
times, such as audience members who read an
advertisement at least three or more times.
Impact has many meanings in advertising. In the media, impact
refers to the characteristics and specifications
of the particular advertisement, such as size, length, use of
color, use of bleed, and the like. A larger print ad-
vertisement has more impact than a smaller advertisement; a
longer television commercial has more impact
than a shorter commercial.
Reach, frequency, and impact all cost money, but continuity

does not. Continuity involves the pattern of ad-
vertising, so that, say, a television viewer sees another
advertisement for the same item before forgetting a
previous commercial.
Consumers Avoid Advertisements
No matter how often an advertisement is run or where it
appears, many consumers still try to avoid them.
While watching television, viewers often switch channels when
commercials appear (called “zapping”), and
those who record television programs often fast-forward
through the commercials (called “zipping”).
Advertising and Marketing
Advertising is usually considered a promotional facet of the
marketing mix. The marketing mix includes what
have become known as The Four Ps:
• Product (an item or service or idea to be sold)
• Price
• Place (distribution to the buyer)
• Promotion (including advertising)
The mix of marketing becomes more complex, not because of
more elements but because of a faster time
limit on advertising campaigns, on consumer attention spans,
and on media transfer capacities. Many mass
media are now carried in digital electronic formats, which speed
up the processes while offering more choices
to consumers, and with more selection search assistance
available to customers.
Changes and Trends

The advertising media business has always been one of rapid
change, but today's progress and change are
coming at ever-faster rates. Some of these changes have been
under way for a few years, while others are
new on the scene.
Ongoing Changes and Trends
The changes that have been under way are important, may be
more important than those changes that have
begun to occur most recently. The ongoing changes involve
changes in the use of media in advertising, in the
media themselves, in the media environment, and in the way the
media are delivered.
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Changes in Advertising Use of Media
For decades, advertisers have shifted their advertising dollars
from one medium to another. Years ago, adver-
tising investment was heavy in radio time, but when television
appeared on the scene, much of it was shifted
to television. Some former newspaper advertising monies were
shifted to a selection of broadcast media. Ad-
vertising schedules in general-audience magazines have largely
gone to television. Interestingly enough, as
new media came onto the scene, the older media did not

disappear: Radio did not disappear when television
took on the primary advertising role, and magazines did not die
when monies were shifted to television, al-
though general-audience magazines have just about disappeared.
More recently, shifts from one advertising medium to another
have been more pronounced. Money that once
went to newspapers has been shifting to the Internet (Saba,
2007), and especially in the case of classified
advertising, monies have shifted from help-wanted classified
newspaper advertisements into Internet sites
such as http://Monster.com. Network and other broadcast
television advertising has shifted, at least in part, to
wired systems such as cable and satellite television. Some radio
advertising has gone to music Internet sites
as well as to music television programming, such as MTV and
VH1, and to wireless systems, such as iPhone
and iPod downloads.
Another change involves broadcast ratings. The ratings project
the portion of households or of individuals
who are tuned to a particular broadcast station, program, or
network as a percentage of all the households
(or people) that have television sets, whether those sets are on
or not. Until recently, broadcast ratings were
available only by 15-minute segments, but now ratings are
available for minute-by-minute segments of pro-
grams, allowing advertisers to know more precisely what
percentage of the potential audience was tuned to
their actual broadcast commercials. This minute-by-minute
ratings service gives advertisers much more de-
tailed information about the success of their commercials media
buys.
The concept of ratings is a valuable one because, in essence, the
ratings percentage is the percent reach.

Because of this usefulness, other types of media, including print
media, have adopted the ratings approach
for measuring audiences. This widespread use of ratings data
allows for easier comparison of audience levels
from one medium to another.
Shifts in Advertising Media Environments
As computer usage has grown and electronic transfer of
information has become more prevalent, more mass
media content has become digitalized rather than analog
content. Digital storage of advertising content per-
mits the rapid and easy transfer of the information from one
format to another, say, from a broadcast script
to a newspaper story or to an Internet posting. As the media
become more similar through digitalization, it
has become possible for media consumers, the audience, to
select through which format they wish to receive
their information and entertainment, including advertising. At
the same time, digital storage allows advertisers
to trace through what channel the audience members are gaining
access to their advertising messages.
Convergence
Convergence is affecting all aspects and uses of the mass media.
Convergence is the term used to define
and explain how media message content, message effect, and
simultaneous message delivery change, inter-
act, and alter one another through multiple media. As
digitalization and other shifts occur, making the mass
media more similar to one another, convergence results, so the
media delivery systems are more like one
another and audience selection of media message delivery
systems becomes more prevalent.

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http://monster.com/
In advertising, convergence makes a broadcast television
commercial more versatile because it can also be
used in cable and satellite television, radio, cinema, and
Internet formats. This permits broader choice for au-
diences but at the same time may make reaching those audiences
through advertising media selections either
more facile or more difficult, depending on whether audiences
select from a wide variety of media sources or
stay with only a single or a few choices.
Interactivity
Advertising has benefited greatly from media interactivity,
which permits audience members to interact with
the media. Such interactivity most commonly occurs with e-mail
and Internet advertising, which permit easy
responses and exchanges of messages. Some interactivity can
also occur with television or radio advertising,
although the response may be through another medium such as
telephone or the Internet rather than directly
back through the same medium by which the advertisement was
received.
Actually, media interactivity has been a part of the advertising
business for a long time. Magazine subscrip-

tions renewal notices sent through the mail sometimes included
a small pencil so that respondents could write
their responses easily and quickly, resulting in higher response
rates. Many direct-mail offerings also used
tear-off coupons or stick-on stamps to increase interactivity.
Any coupon that is cut out and redeemed is a
form of interactivity. Direct mail, other forms of direct
marketing, and telemarketing have all provided interac-
tive opportunities for decades.
Interactivity is important to advertisers because such audience
involvement increases response and purchase
rates and may result in higher recall rates for advertising
messages and brand names. Thus, advertising me-
dia have had increasing interest in interactivity, and many
media planners are instructed to consider inter-
active media more favorably than media that only deliver a
message but do not provide for an immediate,
interactive response.
New Media
New mass media developments, as noted earlier, do not
necessarily obviate the older, existing media (Kok-
ernak, 2007). Sometimes, the older media can add the newer
elements to their offerings and can replicate
some of the new-media benefits in some way. Some studies
indicate that television is still a more powerful
presenter of an advertising message than is the Internet
(Berkowitz, 2007). More often, audiences do not shift
to using the new media immediately and certainly not all at
once, so both old and new media can provide
news, information, entertainment, and advertising. Online media
are widely used, but consumers are still in-
fluenced by the traditional media (Kee, 2007; O'Malley, 2007).
It is only logical, however, that as more media

types are developed, the existing advertising budgets are spread
across more types of media, old and new,
so the advertising revenues for the older media may decline
somewhat as advertising investments are shift-
ed, at least in part, to new media types and outlets.
The rapid rise of the Internet as an advertising medium is one
example of this kind of shift. Some uses of new
media will grow even faster; mobile marketing, video games,
advanced television, and digital out-of-home
networks are predicted to grow at double the rate of online
media in general (Mandese, 2007a), and these
fast-growing formats offer new advertising opportunities (Kee,
2007). The new advertising opportunities on
the Internet have been at the cost of some of the older media,
such as newspapers, which once had a very
large share of advertising dollars (Sass, 2007). The development
of cable and satellite television has also
resulted in advertising investments, partly at the expense of the
older broadcast television medium. Yet ad-
vertising in the traditional media often encourages increases in
the use of new media, such as television ad-
vertising resulting in more searches on the Internet (Berkowitz,
2007).
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One irony is that older media types that were once wired, such

as telephone, have become mobile through
the use of broadcasting, and older media types that were once
broadcast, such as television, are now avail-
able as wired media.
New Advertising Formats
Newspaper advertising no longer needs to be placed in
rectangular forms; free-form advertisements allow
shaping the advertisements like the product or some symbol,
with regular newspaper information and editorial
material around the advertisement. For years, magazines have
included tear-out inserts and free-standing
(not bound in) inserts; now, magazines can offer CDs, DVDs,
product samples, and other original advertis-
ing formats. Television advertising commercial announcements
once were a standard 60-seconds long, but
now the standard is 30 seconds, and stand-alone (i.e., not
combined with other commercials to make the slot
longer) commercials are available in 15- and even 10-second
lengths. Commercials are also available as full
programs of 30 to 60 minutes, known as infomercials.
Some advertisers are posting their television commercials
online, alone without other materials, and audi-
ences are going to some of these Web sites and viewing the
commercials in large numbers, sometimes in the
hundreds of thousands. These Internet postings of commercials
are not usually part of the original advertis-
ing media plan but offer an inexpensive and impactful way for
advertisers to get their messages to interested
customers.
All these options add to the complexity and information needs
of the advertising media buyers, who now must
weigh many new options against one another, each with its own

costs, benefits, and drawbacks. Some format
changes bring greater audience attention, helping the older
media compete with the new (Elliott, 2007).
New Changes and Trends
In addition to ongoing changes and trends, there are newer
changes in the mass media and in advertising's
use of media that are coming into play. These may eventually
turn out to be ongoing or long-term changes, or
they could be experiments that do not last very long.
Combinations of Media Types
More media offer their content in a variety of formats.
Newspapers place their stories and advertising online
on the Internet, so advertisers can gain from advertising
exposure in both media; there is a big overlap be-
tween the use of newspapers and of online information sources
(Sass, 2007). Some newspapers, such as
USA TODAY and The Wall Street Journal, are providing
magazine formats of their news and advertising con-
tent, hoping that because magazines are kept in the home longer
than are daily newspapers, such magazines
will also remain longer and perhaps have more advertising
impact (Ives, 2007). Radio stations make their
programming available online in “blogs” (Web logs) or regular
Web sites, and the advertising is carried both
ways: broadcast and online. Television networks and stations
are doing the same with Internet program re-
peats and even offering follow-up programs and outtakes via
cell phones; some television commercials are
widely viewed on Internet sites (Garner, 2007). Many
magazines provide additional details about printed sto-
ries at their online Web sites.

It is not known what impact these kinds of new changes will
have for advertising's uses of the mass media.
These new developments are making the task of buying
advertising media more complex and at the same
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time less predictable. Advertising media buyers are faced with
the question of whether these additional av-
enues of message distribution are equal to or perhaps better than
the more traditional channels. The media
buyers must also quickly judge whether these additional outlets
make the advertising buys worth more mon-
ey.
Product Placement
Soon after motion pictures were invented, advertisers worked at
ways to get exposure for their products in
these movies. Sometimes, the movies were about companies and
products and thus provided free publicity
without inducements being sought or paid for by the advertisers.
Some advertisers simply made their products or services
available for free, in return for the publicity. Other
companies provided free products as prizes on television quiz
shows, provided services in return for a listing
in the program or movie credits, or offered facilities for filming

or taping in return for a bit of background expo-
sure.
More often now, advertisers pay for the placement of their
products in programs, whether it be Coca-Cola on
the judges' tables for American Idol or a brand of beer on the
counter for a television episode. Product place-
ment has become an important part of advertising media usage,
with weekly surveys of the most visible and
effective placements of brand names and items.
For the media planner and buyer, this form of promotion
presents additional problems. There is no standard
price or fee for such placements, and there is no standard source
that one can consult to find the value of
such placements. Then, too, the effect or impact on the audience
is not well researched, and thus the value
of such placements is not well established.
Consumer Control
At one time, control of the media was in the hands of the
programmers, advertisers, and media owners. Now,
control is shifting to consumers. Digitalization of the media is
one reason for this switch; consumers can now
select through which outlets they wish to receive their news and
entertainment. Consumers can also record
broadcast programs to view when they wish, deleting
advertisements. Esoteric information that was once
hard to find can now be searched and located on the Internet
from millions of sources throughout the world.
Consumers can also provide content for the media, something
that was always in the control of the program-
mers, advertisers, and owners of the media. As a result, media
content can come from anyone and anywhere.

When advertisers had more control of the media, the advertising
uses of the media were more predictable
and somewhat standardized. Now, with consumers gaining more
control and input, advertising can appear
in all sorts of places never deemed possible before, and with
wide-reaching effects. Advertising media can
use these new channels but with some trepidation because the
outcomes are not clearly predictable and the
economic return is, for the most part, only a guessing game.
With consumer control gaining in importance,
advertisers have less control over the environments in which
their messages appear, and possible negative
side effects are not only possible but an everyday occurrence.
Measurement
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With all these new developments and changes, measuring the
impact of the media becomes more difficult.
Advertisers have less of an idea about what effects their
advertising messages will have, on whom these
messages will fall, and what the eventual outcomes might be.
Certainly, the long-standing media measurement techniques and
institutions still exist and still contribute.
Television ratings are still measured and used by programmers

and by advertisers. The ratings services now
have added newer types of media to their research parameters,
so Internet and other new electronic adver-
tisements can be measured. Because of the interactive capability
of these new media, sometimes the re-
search data can be even more accurate than in the past,
narrowing down audience information to individual
media users. Yet with so many changes, so much fragmentation
of the media, so many avenues for placing
content in the media, what to measure and how to measure it
have become much more complex questions.
Faster feedback may be one important change in media
measurement (Friedman, 2007). New broadcast
commercial ratings services can track audience attention in
minute-by-minute, and in some instances second-
by-second, attention spans (Campanelli, 2007). Some major
consumer product companies are trying to relate
to consumers' real lives, using immersion techniques during
which marketers spend hours at a time visiting
and shopping and talking with customers (Sewell, 2007).
Whether an advertisement is effective has always been a
question that is difficult to answer, but now, with
all these changes and developments that have come in recent
years and are evolving at an ever-increasing
rate, the measurement of advertising effectiveness is of even
greater interest, while conducting the necessary
research has become more circuitous and more convoluted.
Involving Advertisers in Media Plans
As consumers have gained more control over the media,
advertisers also want more control, too, and not
just of media content. Advertisers want more control of when,
where, and how their advertising messages will

appear.
Previously, the media plan was left in the hands of the
advertising agency's media department and its media
planners, estimators, and buyers. The media portion of the
advertising campaign was understood only by a
few of the corporate executives, and most of the advertising
emphasis was on the message content, format,
and presentation rather than on the media plan.
Modern advertisers want to know more definitively what the
environment will be for their advertising mes-
sages, exactly who will be exposed to that message, how many
times, in what kinds of progressive cam-
paigns, and to what eventual ends.
Involving Audiences with Advertisement Usage
Almost a million customers downloaded a Budweiser
commercial from the Internet. Imagine the impact on
consumers who are so interested in a product that they go out of
their way to view a commercial message.
The same kinds of results occur for Frito-Lay's Doritos,
GEICO's cavemen, and Apple's iPhone. Even the
Conan O'Brien parody of the iPhone advertising drew millions
of online viewers, more than for the original
commercials themselves (Garner, 2007).
This kind of opportunity provides new avenues for advertising
media, and at the same time, new complica-
tions. Does the advertising message become so important that
customers will find it on their own, or does the
media placement expose the message to the correct audiences so
accurately that they are drawn into the
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message and then follow through without further incentive or
assistance?
Problems for Advertising Media
Not all developments offer a new opportunity. Sometimes, they
offer new problems and mixed results. All
businesses have problems, and the advertising media business is
no different.
Clutter
A long-standing problem in advertising media is clutter, and it
is getting worse. Clutter involves the number of
advertisements and the amount of media time and space devoted
to advertising. The problem is more pro-
nounced in broadcast media, radio, and television, because it is
more difficult for audiences of those media to
avoid the commercials; print readers can simply turn the page,
and Internet viewers can click on another site,
but broadcast listeners and viewers must sit through the
commercials or take actions to avoid them. Then,
too, broadcast has a bigger concern with clutter because of the
so-called irritation factor, when audiences ac-
tually become angry because of the number of commercials or
irritated at an advertiser whose commercials
run too often.

Ironically, the solution to clutter has been increased clutter. As
more and more commercials appear on radio
and television, the portion of a single advertiser's messages as a
part of all commercial minutes, known as
share of voice, has declined (Bloxham, 2007). To overcome this
dilemma, advertisers have resorted to buying
more commercials of shorter lengths so that the advertisers'
messages appear more often. Where once there
was only one commercial per minute, and then two, today, there
may be four or more. Clutter has increased
as advertisers try to fight the clutter from their competition. Yet
longer messages still work better than do short
ones (Loechner, 2007).
Another possible solution to clutter may involve the use of
behavioral targeting, which aims advertisements at
certain desirable audience segments rather than using
demographic targeting. More specific targeting based
on consumers' behavior would reduce the number of
advertisements that go to audience members who are
not really interested in that particular product or service
(Leggiere, 2007).
Inflation
Economic price inflation is a problem for all businesses. It is
especially a problem for advertising media. In
recent years, media costs have been rising faster than the
consumer price index in the United States. Another
complication is the fact that some media are losing market
share. Network broadcast television, for example,
has lost audience levels for some years now, with the audience
rating figures getting smaller each year. The
solution for advertisers has been to try to reach the same size of
audience as they did in the past, which,

because of the decreasing ratings, forces advertisers to buy
more advertising. So the demand for network
television advertising time has been increasing, even though the
audience ratings have been slipping. This is
certainly an ironic situation: getting more demand because
market share is slipping. Television networks have
even raised their advertising rates to take advantage of the
increased demand for television time, at a rate
somewhat higher than the general inflation rate.
To some extent, the same trend has occurred in other media.
Magazines have charged higher prices for ad-
vertising space as the demand for magazine advertising has
declined (Mandese, 2007b). In addition, some
media vehicles have been able to fight the declines in
advertising faced by their types of media. Some news-
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papers have maintained or even gained advertising even while
the newspaper industry as a whole has suf-
fered from a dramatic decline in advertising (Roberts, 2007).
Industry analysts have charged that the shifts in
audience levels, advertising demand, and media prices have
been disguised to take the advertisers' attention
away from what is actually being offered in advertising buys
(DeWitt, 2007).

Audience Attention Levels
More types of media availabilities mean that audiences have
more choices of where to spend their time. This
means that the audiences spend less time with the traditional
media as their media exposure is spread across
more types of channel outlets.
As people's lives get busier, they also spend less time on any
one activity, be it recreation, entertainment, or
information. These two factors, more types of media and more
segmented activities, mean that audiences are
spending less time with the media and that they are more likely
to multifunction: doing two or more things at
once.
If audiences try to balance the checkbook and take care of the
children while the television is on, they obvi-
ously are not paying full attention to the television program.
These split audience-attention levels have obvious implications
for advertising media. Buying an advertise-
ment today may not give the advertiser the same audience
attention even though it may reach the same
audience size. There is no easy way to calculate the loss of
attention and its impact on advertising media
efficiencies, but there certainly is a loss of advertising impact
when the audience is not paying close attention
to the message.
“‘Creative’ Sells Campaigns”
There is an old saying in advertising that “creative sells
campaigns.” In the heading for this section, the word
creative is in quotation marks because, even though many
practitioners in the advertising business call the

message strategies the creative portion of the campaign, all
advertising involves creativity: media and re-
search and production as well as message strategies. So what
the saying means is that the advertisements
themselves, the messages, are what sell campaigns.
Here, the selling of the campaign is not just to the audience but
also to the advertiser. An advertising agency
prepares an advertising campaign for its client, the advertiser,
and the client must give approval before the
campaign can run and money can be spent. Advertising agencies
usually stress the advertisements when
presenting the proposed campaign to the advertisers, because
the message should be inherently interesting
and thus might make the campaign easier to accept. Yet, even
though the message may be stressed, the
message and media strategies are ideally formulated together, in
concert with one another, and neither one
is more important than the other.
Effects and Effectiveness
Advertising is not an altruistic business. Businesses invest in
advertising because they expect a return on
their investments. A problem arises because the stimulus,
advertising, may not be traceable all through to
the response, sales. Also, not all advertising has sales as the
goal; there are many other possible objectives,
such as product awareness, opinion change, product knowledge,
and similar outcomes. Yet most of these
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results cannot be traced back directly to advertising.
For that reason, much advertising research focuses on
surrogates for the intended result. It may not be pos-
sible to trace sales results or opinion changes, at least not
directly all the way back to advertising, often be-
cause a series of intervening steps is involved. So the surrogates
used are outcomes that can be traced and
that may be meaningful; examples of surrogates include
readership of a print advertisement or recall of a
television commercial.
Measuring the Contributions of Media in the Overall Cam-
paign
An even more difficult research problem arises when trying to
separate the media effect from the rest of the
advertising campaign effect. If one cannot determine whether
sales occur directly because of the advertising
campaign, then determining the effect from the media portion of
the advertising campaign is virtually impossi-
ble.
Separating the media effect from the overall campaign effect
cannot be researched easily, quickly, and eco-
nomically, so again, surrogates are used. With media, coupons
are often used, with a key in the coupon in-
dicating where the advertisement appeared, so the coupon
response can tell which advertising placement
location brought the greatest response and can also measure cost
per response. Keep in mind, however, that

if a coupon response is not the intended goal of the advertising,
the research is again measuring something
other than the intended objective of the campaign.
Future
To understand the role of advertising media strategies in the
21st century, it is critical to try to predict future
trends and developments. Of course, it is impossible to tell the
future accurately and completely, but there are
a number of current trends in the mass media that can help us
forecast what may be happening in the coming
years—probably not the entire 21st century but at least the
coming decade or two.
Media-Buying Specialists
Media-buying specialty firms have been around for many years.
These companies specialize in the media-
planning and -buying functions of advertising.
Such work is often conducted by the advertising agency that
handles the overall advertising campaign. But for
a number of reasons, an outside firm may be sought. Many
times, media trainees at advertising agencies are
eventually promoted to some other line of work, such as account
service or management, rather than con-
tinuing their experience and expertise in media work. Then, too,
advertising agencies often encounter certain
periods of peak activity, when several campaigns are due for a
variety of clients, so using outside vendors for
some of the work may be desirable.
The larger a media-buying department or company is, the better
volume discounts it may be able to negotiate
for advertising costs. Thus, combining several accounts into one

buying activity gains budget volume, which
can result in lower advertising rates, as well as gaining the
economic efficiencies of larger operations. Com-
bining several advertising agencies' work at a media-buying
service can gain even more budget volume to
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provide lower rates and greater economies of scale.
Trends
In the mass media, there are several trends that appear to affect
the way advertising, and particularly adver-
tising media strategies, work. In addition, there are some
general business trends that affect how advertising
operates and some general advertising trends that affect how the
media function may operate (Kelley & Ju-
genheimer, 2008).
Convergence
Earlier, there was a discussion of media convergence, the fact
that the media are becoming more similar and
overlapping in their technologies, functions, and applications.
As this trend continues and the media continue
to become more similar, advertising media planning will
simultaneously grow more difficult and less difficult.

This seeming contradiction can be easily explained. If the media
grow more similar, buying media will be eas-
ier because one may be able to purchase a newspaper
advertisement and a similar announcement on the
newspaper's Web site, all with one easy media buy. However,
when all media have Web sites, and newspa-
pers also publish magazines, and other new forms and outlets
are developed, there will be even more media
choices, making the mediaplanning task more difficult.
Then, too, is the problem of common digitalization of the
media. Digital media are simple and quick to save for
future use, perhaps on a personal computer. If an advertiser is
running a campaign and the audience holds
the message until some future date, is the value of the
advertisement decreased or perhaps lost altogether
if a special sale or political vote is over by the time the
audience gets around to calling back up the media
content that was saved?
Interactivity
Advertisers like media that involve the audience members.
There is some evidence that interactivity with an
advertisement brings increased recall of that advertisement and
perhaps even a more favorable opinion about
the advertised item.
Interactivity can go even further, however. In some media such
as the Internet, the audience can not only
interact with the advertisement but also actually place an order
for purchasing the advertised merchandise.
This expansion in activity also changes the scope of advertising;
advertising was once considered to be most
effective in pretrans-actional and posttransactional roles, but

the actual purchase was made at a store or in
some other way separated from the advertising. Now, the
purchase transaction can become part of the ad-
vertising. This means that the advertising media selection is
even more important, because it may shorten the
marketing channel and transform advertising into a transactional
as well as a promotional tool.
Engagement
Currently, there is much discussion of engagement in
advertising media. It is not enough, so it is thought,
for audiences simply to read, see, or hear the advertisement. It
is better to engage the audience members
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in activities that may make a more lasting impression on
potential customers. Engagement activities are not
necessarily interactivity, as discussed in the previous section.
Instead, engagement could be just something
to keep the audience members busy, to induce them to stay with
the advertisement longer, to encourage them
to think more deeply and to remember longer the advertising
message (Rose, 2006).
Television commercials that entertain as well as sell are a
means of engagement. Most advertisers would be

pleased to know that audiences actually look forward to their
television commercials and that people may tell
others to “watch this ad.” One research study found that an
engaged television viewer is worth eight regular
viewers (Neff, 2007) and that return on investment increases
15% to 20% with engagement (Wilson, 2007).
Commoditization
The media are not the only converging development. Products
and services are becoming more similar to
one another, too. Pain relief products claim that “no other
product is stronger,” meaning that they are just as
strong but no better. Banks all tend to offer the same services,
lobby hours, and online services. As these
products and services become more similar, they are more like
commodities. Commodities are like agricultur-
al products, such as wheat, that meet certain standards and that
are assumed to be uniform throughout no
matter who produced them.
If product and service differentiations disappear, or at least
decline, the role of advertising changes dramati-
cally because it is no longer possible to find the “unique selling
proposition,” the one thing about a service or
product that made it different from its competitors. Yet the role
of advertising will not decrease just because
natural differences are diminished; rather, advertising will
become more important when it is needed to create
or imply differences between the advertised items.
Cadence
The world is becoming an ever-busier place. People do more
now in a day than they may have done in a week
when our country was founded. Mechanization,

computerization, industrialization, and electrification have all
made it possible to accomplish more in less time.
The pace of life, the cadence with which we live, is especially
important in advertising media. If we have
minute-by-minute television commercial ratings, how long will
it be before an advertising media buyer is ex-
pected to shift the campaign to some other medium or vehicle
not in a couple of weeks or in a few days but
in the next couple of hours?
Cadence is important to advertising and especially to
advertising media, and we have not yet begun to see
the increase in the pace of business activity that all the new
media and new media developments will bring.
Future of Advertising Media
While it is not possible to predict the future with total accuracy,
at least not for the long term, some trends in
the mass media and in advertising can lead to reasonable
forecasts for advertising media. “Aggregate mass
audiences are diminishing and being replaced by smaller groups
of individual consumers” (Picard, 2007).
As the media continue to converge, it is likely that most media
reception may be able to come through a
single device, whether it be a portable instrument such as a cell
phone or a personal computer. Most likely,
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portability will be a prime desire among audiences. Media
content will be wherever consumers want it to be
(Smith, 2007).
At the same time, this convergence along with digital-ization
means that consumers will be able to select
through which means they will receive the media information.
Read the newspaper on the computer screen,
listen to it on a cell phone, or have it printed out: These are
possibilities now, and they are likely to gain more
widespread availability and use.
The proliferation of types of media and vehicles will require
that consumers be able to select which ones they
wish to access and what kinds of information, opinion,
entertainment, and advertising they wish to receive. Al-
ready, many e-mail advertisers ask recipients for permission to
send promotional information, and consumers
seem to like having that choice.
For advertising media strategies, these changes will mean that
there will be less wasteful distribution of mes-
sages; advertisements need only reach those who are interested
and perhaps opt to receive the advertising.
At the same time, such changes may make it more difficult to
introduce new products, services, and ideas
because audience members will not choose to receive
advertising messages about things about which they
know nothing.
Database information about consumers is becoming more
prevalent and more detailed. These kinds of in-

depth information sources about consumers—what they buy,
what they want, and to what media they pay
attention—will make media selection more scientific and less
haphazard, again reducing waste and, perhaps,
increasing efficiency.
Because of the large number of media choices, it will be more
difficult for advertisers to reach a large general
audience, so specific targeting will be in demand by advertisers.
Engagement will continue to grow in impor-
tance, perhaps through interactivity or through new media that
have not yet been developed.
The pace of life, in business and in personal dealings, will
continue to have a faster cadence. In advertising,
the need will be to predict exactly what consumers want and
give them exactly that.
No matter what changes occur in the future, advertising will be
there, likely to support the costs of new media
as well as to use the media to reach potential customers.
Advertising media strategies will become even more
crucial in the advertising effort, to take advantage of the new
developments; to cut costs and gain efficiencies;
to make advertising a desired selection among audience
members; and to serve its essential economic func-
tion of expanding the economy, announcing new developments,
and facilitating marketing and commerce.
Donald W.JugenheimerIn-Telligence Inc.
References and Further Readings
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http://publications.mediapost.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=Article
s.showArticle&art_aid=62565
Berkowitz, D.(2007, June 26). Search in the digital media
ecosystem. Search Insider. Retrieved June 26,
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cle&art_aid=62665
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Kadirov, D.Varey, R.Marketplace wisdom and consumer
experience: Redefining sustainability. Journal of Re-
search for Consumers9150–156. (2005).
Kee, T.(2007, June 18). Men online more, but still influenced
by traditional media. Online Media Daily.

s.showArti-
cle&art_aid=62467
Kee, T.(2007, June 19). Nielsen, IGA, Omnicom agencies study
ingame ads. Online Media Daily. Retrieved
June 19, 2007, from
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cle&art_aid=62556
Keefe, L. M.What is the meaning of “marketing”?Marketing
News38(15)17–18. (2004, September 15).
Kelley, L. D., & Jugenheimer, D. W.(2004).Advertising media
planning: A brand management approach (2nd
ed.). Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe
Kokernak, M.(2007, June 19). Wait joost a minute now, TV is
not moving to the Internet. Media Post.
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s.showarticle-
homepage&art_aid=62559
Leggiere, P.(2007, August 1). BT and branding. Behavioral
Insider. Retrieved August 1, 2007, from http://pub-
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icleHomePage&art_aid=64971
Loechner, J.(2007, June 20). 30s beat 15s in online video
advertising study. Research Brief. Retrieved
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Page&art_aid=62634
Mandese, J.(2007a, June 28). Coen's ad spend prediction down
significantly from December. Marketing
Daily. Retrieved June 28, 2007, from
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cles.san&s=63118&Nid=31831&p=325996
Mandese, J.(2007b, July 13). Mag ad pages tumble as rates rise,

fueling inflation. Media Daily News.
Retrieved July 13,
2007,http://publications.mediapost.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=A
rticles.showArti-
cle&art_aid=63969
Neff, J.(2007, July 9). What's the value of an engaged
viewer?Advertising Age. Retrieved July 9, 2007, from
http://adage.com/print?article_id=119064
O'Malley, G.(2007, June 13). Marketers cling to TV even as
online advertising advances. Marketing Daily.
http://publications.mediapost.com/index.cfm?fuseaction=article
s.showarti-
cle&art_aid=62263
Picard, R.(2007, April).Consumers, not technology, determine
success in new markets. Paper presented at
the German-Japanese Symposium on Convergent Media &
Networks, Berlin, Germany.
Roberts, M.(2007, July 12). Our daily bread: Newspapers keep
cutting staff, but Jake Jab's American Fur-
niture Warehouse is standing by them. Why?Denver Westword
News. Retrieved August 2, 2007, from
http://www.westword.com/2007-07-12/news/our-daily-bread
Rose, P. B.The state of the industry: Account planning, media,
strategy (or whatever they are, these days): A
re-cap of the presentations from the folks from Goodby
Silverstein & Partners. Journal of Advertising Educa-
SAGE
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