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Philosophy of Sport and Physical
Education in Japan: Its History,
Characteristics and Prospects
Takayuki Hata & Masami Sekine
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To cite this article: Takayuki Hata & Masami Sekine (2010): Philosophy of Sport and Physical
Education in Japan: Its History, Characteristics and Prospects, Journal of the Philosophy of Sport,
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2. Its History, Characteristics and Prospects
Japan had closed the country to foreigners from 1639 to 1868 during the Tokugawa
shogunate government of Edo period.1 She opened her door to foreign trade and
diplomatic relations and made a new start to become a modern nation, when a
national policy of isolation ceased during the Meiji Restoration,2 which spanned
both in the last years of Edo period and the early Meiji period (i.e., roughly begin-ning
in the mid-19th century).3 The Restoration led to enormous changes in
Japan’s political and social structure. People were busily occupied introducing
Western civilization. In those days, sport was brought into Japan. It was intro-duced
into high schools as well as colleges and universities and began to spread
among young people. Sport was in fashion particularly among the elite groups of
college and university students. Physical education as a school curriculum was
also introduced into elementary and secondary schools. Gymnastics was mainly
used as a method of physical education in schools. Sport and physical education
through gymnastics was brand new to Japanese society.
215
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, 2010, 37, 215-224
© 2010 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Philosophy of Sport and
Physical Education in Japan:
Takayuki Hata and Masami Sekine
In this article, we examine philosophy of sport as a field of study in Japan, its
history, characteristics, and future prospects, as part of a contribution to the inter-national
development of the discipline of sport philosophy. The Japan Society for
the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education has been holding an annual sport
philosophy conference every year since its inception in 1978. Nevertheless, the
trends of sport philosophy in Japan have not been conveyed abroad. The lan-guage
barrier between Japanese and English as an international communication
tool makes it difficult to spread our work on the philosophy of sport throughout
the world. The question arises as to whether the philosophy of sport in Japan has
the same trends as those in the Western countries. Is it reasonable to assume that
it has different aspects and interests than philosophy of sport in English-speaking
countries? We will also try to address these questions for our audience.
Sport and Physical Education Were Introduced
Into Japan in the 19th Century
The authors <hata@nagasaki-u.ac.jp> are with Nagasaki University, Nagasaki, Japan.
Downloaded by [University Of South Australia Library] at 06:32 10 March 2013

3. 216 Hata and Sekine
The system of production in Western countries, as Kataoka (7: p.79) put it,
was characterized by the division of labor. Similarly, a division of institutions was
established by that time. To divide was the most useful method at that time and
influenced every field of organized social activity. Sport was separated from festi-val
in order to pursue its full enjoyment. Gymnastics was separated from the
methods of human education to pursue its purely physical components for their
own sake.
According to Kataoka (7: p.80), such division, was brand new in Japanese
thinking about, and manner of dealing with, human activities. In sport, for exam-ple,
the annual regatta in the Sumida River in Tokyo exhibited purely the power of
students who enjoyed it very much, and gymnastics had a purely physical aim.
Each of them had its own aim. Sport had its formal style of playful social behav-iors,
such as playful competition, playful contest, playful conquest and playful
game, that were designed originally for a playful and festive space where we play-fully
dedicated human performances to God. To put a dance on a stage also
belonged to this playful and festive space. Gymnastics had no rules and playful
elements. It had its own method of training, exercise and practice for physical
improvement. We can understand from what has already been stated that there
were two separate attitudes and related methods regarding physical activity in
Japan around the turn of the 19th century. One was the method of playful physical
activities, and the other was the method of serious physical activities. Of these two
methods of physical activities, the former developed as the sport culture for stu-dents
and latter developed to form the most important content of school physical
education until World War II finished.
Philosophy of Physical Education Went Before
Philosophy of Sport
From the time that sport was introduced into Japan from the Western countries in
the 19th century, the Japanese have accepted it and have been developing it as a
means of physical education. This fact explains why sport philosophy in Japan has
its origins in school physical education. To be more precise, in Japan, philoso-phers
did not introduce or develop the field of sport philosophy. It was the experts
in teaching sport and physical education that founded and have been administer-ing
the academic society of sport philosophy. It was their interest in philosophy,
not philosophers’ interests in sport, that established this field of study.
At the beginning, when sport was introduced in Japan, it did not immediately
infiltrate the entire nation, but university students played a vital role in encourag-ing
it in the broader society. Sport, however, was not considered to be culture in
spite of being played by an elite group of university students. Nobody regarded
sport as having intellectual value in Japan before World War II. Both the students
who played sport and also the professors and administrators in the universities,
considered it to be the conduct opposed to academic studies and scholarly attain-ments.
The manner of not considering sport to be an intellectual activity or an
activity worthy of serious academic attention was a common attitude among phi-losophers
toward sport. Indeed, this appears to have been a common attitude
around the world. At this time, it seemed that philosophers paid little attention to
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4. Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education in Japan 217
sport whether in the East or in the West. In the United States, for example, Weiss
(34) wrote:
Yet philosophers, as a rule have not looked carefully into the topic. They have
neglected sport. Sport, of course, is not the only wide-spread activity that they
have slighted. Sex, work, play, and worldly success never won the steady
attention of eminent philosophers. They have given considerable thought to
the nature and desirability of achieving pleasure; they have occupied them-selves
with the idea of excellence and with desire for it; they have been appre-ciative
of the fact that in many basic ways men everywhere are men, with
similar natures and appetites. But this has not led them to devote their time
and energy to studying some of the most universal occupations of men. (p.4)
This situation was the same in Japan for a long time. In 1933, however, Japa-nese
philosopher, Nakai (19), wrote an article in Shisô, “The Structure of My
Feelings When Playing Sport,” which was at that time the only work by a Japa-nese
philosopher who treated sport philosophically. In this article, he gave phe-nomenological
consideration to his personal aesthetic experiences gained by
rowing. The same kind of philosophical interpretation, unfortunately, did not
spread to other Japanese philosophers. Nakai himself stopped any further philo-sophical
studies on sport after 1933.
On the other hand, physical education was introduced into school when the
educational system was established at the Meiji Restoration, and it became an
essential part of the school curriculum in Japan. It was important as a means to
make the strong body, or the strong nation, until World War II finished. Postwar
physical education made much of sport as a means to improve the people’s health
and was meant to be character building. We had a good grounding in Japan in
studying physical education philosophically so that the development of philo-sophic
study was easier in the field of physical education than in the field of sport.
The following are the reasons why philosophy of physical education went
before sport philosophy in Japan. Firstly, physical education was guaranteed in
the national education system, so that, secondly, there were a constant number of
researchers in the field of physical education who studied sport philosophically.
The study of sport philosophy in Japan, as the philosophic study of physical edu-cation,
became popular after World War II. We would like to consider the reasons
that sport philosophy widened its object from physical education to sport.
From Philosophy of Physical Education to
Philosophy of Sport
There were several reasons why sport philosophy widened its object from physi-cal
education to sport after World War II. One of the reasons was the Japanese
social context in 1960s. Competitive sport was recognized in Japan because of the
holding of the Olympic Games in Tokyo in 1964. As a result, the nation became
strongly interested in sport as competition. At this juncture, the object of sport
philosophy focused on the social meaning of competitive sport, and an ethical
problem arose when competitive sport came to have recognized social value. The
Olympic Games in Tokyo promoted Japanese economic growth. Its influence
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5. 218 Hata and Sekine
extended not only to the economy but also to sport as a social and cultural phe-nomenon.
As a result, people came to enjoy sport in places other than in school
sport facilities. In addition, it was recognized to be important to play sport after
completing school. Also, the idea of lifetime sport spread quickly in Japan, after
being introduced the idea of lifelong integrated education, on which Lengrand
(11) made a speech at one of the meetings held by UNESCO in Paris. In this way,
thoughts and conditions of both lifetime sport and lifelong integrated education
were introduced into Japan at the same time, and sport was largely accepted by the
nation and gained a lot of popularity. Thus, the requirements for considering sport
philosophically were fulfilled.
The other reason is a change of Japanese mental outlook. It changed, to put it
concretely, from common consciousness to self-consciousness. This made sport a
matter of personal meaning that was influenced by the understanding of human
beings in the West. Originally there was no Japanese word corresponding with the
English concept of “individual.” This English word was translated into Japanese
word “kojin.” Since this Japanese word started being used for the English concept
of individual after 1850, establishment of the subject has been at the core of
modern Japanese thought, and consequently sport has come to be thought of as a
creative individual activity in Japan. The Japanese have established their character
and have come to discover the pleasure to live through sport. The recognition of
the possibility of individual personal discovery through sport was an important
reason why modern Western sport became prevalent in Japan. This was formally
and spiritually different from the nonindividualist culture of the traditional Japa-nese
martial arts.
These were the Japanese social phenomena on sport in the age of lifetime
sport. At that time, sport and the concept of self-realization were linked in parallel
with the social changes in Japan (24: p.53). Niwa (20) grasped the social situation
in Japan at that time and said that “Sport had more important meaning for self-actualization
and self-assertion” (p.43).
Philosophy of Sport and
Physical Education After 1950
We had leading figures in academic circles who tried to consider physical educa-tion
philosophically. It was hard to say that they achieved a brilliant success, but
their challenge to make clear the meaning of physical education was an important
attempt in order to establish the philosophy of physical education (21). It was the
establishment of the Japan Society of Health and Physical Education as an aca-demic
society in 1950 that led to nation-wide recognition of physical education as
a subject of serious academic research. A section of this Society that has now over
200 members was organized for the philosophic study of physical education in
1955. The name of this section, in spite of its object and method of study, was the
Principles of Physical Education until it changed its name to the Philosophy of
Physical Education in 2005. It was in 1978 that the Japan Society for the Philoso-phy
of Sport and Physical Education was established. After that, several books
written by the Western sport philosophers were translated into Japanese (1; 12; 13;
14; 18; 33; 34; 36; 37). They had an important influence on the development of
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6. Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education in Japan 219
sport philosophy in Japan. Several professors among the founders of the Japan
Society for the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education were influenced by
those Western sport philosophers. Kataoka for example was much influenced by
Zeigler (36; 37) and others. Their achievements in sport ethics, especially those of
Fraleigh (1) and Lenk (13; 14), spread to the graduate students who studied sport
philosophy. The most influential philosopher was Weiss (34). Sport: A Philo-sophic
Inquiry has been one of the most influential works on sport philosophy in
Japan.
Characteristic Themes in Japanese Journal Articles
Researches into theories of the body currently represent a main emphasis of sport
philosophy in Japan. Articles concerning the body have been published constantly
in several journals. In 1980s two articles on the human body were accepted by the
Journal of the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education. Kato (8) considered
the concept of subject and clarified the concept of identity as a way of studying
human movement. Takizawa (27) studied the problem of consciousness in physi-cal
activities, and clarified the work of our consciousness in action using a phe-nomenological
analysis.
From the 1990s to present, studies concerning theories of the body have
developed using phenomenological methods. Takizawa (29) presented a paper
entitled “A Process of Forming One’s View of the Human Body” and clarified the
differences in approach between Japan and the Western countries. He presented a
paper on the human body from a phenomenological standpoint in 2006, the title
of which is “The Present State of One’s View of the Human Body in Japan,” and
not only showed clearly what our view of the human body in Japan was, but also
considered how the view of the human body was constructed (30). He also devel-oped
a comparative cultural study in “Formation Process of One’s View of the
Human Body through a Comparison between Japan, Germany and England.” The
results of questionnaires on one’s view of the human body in this paper were com-pared
and clarified that its formation depended on one’s culture (31). Takamatsu’s
(26) “A Study of the Mode of Existence on the Body in Sport,” addressed whether
the human moving body, which is the medium of expression in sport, is retreated
behind the expressed meanings. The medium of expression vanishes and leaves
the expressed meaning like the spoken language. He also described the mode of
existence of the body through comparison with the mediums of language and art.
It was described that the human moving body is not retreated behind the expressed
meanings and showed sensuous characteristics of its existence, and that the mean-ings
expressed in sport were not tightly combined with the human moving body.
Katafuchi (6) clarified how the modernization in Meiji era influenced the
change of traditional Japanese view of the body. From educational viewpoint,
Takizawa (28) raised new questions about the relationship between body and soci-ety,
and emphasized the educational value of the body culture different from the
modern sport culture. As concerns the social problems and the body of the present
age, Yamaguchi (35) wrote an article on the lack of sense for one’s life in our time,
“An Inquiry into Physical Freedom as It is Related to the Transfiguration of the
Eye to Human Body.” She investigated in this article how to restore one’s life and
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7. 220 Hata and Sekine
concluded that physical freedom had a key to the solution of this difficult
problem.
Thus the characteristics of the Japanese journal articles are that many of them
take the human body as an object of study.
In recent years, articles in the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport, have often
focused on ethical problems in sport, and the ethical study of doping in particular
has been an ongoing important theme (3; 4). When we turn our attention to the
Japanese journal articles, ethical studies on sport have been carried out by Kondo
(9; 10), Masumoto (15; 16; 17) and other researchers like Sekine and Hata (22).
Kondo (19) considered ethically gender verification regulation in order to propose
an ethically rational means of gender categorization. He also clarified, in one of
his papers, the issue of an individual’s sovereignty over his/her own body and
person in the field of professional boxing (10). Masumoto’s (15; 16; 17) studies
clearly brought out the ethical issues make a strict interpretation of the opening
ceremony of the Olympic Games. Sekine and Hata (22) considered the influences
which doping brought sport and examined a means for conquering the crisis of
sport.
In the Journal of the Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, however,
papers on ethical problems concerning sport are few. The difference of percentage
as regards the ethical studies on sport between these two journals may be the
result of editorial policy.
Future Prospects for Sport Philosophy in Japan
We would like to suggest some future lines of development of sport philosophy
in Japan. In recent years, a resurgence of interest in of Japanese traditional spiri-tuality
is spreading within Japan. This represents a re-emergence of communities
called ‘us’ away from the modern self called ‘me.’ Japanese sport philosophers
have been dealing with this theme as a problem of communication. Theories of
communication have been developed in relation to the theory of the body and its
relationship to mind. One of the examples is a theory that enables us to commu-nicate
with each other by playing sport or by enjoying physical activities. It is not
too much to say that this research aims to investigate our mutual consciousness
in terms of sport. On this point, ethical behavior arises from a body-based com-monality
with others (23). By proposing the viewpoint of others, Sekine and
Ishigaki (23) examine the way in which sympathies and common understandings
are established among athletes. They research mutual consciousness through the
body.S
everal articles studied solidarity or communication with others in the con-text
of sport. Ishigaki (5) emphasized that it is important for the person who
performs physical activities to be able to sympathize with other performers, in
order to reproduce the performance. He tried to clarify the structure of sympathy,
and to indicate the method of performance reproduction. Fukasawa and two
others (2) considered the possibility of understanding the human being in sport.
He also discussed the mutual understanding of sport between different com-munities.
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8. Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education in Japan 221
There are several articles about possibilities of making relations with others
not only through the language, but also the body. Tanaka (32), for example, in her
paper entitled “Education for ‘Consideration to Others’ in Physical Education,”
reconsidered a general idea of “consideration to others,” in order to clarify one’s
relation to others in physical education. She concluded that “consideration to
others” is not just a feeling, but an ability to interpret a situation from certain
viewpoint, as well as producing the necessary action. Takahashi (25) clarified
how we understand and practice “connection as action” with other players in
movement. He concluded that “connection as action” is the practical ability to
make an intersubjective communication, and that movement should be grasped
not from “mental connection,” but from “connection as action.”
Why have the studies of such tendencies increased in Japan recently? The
recent social context is identified as one of the reasons. We Japanese have a cul-ture
which has characteristics of harmony with others and community, as has
been pointed out by the past Japanese cultural theory. We have developed a soli-darity
awareness of ourselves rather than awareness of oneself or individual
found in the West. However, recently, attitudes and the culture of such a com-munity
are becoming extinct at a social level. Nevertheless, sport and physical
education may play an important role in promoting respect for others and for
community. To recover such a community, it is expected that the issues of ethics
are going to develop not as personal ethics, but as group ethics or ethics of mutual
relations. The rebuilding of the community becomes an issue across various
areas in modern Japanese society, such as education, administration, medical
care. Sport is expected to be one of the important elements in this community
rebuilding.
Since English is an international official language, if we do not write an
article in English, it will not be read worldwide. An author in non-English coun-tries
must write his/her work in English for readers in the world. What is the
point of journals and books that are published in non-English languages like
Japanese if that is the case? Nevertheless, there is a market for sport philosophy
even in non-English countries. For example, the Japan Society for the Philoso-phy
of Sport and Physical Education has about 150 members, and the potential
demand for sport philosophy can be recognized among those who belong to the
Japan Society of Physical Education, Health and Sport Sciences, which has a
membership of over 6,000. Many of these members have interests in sport phi-losophy,
like others who give thought to different areas of sport sciences outside
their specialty. It might not be continuous interest by any means but represents
potential demand for sport philosophy.
As well, for the present Japanese philosophers do not have much influence
on sport philosophy. Not many of them take an interest in sport philosophy or
write their articles in English when they present their work. Unfortunately, infor-mation
is seldom available on their work in English.
For the time being, Japanese scholars’ work on sport philosophy will be
published in Japanese. However, it is desirable for them to be written in English
if they wish to contribute to the general advance of knowledge in philosophy of
sport at an international level.
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9. 222 Hata and Sekine
Conclusion
The study of sport philosophy in Japan has many relations with themes about
others and communication with them. The study of sport ethics is focused on
interpersonal relations rather than on personal ethics. These are important main
characteristics of sport philosophy and sport ethics in Japan. It is thought that in
the background there is a social quest to recognize a sense of community. Sport
philosophy in Japan may develop in this direction to spread this sense of
community.
Until now, sport philosophy in Japan has often developed by relying impor-tantly
on translations of foreign works. Although it is uncertain in future whether
this will be maintained in the same way or not, translations into Japanese will have
an important role in the future. The reasons are as follows. It is important and
effective for the person who has interest in sport philosophy to read documents in
Japanese rather than in a foreign language. As long as Japanese is taught as an
official language in Japan, the Japanese market in sport philosophy is maintained,
and the translations into Japanese from foreign languages will play an important
role particularly in the future for young researchers on sport philosophy.
Acknowledgment
We are most grateful to Professor John Russell for his helpful suggestions on an earlier
draft of this paper and constructive comments and suggestions to improve the paper. We
also would like to thank the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. This work was
supported by the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) (22300209).
Notes
1. The Edo period, or the Tokugawa shogunate period, is a division of Japanese history run-ning
from 1603 to 1868 and is the premodern era. The period marks the governance of the Edo
or Tokugawa shogunate, which was officially established in 1603 by the first Edo shogun, Ieyasu
Tokugawa. The period ended with the Meiji Restoration, the restoration of imperial rule by the
15th and last shogun, Yoshinobu Tokugawa. The Edo period is also known as the beginning of
the early modern period of Japan.
2. The Meiji Restoration, also known as the Meiji Ishin, Revolution or Renewal, was a chain
of events that led to enormous changes in Japan’ s political and social structure. It occurred in
the latter half of the 19th century, a period that spans both the late Edo period (often called Late
Tokugawa shogunate) and the beginning of Meiji Era.
3. The Meiji period, or Meiji era, denotes the period in Japanese history during the 45-year
reign of the Meiji Emperor (from 23 October 1868–30 July 1912). During this time, Japan began
its modernization and rose to world power status. Meiji means ‘Enlightened Rule.’
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