THEORY

1. Chapter 1
Theories and Therapies

2. What is a theory?
 A group of related laws or relationships
that are used to provide explanations
within a discipline (Sharf, 2004)
 No one theory fits all situations or
persons.

3. Characteristics of Sound Theories
Hansen, Stevic, & Warner (1986)
1. Clear, easily understood, and
communicable
2. Comprehensive
3. Explicit and heuristic
4. Specific in relating means to desired
outcomes
5. Useful to its intended practitioners

4. Pragmatic Value of Theories
 Helps explain what happens in a counseling
relationship
 Assists the counselor in predicting,
evaluating, and improving results
 Provides a framework for making scientific
observations about counseling
 Encourages the coherence of ideas about
counseling and the production of new ideas

5. Functions of Theory
Boy & Pine (1983)
1. Find unity and relatedness within the diversity of
existence.
2. Examine relationships they would otherwise overlook.
3. Provide operational guidelines by which to work and helps
them evaluate their development as professionals.
4. Focus on relevant data and tells them what to look for.
5. Assist clients in the effective modification of behavior.
6. Evaluate approaches to the process of counseling.

6. Antiquated Theories
 Trephining
 Exorcism
 Flogging, Starving, Chains, Immersion
in Hot Water
 Institutions and “Lock-up”

7. Talk Therapies
 Proposed the unchaining of patients
and better treatment such as time
outdoors, feeding them a more
nutritious diet, and talking with them.
 Two Early Examples:
 Paul Dubois (1848-1918) – a Swiss physician
 Pierre Janet (1859-1947) – a French physician

8. Examples of Modern Theories
 Psychoanalysis
 Behaviorism
 Existentialism
 Adlerian theory
 Person-Centered theory
 Reality therapy

9. Present Trend
 Helping professionals seem to be
pragmatically flexible in adapting techniques
and interventions from different theoretical
approaches into their work without actually
accepting the premises of some theoretical
points of view.
 Can be seen in the development and use of
microskills.

10. Eclecticism
 Most modern professionals consider
themselves as eclectic
 Combine theories or techniques from a
wide variety of therapeutic approaches.
 Modern counselors use an average of
4.4 theories making up their therapeutic
work with clients. (Cheston, 2000)

11. Style-shift counseling
 As needs change, counselors depart
from a theory they are using to another
approach.

12. Strength of Eclecticism
 The ability to draw on various theories,
techniques, and practices to meet client
needs.

13. Drawback of Eclecticism
 Can be hazardous to the counseling
process if counselors are not thoroughly
familiar with all aspects of the theories
involved.
 Can do more harm than good because
the counselor may have little or no
understanding about what is helping
the client.

14. Levels of Eclecticism
McBride and Martin (1990)
 Syncretism
 Lowest or first level
 Sloppy, unsystematic process of combining
clinical concepts

15. Levels of Eclecticism
McBride and Martin (1990) (cont.)
 Traditional
 Second level
 An orderly combination of compatible
features from diverse sources into a
harmonious whole
 More thought out and theories are
examined in greater depth.

16. Levels of Eclecticism
McBride and Martin (1990) (cont.)
 Theoretical Integrationism
 Third level
 Requires that counselors master at least two
theories before trying to make any combinations.
 Assumes two things:
 A degree of equality between theories (which may not be
true)
 The existence of criteria to determine what pieces of
each theory to include or exclude.

17. Levels of Eclecticism
McBride and Martin (1990) (cont.)
 Technical Eclecticism
 Fourth level
 Procedures from different theories are
selected and used “without necessarily
subscribing to the theories that spawned
them” (Lazarus & Beutler, 1993)
 Critical variables are a mastery of theory
and an acute sensitivity to knowing what
approach to use when, where, and how.

18. Transtheoretical Model (TTM)
of change
 Model is developmentally based and has
been empirically derived over time.
 An alternative to technical eclectic
approaches.

19. TTM Five (5) Stages Model
of Change
 Precontemplation
 Contemplation
 Preparation
 Action
 Maintenance

20. TTM’s Underlying Stages
of Change
 Consciousness-raising
 Dramatic Relief
 Environmental Reevaluation
 Self-evaluation
 Self-liberation
 Contingency Management,
Counterconditioning, and Stimulus
Control

21. TTM’s Levels of Change
 Symptom/Situation problems
 Maladaptive Cognitions
 Current Interpersonal Conflicts
 Family System Conflicts
 Intrapersonal Conflicts

22. Drawbacks of TTM
 Comprehensiveness of approach
 Complexity of approach
 Has only been tested among limited
groups

23. The Case of Linda
 Linda is a recently divorced, 32-year-old Caucasian woman.
 Comes seeking counseling because of “relationship problems.”
 Was married for 7 years but ended her relationship because she
no longer found her husband exciting and thought he was
verbally abusive.
 Had an abortion in the marriage two years earlier because her
husband insisted and she did not feel ready for parenting
responsibilities.

24. Family Background
 Father was a construction worker with just a
7th grade education.
 Drank heavily on weekends.
 Good work ethic and positive attitude toward work.
 Definite and vocal opinions about politics, religion,
and the subservient place of women in society.

25. Family Background
 Mother was a high school graduate.
 Did not work outside the home
 Quiet and introverted woman

26. Family Background
 Older Brother (two years).
 Two younger sisters (13 months and 3 years).
 Linda reports she is not emotionally close to
her family at all.

27. Historical Context
 Grew up in a lower class neighborhood in a
mid-size Midwest city.
 As a teenager, she reports being mildly
rebellious.
 Dated older boys and was flirtatious, but
never engaged in more than heavy petting.
 States her brother was her protector.

28. Educational Background
 Good enough grades to be admitted to a 4-yr
college but did not feel confident enough to
apply since it would go against family norms.
 Father discouraged her from furthering her
education.
 Enrolled in a local community college and
completed a program in business
administration.

29. Employment History
 Since graduation she has drifted from
job to job as an administrative assistant
or secretary.
 No job has challenged her.
 Admits to getting “fed up” with the
treatment she gets from her bosses,
who are sexist, she thinks.

30. Hobbies
 Likes to read romance novels.
 Watches the home and garden TV
channel.
 Goes to see action movies.
 All make her feel better by taking her
away from her mundane existence.

31. Social Factors
 Has felt “aimless, anxious, and
depressed” since the divorce.
 Has not found a group of singles to
associate with and her former friends
have all “married or moved away.”
 Considers her family boring and sees
them only once a week.

32. Take-In Session
 Reveals she has had daydreams about ending
her life by stepping out in front of a truck,
though she doubts she would ever do thing.
 Has recently contemplated finding a new job
and has given two weeks notice.
 Thinks life is passing her by and her voice is
desperate as she relates this to you.