1. Running head: SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 1
Social Influences and Self-Reflection
William Harding
Grand Canyon University
September 9, 2015

2. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 2
Social Influences and Self-Reflection
Individuals who wish to learn more about themselves should look to their childhood
friends. Specifically, if an individual wants to gain a better understanding regarding what had
the greatest influence on their personality development, then those individuals need not self-
reflect on traditional Freudian psychosexual development stages (Freud, 1900), but instead at
their childhood social and interpersonal relationships. Comparatively, it has been shown that a
child’s development of a spoken accent is directly influenced by their “. . . social preferences . .
.” (Kinzler, Shutts, DeJesus, & Spelke, 2009, para. 31), where there is little to no impact on a
child’s accent due to a specific stage of sexual development, visual influences, or race
differences. By extension, the development of a child’s personality and behaviors are directly
linked to social influences and the child’s specific cultural environment.
This paper synthesizes five articles to identify a shared theme that links the articles
through similar values, ideas, and philosophies, where the results that are discovered through
self-reflection are closely linked to social and interpersonal relationships. Axelrod (2012) used
psychoanalyst approaches towards self-awareness, to explore self-discovery as a means for
improving executive and leader development in creating successful organizations. Eagle (2007)
examined psychoanalytic therapeutic practices, research implications, and concepts associated
with transference and countertransference, where those concepts may or may not be appropriate
for all clients or produce results that can be aggregated from the psychoanalysis community to
form a consistent psychoanalytical approach. Hall and Lindzey (1957) discussed four key Neo-
Freudian theorists who diverged from traditional Freudian psychosexual teachings, to focus on
how an individual's personality development is closely linked to social-psychological influences.
Overskeid (2007) examined the American behaviorist B. F. Skinner, who suggested that

3. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 3
individuals should look outward versus inward, in their pursuit of self-identity. Lastly, Weaver
(2009) discussed aging individuals who have reached what is commonly referred to as mid-life,
where a comparison is made between influential psychodynamic theorists and their views that an
individual's mid-life cognitive state is the result of childhood experiences.
This paper will discuss the themes that emerged from the synthesis of information
contained within the five articles (i.e., self-awareness, self-knowledge, personality development,
self-identity, and personal growth), where a common theme was then identified as it relates to
the discovery of self, through an exploration of social interrelationships and interpersonal
influences. Furthermore, with consideration for the influences that potentially affect an
individual’s personality development and where those influences are discovered during self-
reflection, it is critical to examine social and cultural relationships in order to create an objective
and consistent representation of each individual’s personality and associated behaviorisms.
Accordingly, this paper will discuss the identified common theme of social influences and self-
reflective discovery, which exists within each of the five articles and such that the paper clearly
exemplifies each article’s support of that common theme, where the aggregation of the articles
form a larger body of seminal work.
Social-Psychological Influences
The five evaluated articles when taken individually would appear to focus on completely
different themes and theories associated with psychoanalytical concepts, but when evaluated as
one larger body of work a clear pattern emerges such that each article infers to the relevance that
social and cultural influences have in shaping an individual’s personality and self-identity.
Accordingly, each of the articles focus on unique areas of self-realization, where it can be
suggested specifically that Axelrod (2012) focused on self-awareness, Eagle (2007) examined

4. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 4
self-knowledge, Hall and Lindzey (1957) explored personality development, Overskeid (2007)
studied self-identity, and Weaver (2009) consider an executive’s personal growth. However,
within each of the articles, the discussions, concepts, and theories all appeared to be grounded on
the notion that each of the their individual themes were connected to society and the influences
that helped shaped each member of society.
Self-Awareness
Axelrod (2012) presented some very interesting thoughts related to using psychoanalytic
practices for the purpose of executive development, versus the normally accepted use of
therapeutic techniques for curing individuals with mental health issues. In support of
psychoanalyst approaches towards self-awareness, Axelrod (2012) explores self-discovery as a
means for improving executive and leader development in creating successful organizations.
Furthermore, with consideration for the development of an individual's personality, the discovery
of self is a critical concept within the process of increasing self-awareness. Regardless of
Freud's view of distinctions, the concepts associated with self-discovery are synonymous with
self-observation, self-reflection, self-awareness, and emotional awareness (Freud, 1900).
That being considered, the statements by Axelrod (2012) aligned with the proposed
common theme of social influences and self-reflection, where it was theorized that an
individual's personality development is closely linked with social and interpersonal influences.
Moreover, the author's proposal that self-discovery positively influences executive development
for the benefit of organizations, clearly suggests the link between social interactions and self-
awareness. Correspondingly, the common theme is further supported through the author's
statements that by decreasing internal conflicts associated with “. . . interpersonal style, values,
and goals . . .” (Axelrod, 2012, p. 345) an executive becomes a more effective leader.

5. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 5
Self-Knowledge
Eagle (2007) focused on self-knowledge with an underlying tone that if the field of
psychoanalysis was expected to grow, then a concerted effort had to be made throughout the
psychoanalytical community, such that the community could work together in generating
consistent and empirical results. Accordingly, Eagle (2007) explored psychoanalytic therapeutic
practices, research implications, and concepts associated with transference and
countertransferences, where those concepts may or may not be appropriate for all
clients/patients, but where there exist possible areas that psychoanalysis could merge their
findings, such that the psychoanalysis community might find a common voice.
Correspondingly, Eagle (2007) made a clear stance in support of attaining “. . . self-
awareness and self-knowledge . . .” (p. 18). Subsequently, the author discussed concepts within
the article’s material, which supports the common theme of social influences and self-reflection,
whereas the acceptance of a universal truth is the acceptance that truth is constructed through
social interactions and interrelationships. Furthermore, it is inferred that discovering the truth of
self is not completing acquired through internal reflection, but is instead an exploration of
individuals working together to form a cultural collective knowledge base that aids in the
development of self-identity.
Personality Development
The Hall and Lindzey (1957) article focused on a central theme that could best be
described as events and conditions that influenced personality development. The principal focus
of the Hall and Lindzey (1957) article was on four key Neo-Freudian theorists (i.e., Adler,
Fromm, Horney, and Sullivan) who diverged from traditional Freudian teachings, that man is
principally a sexual being, and focused on how an individual's personality development is

6. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 6
closely linked to social-psychological influences. However, as is discovered within the article
the four theorists present unique theories that are clearly built on the psychoanalytical foundation
of Freud. Furthermore, as Hall and Lindzey (1957) suggests, the four theorists share a common
belief that social variables influence the development of an individual's personality and that
anxiety is a product of social and interpersonal relationships.
All things considered, Hall and Lindzey (1957) discussed the relevance and importance
that each of the evaluated theorists played in increasing the view of Freudian psychology, which
further supports a foundational link between Freud and the Neo-Freudian theorists and less of a
divergence from the central concepts associated with orthodox Freudian theories. Accordingly,
the unique contributions that the four theorists present, expanded on Freud's theories that
aggregate social influences into ego, by clearly emphasizing that interpersonal and social
relationships are determinants of personality development. Whereas, the proposed common
theme of social influences and self-reflection is further supported through the suggestion that an
individual's personality development is closely linked with social and interpersonal influences.
By contrast, to the other three theorists, it should be noted that Sullivan was the most
divergent from Freudian theories and was an individual whose concepts more closely aligned
with the proposed common theme. Whereas, Sullivan developed the concept of a psychiatrist as
a participant observer within the therapeutic process and suggested that an “. . . individual does
not and cannot exist apart from his relations with other people.” (Hall & Lindzey, 1957, p. 135).
With Sullivan’s teachings suggesting that personality development is the result of interpersonal
processes, where the predominate properties of those processes are “. . . dynamisms,
personifications, and cognitive . . .” (Hall & Lindzey, 1957, p. 137), it can be clearly inferred that
Sullivan supported that social influences help shape an individual’s personality.

7. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 7
Self-Identity
The Overskeid (2007) article is best summarized as a focus on self-identity, where the
subject of the article (i.e., B. F. Skinner) theorized that “. . . psychology [should be] divorced
from introspection” (p. 591) and where individual's should look outward versus inward, in their
pursuit of self-identity. Accordingly, it would appear that from the beginning, the theories of
Skinner and Overskeid (2007) align well with the proposed common theme associated with
social influences on self-identity, but there is more to be said regarding what led Skinner to
arrive at his own unique theories.
Skinner was an American behaviorist with roots in animal experimentation as expressed
through functionalist tradition. Though Skinner followed Freud's teaching to a high degree and
“. . . incorporated some of Freud's thinking into his own” (Overskeid, 2007, p. 591), Skinner did
not agree with Freud's unconscious realm and believed that “. . . research should be empirically
driven . . .” (Overskeid, 2007, p. 592). Moreover, and according to Overskeid (2007), Skinner
focused on the impacts on self that resulted from an individual's treatment of society, whereas
individuals are influenced and controlled by “. . . cultural rules and practices . . .” (p. 592).
Lastly, to reflect on how theories of both Skinner and Freud aligned with the proposed common
them, they each supported the concept that behavior or personality development was influenced
by elements outside of an individual's awareness, where those influences “. . . have a powerful
effect on a person’s thinking, feelings, and behavior . . .” (Overskeid, 2007, p. 592).
Personal Growth
Examination of Weaver (2009) suggests that the author explored personal growth through
the lens of aging individuals, who have reached what is called mid-life. Accordingly, following a
comparative assessment of Freud and Jung, Weaver (2009) suggest that an individual’s

8. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 8
personality development and cognitive state is the result of childhood experiences and not
specifically influenced by psychosexual developmental stages. Moreover, Weaver (2009)
possessed a positive perspective regarding mid-life, which suggests that mid-life is ". . . a stage
in the lifespan development" (p. 77) and that mid-life individuals establish their self-identity
through socialization actions.
That said, and with consideration for the proposed common theme, which theorizes that
an individual's identity of self is closely linked with social and interpersonal influences, the
Weaver (2009) article cites numerous references supporting that an individual's personal
development and self-identity is the product of social conformance, such that an individual ". . .
wishes to do what others do . . ." (p. 71). Comparatively, in the discussion where an individual
searches for meaning in life and where meaning establishes personal value, the author presents
material that moves the perspective from an internal search to an examination of how individuals
are bond together through shared beliefs and common values. Lastly, in support of the suggested
common theme, the author proposes that an individual's foundation for self-awareness and
personality development is not specifically an internally generated attribute, but is more a
derivation of social influences.
Conclusion
Following the evaluation of the five discussed articles as single entity, focused on self-
awareness, self-knowledge, personality development, self-identity, and personal growth, the
proposal was clearly established that a common theme exists throughout the articles, which
supports the discovery of self, through an exploration of social interrelationships and
interpersonal influences. Furthermore, it is suggested that the Neo-Freudian divergence from
orthodox Freudian psychoanalytical theories is more clearly exemplified within the five

9. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 9
evaluated articles, which support that personality development is linked to social-psychological
influences. Whereas, individual’s need look no further than their childhood friends for the
influences that affected their behaviorisms and self-identity. Of course, that statement is a
generalization of the influences that are the result of cultural, social, and interpersonal
relationships, where man is a social being, who is guided by ethics and moralities as a reflection
of his developmental environment.
Consequently, and though the hypothesis of this paper was supported by the information
examined within the five articles, further exploration of personality development from the
perspective of women, would prove to be a more inclusive evaluation of the social influences
that help shape the behaviors of women and the associated attributes of self-identity. Due to the
lack of coverage specifically from a woman’s perspective, it is suggested that an in-depth
exploration be conducted into the social interrelationships of women along with a comparative
assessment of men and women from the perspective of social-psychological influences.

10. SOCIAL INFLUENCES AND SELF 10
References
Axelrod, S. D. (2012). “Self-Awareness”: At the Interface of Executive Development and
Psychoanalytic Therapy. Psychoanalytic Inquiry, 32(4), 340-357.
doi:10.1080/07351690.2011.609364
Eagle, M. N. (2007). Psychoanalysis and its critics. Psychoanalytic Psychology, 24(1), 10-24.
doi:10.1037/0736-9735.24.1.10
Freud, S. (1900), The Interpretation of Dreams. Standard Edition, 4 & 5. London:
Hogarth Press, 1957.
Hall, C. S., & Lindzey, G. (1957). Social psychological theories: Adler, Fromm, Horney, and
Sullivan. In Theories of personality (pp. 114-156). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
doi:10.1037/10910-004
Overskeid, G. (2007). Looking for Skinner and finding Freud. American Psychologist, 62(6),
590-595. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.6.590
Weaver, Y. (2009). Mid-Life - A time of crisis or new possibilities? Existential Analysis:
Journal Of The Society For Existential Analysis, 20(1), 69-78.