Psychoanalytic Criminology

1. Psychoanalytic
criminology
By Vinaya Joseph,
GLC Ernakulam

2. Psychoanalytic criminology
Psychoanalytic criminology is a method of studying crime and criminal behaviour that draws
from Freudian psychoanalysis. This school of thought examines personality and the psyche
(particularly the unconscious) for motive in crime. Other areas of interest are the fear of crime
and the act of punishment. Criminal behaviour is attributed to maladjustment and
dysfunctional personality. According to Buhagiar, "psychoanalytic criminologists were not
adverse to the principle of confinement, and often favored increased penalty".

3. Table Of Contents
• Freudian Psychoanalysis
• History
• Sociological Association to Crime
• Attributed Neurobiological Factors
• Dysfunctional & Antisocial Personality
• Criticism

5. Freudian Psychoanalysis
Sigmund Freud is the established original psychoanalyst to form theories and concepts surrounding the
existence of mental illness and its interconnected nature with human behaviour. Throughout his research,
Freud concluded that behaviour can be explained through the analysis of one's experiences and trauma
giving accountability to the motivation of a person's actions. The interpretation of his findings concluded a
person can adapt his/her behaviour from childhood experiences to become a part of the hidden consciousness
state. He studied unobservable behaviour, parts of the personality that are not visibly noticeable within one's
nature and on a basic level cannot be explained.
In 1923, Freud formed an idea that the theoretical human mind had three elements that conceptually make
up ‘The Psyche’. Id (instincts), Ego (reality) and Superego (morality) are not tangible physical areas within
the brain, rather, entities that Freud concluded make up the human personality.
What Freud referred to as the "psychic apparatus", three elements of the human personality are now
established as the unconscious level that dictates one's desires and biological instincts. Freud did not directly
use his research and theories to explain how a person is led to commit a crime, but the application of his
theories has been adapted by psychologists and psychoanalysts to understand the connection between the
unconscious mind and criminalistic tendencies and actions. Within the realm of science, the study into
psychoanalysis has been contested and debated according to its validity.

6. The Case of Anna O
(real name Bertha Pappenheim)

7. Anna O. suffered from hysteria, a condition in which the patient exhibits physical symptoms
(eg paralysis, convulsions, hallucinations, loss of speech) without an apparent physical
cause. Her doctor (and Freud's teacher) Josef Breuer succeeded in treating Anna by helping
her to recall forgotten memories of traumatic events.
Breuer discussed the case with his friend Freud. Out of these discussions came the germ of
an idea that Freud was to pursue for the rest of his life. In Studies in Hysteria (1895) Freud
proposed that physical symptoms are often the surface manifestations of deeply repressed
conflicts.
However, Freud was not just advancing an explanation of a particular illness. Implicitly he
was proposing a revolutionary new theory of the human psyche itself.
This theory emerged “bit by bit” as a result of Freud’s clinical investigations, and it led him to
propose that there were at least three levels of the mind.

8. The Unconscious Mind

9. The Unconscious Mind
● Freud (1900, 1905) developed a topographical model of the mind, whereby he
described the features of the mind’s structure and function. Freud used the analogy of
an iceberg to describe the three levels of the mind.
● On the surface is consciousness, which consists of those thoughts that are the focus of
our attention now, and this is seen as the tip of the iceberg. The preconscious consists
of all which can be retrieved from memory.
● The third and most significant region is the unconscious. Here lie the processes that
are the real cause of most behavior. Like an iceberg, the most important part of the
mind is the part you cannot see.
● The unconscious mind acts as a repository, a ‘cauldron’ of primitive wishes and
impulse kept at bay and mediated by the preconscious area.

10. ● For example, Freud (1915) found that some events and desires were often too
frightening or painful for his patients to acknowledge, and believed such information
was locked away in the unconscious mind. This can happen through the process of
repression.
● Sigmund Freud emphasized the importance of the unconscious mind, and a primary
assumption of Freudian theory is that the unconscious mind governs behavior to a
greater degree than people suspect. Indeed, the goal of psychoanalysis is to make the
unconscious conscious.

13. The Psyche
● Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id, ego, and
superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas within the brain,
but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.
● The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three essential parts of the
human personality.
● Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle
(gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological instincts (or
drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.

14. The Psyche
● Freud (1923) later developed a more structural model of the mind comprising the entities id,
ego, and superego (what Freud called “the psychic apparatus”). These are not physical areas
within the brain, but rather hypothetical conceptualizations of important mental functions.
● The id, ego, and superego have most commonly been conceptualized as three essential parts
of the human personality.
● Freud assumed the id operated at an unconscious level according to the pleasure principle
(gratification from satisfying basic instincts). The id comprises two kinds of biological
instincts (or drives) which Freud called Eros and Thanatos.

16. Eros, or life instinct, helps the individual to survive; it directs life-sustaining
activities such as respiration, eating, and sex (Freud, 1925). The energy
created by the life instincts is known as libido.
In contrast, Thanatos or death instinct, is viewed as a set of destructive
forces present in all human beings (Freud, 1920). When this energy is
directed outward onto others, it is expressed as aggression and violence.
Freud believed that Eros is stronger than Thanatos, thus enabling people
to survive rather than self-destruct.

17. The ego develops from the id during infancy. The ego's goal is to satisfy the demands of the
id in a safe a socially acceptable way. In contrast to the id, the ego follows the reality
principle as it operates in both the conscious and unconscious mind.
The superego develops during early childhood (when the child identifies with the same sex
parent) and is responsible for ensuring moral standards are followed. The superego
operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and
acceptable manner.

18. The basic dilemma of all human existence is that each element of the psychic apparatus
makes demands upon us that are incompatible with the other two. Inner conflict is
inevitable.
For example, the superego can make a person feel guilty if rules are not followed. When
there is a conflict between the goals of the id and superego, the ego must act as a referee
and mediate this conflict. The ego can deploy various defense mechanisms (Freud, 1894,
1896) to prevent it from becoming overwhelmed by anxiety.

20. History
Psychoanalytic criminology may be said to have begun with a 1911 study of parricide but its
real foundation came in 1916 when Freud published Criminality from a Sense of Guilt, in
which he maintained that many criminals were driven by unconscious guilt which preceded
the crime and led to a need for punishment. In applying psychoanalysis to the question of
determining guilt or innocence in any given case, Freud was insistent however that analysis
could only identify the guilty impulse, not necessarily the act itself.
Another major contribution came in 1929 with the book by Franz Alexander and Hugo
Staub entitled The Criminal, the Judge and the Public. They drew a clear distinction
between the normal criminal, for whom retribution was appropriate, and the neurotic
criminal who needed treatment instead.
Otto Fenichel added the point that while some criminals actively sought punishment to
relieve their unconscious guilt, others sought to avoid punishment in order to prove their
guilt feelings were unjustified. He also stressed that criminality was a legal, not a
psychological category, and considered most criminals were normals rather than neurotics
(if still with unconscious motivations and possible lacks in normal consciences).

21. Sociological Association to Crime
The sociological and environmental association to crime represents the "nature" element of the term "Nature vs Nurture". An
individual's social environment has a central effect on a person's moral compass, political ideology and potential personality traits.
These aspects mould the identity of a person and inflict subconscious psychological effect on everyday behaviour, attitudes and
criminogenic needs.
Research over the past 5 years indicates that a victim of a crime becomes more susceptible to expressing their trauma and/or
psychological through violence and aggression. This is widely accepted as being the result of fostered trauma such as sexual assault
or domesticated violence from early childhood. Consistent subjection to violence and abuse have shown correlative data that reflect
dysfunctional behaviour and antisocial personality traits later on in life. Correlative variables do not indicate direct causation but lead
to an additional variable leading to crime, for example, aggression and violent behaviour. Research has been conducted in both adult
and children populations to investigate if there is a link between abuse in early life and incarcerated individuals. A published paper in
1999 explored an investigative review of 150 female inmates within maximum-security facilities. Browne, Miller and Maguin
conducted interviews with each female individual and their results showed a high correlative pattern of early domesticated abuse
leading to the motivation of crime. 70% of incarcerated women within the facility reported having experienced child sexual
molestation, severe physical violence by parents and/or sexual violence by an acquittance or partner at some point in their life. Within
the same sample, 78% claimed to have experienced a traumatic event within their life that had resulted in being diagnosed with post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

22. Sociological Association to Crime
Differential association claims that all criminals learn and adapt behaviours from individuals they are closely connected to, for
example a relative or spouse. The theory recognises that the more contact an individual has will a criminal – the more likely one is
to engage in criminalistic activities. Anomie, a theory proposed by Robert K Merton explores the idea of social disintegration
leading to crime. This theory focuses on individuals who are incapable of achieving their desired goals in society through legal and
socially accepted means. In order to attain financial support or material goods, crime will emerge in time of desperation. This set or
of moral values appeals towards the criminal subculture that disassociated to the rest of society - often stemming from a collective
emotion of marginalisation e.g., gangs. This type of delinquency is strongly associated towards the low socio-economic class; poor
and rural.
Neutralisation theory recognises that the average individual is deterred from crime as violent actions go against standardised moral
standing as it leaves the individual with feelings of guilt and shame. The theory explores that some delinquent individuals attempt
to ‘neutralise’ this sense guilt that provides relief therefore they internally condone their criminalistic behaviour. Individuals that
possess tendencies to neutralise their behaviour, often conform to socially accepted behaviour and represent strong morals. By
redefining their actions, it facilitates the individual commit crimes with more ease. Low self-control theory of crime enforces
impulsive and risk-taking action, individuals that possess this trait seek short term satisfaction rather than long-term resulting in
poor decision making and spontaneous violence against another individual.[20] In contrast, labelling theory introduces the idea that
by identifying an individual as a criminal will increasingly advocate the person to adopt criminal-like tendencies. By acquiring this
identity, the individual may endorse feelings of isolation and rejection and become more estranged from feeling obligated to follow
the law.

23. Attributed Neurobiological Factors
The study into the unconscious motive for criminal behaviour takes into account the uncontrollable variables human possesses
such as the neurobiological pathways and reactions. The biochemical association towards crime must acknowledge
psychophysiology, brain mechanism and genetic factors that contribute towards dysfunctional personalities.
Blunted autonomic functioning (BAF) has been linked to individuals with antisocial behaviour and criminalistic tendencies. BAF is
the state in which an individual has a reduced response to stimuli resulting in a low arousal capacity towards material that would
otherwise cause distress and fear within the standard person. This has been recorded to induce a positive feedback loop, the low
arousal level creates a low resting heart rate which then accounts for a reduced psychical response. This physiological trait creates
a sense of fearlessness as the individual with BAF does not experience the standardised physiological responses to distress that
can be associated with discomfort. The lack of discomfort arouses the individual to engage in criminalistic behaviour to increase
their arousal state as the person tends to have high levels of proactive aggression which does not deter the individual from
carrying out criminal acts. Proactive aggression is the act of violence and rebel with little to no provocation.BAF impairs emotional
intelligence by disallowing the development of feelings of shame, guilt and empathy hence resulting in psychopathic tendencies,
behaviours and traits.
Physical somatic markers such as sweat conduction, give insight into the inter-relation between the emotional and physical state
of an individual. The somatic changes of a person indicate the emotional state of a person while undergoing or viewing distressing
material. The lack of somatic changes increases the likelihood to engage in crime as the individual cannot experience physical or
emotional states that signal emotional discomfort to dissuade a person from committing violent crimes or generally violating the
law

24. Attributed Neurobiological Factors
The brain is acknowledged for contributing a key role in increasing tendencies that will ultimately lead to crime. The pre-frontal
cortex and amygdala have a combined role in determining an individual's emotional state and his/her ability to recognise
expressive emotions from the facial and auditory stimulus, particularly from negative and fearful emotions.
The Pre-frontal cortex (PFC) functions to form decision-making, moral reasoning, impulse regulation and attention and emotional
control for individuals. Impairments and aberrations within these areas have led to observed criminalistic behaviours. A study
conducted in 2018 reviewed 17 patients with brain lesions in research of identifying common characteristics of the effect of their
injuries. The results concluded that regardless of the area of damaged tissue in the PFC, the patients were all left with disruption
to their neuro-moral processes resulting in poor decision making and overall moral compass. These traits are associated with
provoking criminal behaviours. Neurological pathways within the PFC cannot account for and explain all types of criminalistic
tendencies that are found within individuals. The PFC influence criminals that have obvious signs and behaviours of violent and
sadistic attitudes and behaviours. ‘White-collar’ criminals and successful psychopaths show standardised activity within their PFC
with no signs of prefrontal deficits. In some cases, these types of criminals show increased activity within this lobe compared the
average person which would otherwise indicate a strong moral compass and justified decision making.

25. Attributed Neurobiological Factors
The amygdala enables an individual to recognise auditory and facials expressions of emotions, especially ones that
entail negative emotions. It also functions to condition fear into human behaviour hence to understand cues within their
environment to trigger a fear response. These functions are understood to form a person’s sense of morality and the
‘fight-or-flight’ response (Brealey, 2014). The amygdala also assists a person to mediate and assess risk for themselves
and to protect ithers. A properly functioning amygdala deters individuals from risky behaviour. A person with an
underdeveloped amygdala has the inability to detect negative emotions from another individual resulting in antisocial
behaviour, as well as being incapable of understanding threat from their surroundings. Within adults, reduced volume
of the amygdala increases the likelihood that the individual will display psychopathic characteristics (Ling Shichun,
2019). There are important distinctions to make to the effect and activity the amygdala has between subtype of
offenders. Empirical research suggests that non-psychopathic criminals, those who react in an impulsive and emotional-
aggressive way, displayed amygdala hypoactivity, which is defined as slowed neurological reactions within the lobe
often associated with apathy and motor retardation.

26. Attributed Neurobiological Factors
Freudians theories are applicable within the biology realm as his concepts of the Id are associated with biological
tendencies. Eros and Thanatos are believed to be under the unconscious set of instincts that are related to survival
strategies, ones that drive humans to act on pleasure and desire.[4] Freud understood that all instincts and human
behaviour could not fall all into the one instinct category, rather he came to the conclusion that all behaviours fall into
one of the two categories: Eros (life instincts) or Thanatos (death instincts). Eros is believed to have derived through
adaption in order to enforce procreation for the species, this drive complex exerts desires for a one to engage in sexual
relations with another individual. Positive emotions are associated this complex such as love, compassion, social
cooperation and affections.[26] The death instinct, Thanatos, enforces opposing drives for the individuals resulting in
negative behavioural attributes and a poor state of wellbeing. These can be displayed in a person through aggression
and violent mannerism, often these feelings can cause mental illness causing self-harm and suicidal thoughts or actions.
Freud supported his theories by concluding that Thanatos drove people to react or re-enact on traumatic experiences
from their past often leading to many criminal offences. His theories explain this concept is derived from unconscious
desire to die. Freud recognised that largely people have inherited survival drives, and his theories were counter-intuitive
towards the majority of mentally sane individuals. The internal conflict between Eros and Thanatos cause contrary
desires causing the potential for anxiety. It is concluded in Freuds theories that life instincts hinder much of what the
death instincts subconsciously desire.

27. Dysfunctional & Antisocial Personality
The relationship between personality and criminalistic traits is assessed using a variety of independent measures to detect psychopathic traits. Assessing a dysfunctional
lifestyle is carried out through the measure of, lack of empathy, wide mood swings, impulsive and egocentric behaviour.[28] Antisocial behaviour is often categorising
people that have a lack of sensitivity towards other individuals and disregard for people’s right to safety and emotional wellbeing. Studies into recidivist criminals shows
that their personality centres around enabling the individual to attack others and creating formulated crimes. Once and individual senses there is organisation within their
crime, empirical studies have shown that it incites compulsive crime. Crime-prone personalities begin to dissociate the physical human being from their thoughts and
feelings allowing violent and repetitive assault of other individuals.
Abnormal thinking and dysfunctional personality have correlative patterns that show similar emotional capacity that is displayed within behaviour. Professor Hans Eysenck
distinguish three antisocial personality traits that become apparent through behaviour, the traits indicate criminalistic tendencies through their dysfunctional state. The first
dimension that is recognised is the tendency for the individual to be impulsive and aggressive, generally describes as psychoticism. Neuroticism is the second aspect of
Eysenck’s research, resulting in individuals to have a low self-esteem and mood swings. The third is extrovertive traits such as being dominant, assertive and thrill-
seeking.[29]
Investigations into the interlink between murderers and their dysfunctional and antisocial personalities explore their psychological and behavioral traits. They revealed that
there was a lack of standard productivity levels, reduced imaginative and intellectual capacity, and the disability to form relationships.[28] A weak social identity was also
recorded as a result of inmates with drug-dependent behavior and higher rates of emotional instability, leading to suicidal thoughts and behaviors. The lack of potent social
skills is strongly associated with poor self-esteem and intense psychological anxiety and hostility.

28. Psychoanalytic Techniques
A variety of therapeutic techniques are used during psychoanalysis, all of which are employed in an attempt to maximize insight
and gain awareness into the patient’s behavior. Some of the more popular methods include:
1. Dream analysis — In psychoanalysis, dream interpretation is used to reveal unconscious thoughts. Freud thought that
repressed ideas and feelings rise to the surface of the mind through dreams. However, the content of dreams is often
altered. Therefore, the psychoanalyst must help the patient interpret and understand the dream’s substance to discover
its hidden meanings.
2. Free association — During free association, the patient is encouraged to talk about anything that freely comes to mind.
The psychoanalyst may read a list of random words, and the patient simply responds with the first associations that occur.
Repressed memories often emerge during the process of free association.
3. Interpretation — The psychoanalyst helps the patient explore memories and personal narratives in detail, and while
doing so, analyzes them. The therapist looks for some common themes in the patient’s stories. One, the so-called
“Freudian slip,” occurs when patients accidentally reveal something important when making random conversation. The
psychoanalytic therapist provides an interpretation of the patient’s inadvertent choice of word or phrase.
4. Transference — Patients engage in transference when they transfer feelings they had for someone in their past to the
present. Transference sometimes takes place between the patient and the therapist. Patients may apply certain feelings
toward the therapist that actually relate to someone from their past.

29. Psychoanalysis: Limitations and
Effectiveness
Psychoanalysis has both advantages and disadvantages. Some of the benefits include:
● Psychoanalysis gets to the basic cause of the problem rather than simply addressing its
symptoms.
● People who don’t respond to conventional therapy or medications sometimes respond to
psychoanalysis.
● Provides an in-depth insight into the origins of certain thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.
● Biological research supports at least a portion of Freud’s claims.
● A broad examination of the self, such as that offered by psychoanalysis, can lead to positive
growth over time.

30. Some of the potential drawbacks of
psychoanalysis include:
● Patients may find it both painful and unpleasant to discover memories that they have
repressed, sometimes for many years.
● It is not an appropriate treatment for some mental health problems, such as
schizophrenia and bipolar disorder.
● It can be both expensive and lengthy, so it requires a deep level of commitment from
both patient and therapist.

31. Psychoanalysis: Myths and False
Stereotypes
Numerous false stereotypes and myths are associated with psychoanalysis. The general public typically holds an outdated view of psychoanalysis, perhaps gathered
from television or movie portrayals of psychoanalysts, which is far from accurate. Some of the most common stereotypes of psychoanalysis include:
● Psychoanalysis Lasts Forever
While it’s true that psychoanalytic treatment takes longer than other types of therapies, the patient does not undergo treatment forever. The goal of
treatment is to help patients develop a deeper understanding of their unconscious thoughts, feelings, and memories to generate permanent growth and
alterations in personality. The deep level of understanding required in psychoanalysis does not develop overnight, which is why a patient may be in
therapy for a number of years.
● Psychoanalysis Is Not a Real Science
It’s a myth that psychoanalysis is fake science. Psychoanalytic theory and practice have been the subject of numerous research studies over the years,
which have proven both their accuracy and efficacy. In fact, psychoanalysis therapy often succeeds when other types of treatment have failed.
Psychoanalytic therapy is a nationally recognized treatment that is recognized by major insurers, who reimburse patients for treatment.
● Psychoanalysis Is Only About Sex
Although Freud did popularize the term “libido,” he did not intend for the term to applied only to sexual desire. In psychoanalysis, libido refers to the
energy or life force that drives all human behavior, not solely sexual passions. Although lust often drives behavior, it is not the motivator for every action.
Psychoanalysis focuses on many other aspects of experience that drive behavior.

32. Criticism
Forensic psychiatry saw psychoanalytic criminology in a relatively negative light, with the
twin dangers of acting as an apologist for the criminal and over-simplifying criminal
motivation at the fore.
Others have seen an inherent contradiction between value-neutral psychoanalysis,
committed to healing, and the demands of the legal system; while Thomas Szasz objected to
the open-ended, paternalistic concept of 'treating' the neurotic criminal as an infringement of
human rights in the name of social control.