women in pre-independent India

3.  Gender Equality between man and women is the
state of equal case of access to resources and
opportunities regardless of gender, including
economics participation and decision-making.
 It entails the concept that all human beings, both
men and women, are free to develop their personal
abilities and make choices without the limitations.
 Gender equality means that the different behaviour,
aspirations and needs of women and men are
considered, valued and favoured equally.
 It is fact that all over the world 50% of population is
constituted by women. But in India, there is
decreasing ratio of women. The situation of women
decreasing ratio of men to women is the reason of
unequal social status of women with men.
 Today as per our Constitution we provide that equal
status to women on the basis of equality principle,
such as equality, dignity and freedom from
discrimination.

4.  When we talk about equality, everyone is
equal in his or her rights and duties
regardless of sex. This inequality is antithesis
of equality.
 Everyone has right to be treated as equal in
case of rights and duties and no one can take
plea that a woman cannot deserve a right
simply because she is made by god weak in
physique and has to be dominated by man.

5.  This root of this differentiation have deep roots
in the past. Neither the social bondages nor
the legal codes give permission to women to
enjoy her right of equality independently as we
are enjoying today in the democratic world.
 Social inequality is that inequality in which
there is existence of unequal opportunities and
rewards for different social positions of
woman.
 Legal inequality is one in which the woman is
not treated at par with man before law. Ancient
laws does not permit the woman to have social,
political and economical rights. Woman was
treated as slave and was not having her
separate existence apart from patriarchical
system.

7.  From the immemorial, women have played an extremely
important role in shaping the history of India.
 Historical studies and the scriptures indicate that Indian
women enjoyed a comparatively high status during the early
Vedic period, surpassing contemporary civilizations in ancient
Greece and Rome.
 In the Indus valley civilization, the evidence of female clay
figurines is to highlight the social, cultural role of women in
that society. The hair styles, ornaments dressing clearly
indicate the important prominence assigned to women at that
time in what appeared to be a nearly egalitarian society.
Additionally, the bronze „Dancing Girl‟ figurines suggest
specific, public activities played by women at that time.
 Of extreme interest is also the occurrence of specific
naturalistic goddesses and their priestesses, which suggest
that the Indus people worshipped a goddesses whose domain
was the forest

8.  Women during the early Vedic period enjoyed
equal status with men in all aspects of life.
 In ancient India, through patriarchal system was
highly prevalent –all male domination -women
are enjoyed a position of respect and
admiration.
 The Vedic Aryans, who were mostly busy
fighting wars, regarded women as useful and
productive member of the society. Women of
kshatriya (warrior) caste received martial arts
coaching and arms training.
 The condition of Vedic women was good.
 The plethora of Goddesses in ancient period was
created to built respect for women.
 'Ardhanareshwar’ was the highly worshipped.

9.  Women was considered more powerful than men
and treated as Goddess of “Shakti”.
 The Hindu consider the Mother Goddess to be
the supreme Creator; and even Vaishnavites and
Saivites who worship Lord Vishnu or Lord Siva as
the supreme Deity, affirm that God cannot be
approach through His Shakti.

10.  In Vedic society, women were participated in
religious ceremonies and tribal assemblies. In
spiritual field , wife enjoyed full rights and
regularly participated in religious ceremonies
with her husband. Religious ceremonies and
sacrifices were performed jointly by husband
and wife. Women even participated actively in
religious discourses .

11.  There was no bar for women to read or study of any our sacred
literature. So, in the area of spirituality women were not
inferior to men. In Vedic society, women enjoyed marriage as
well as domestic life. They were allotted to have multiple
husband and they could leave their husbands.
 Widows could remarry and child marriage was unknown. There
are indications of matrilineal influence in the society. The
Rigveda says, the wife and husband, being the equal halves of
one substance, are equal in every aspect. Therefore, both
should join and take equal parts in all works, religious and
secular. It also clearly proclaims that women should be given to
lead in ruling the nation and that should have the same right as
sons over the fathers property.
 The Rigveda had rendered the highest social status to qualified
women of those time Women choose their husbands through a
type of marriage called ‘ Swayamvara ‘ or live in relationship
called ‘ Gandharva ‘ marriage’.
 It is type of marriage, potential grooms assembled at the
bride‟s house and the bride selected her spouse. Instances of
Swayamvara ceremony can be found in Epics, the Ramayana and
Mahabharata. This continued even in the later period in high
class families. There is no seclusion of women from domestic
and social affairs but they were dependent on their male
relatives throughout their lives

12.  The Rigveda provides ample evidence to prove the concept of equality of
women with men as regards access and capacity to acquire the highest
knowledge, even the absolute knowledge.
 Many of the Vedic rishies were women. Married and single women alike
were acknowledging authorities on the Vedic wisdom. The Prophetess
Gargi composed several Vedic hymns questioning the origin of all
existence. Others Vedic hymns is attributed to Vishwawara, sikta and
others.
 The Rigveda identifies many women rishies; indeed, it contains dozens of
verses accredited to the women philosophers Ghosha and to the great
Maitreyi, who rejected half her husband Yajnavalkya’s wealth in favour of
spiritual knowledge.
 It also contains long philosophical conversations between the sage
Agasthya and his highly educated wife Lopamudra.
 The Rigveda says ,the entire world of noble people bows to the glory of
the glorious woman so that she enlightens us with knowledge and
foresight. She is the leader of society and provides knowledge to everyone.
She is symbol of prosperity and daughter of brilliance. We may respect her
so that she destroys the tendencies of evil and hatred from t he society.
 Atharva Veda states that women should be valiant, scholarly, prosperous,
intelligent and knowledgeable; they should take part in the legislative
chambers and be the protectors of family and society.
 When a bride enters a family through marriage , she is to “rule there along
with her husband, as a queen, over the other members of the family.”

13.  Brihadaranyaka Upanishad mentions genealogies of teachers that
bear mate references to women seers such as Gargi and
Maitreyi.
 The aforementioned Gargi, one of the eminent participants,
challenged the sage Yajnavalkya with questions about the soul
which confounded that learned man.
 Another incident in the same Upanishad relates the spiritual
teachings given by Yajnavalkya to Maitreyi.
 The Upanishads clearly declare that we individual souls are
neither male nor female. Hinduism teaches that each of us
passes through many lives, both male and female. It further
teaches that the law of karma, which informs us that what we do
to others, will in turn to be do ne to us and that ahimsa, non-
hurtfulness, must be guiding precept of our lives. Thus
 Hinduism gives no justification for the mistreatment of others,
whether in the basis of gender or for any other reason.
Comparing the general position of women in our scriptures with
those of any others faith, we will immediately discover their
status in Hinduism

14.  At the time passed the position of women is underwent changes
in all spheres of life. The status of women fell in the later Vedic
and Epic period. In this period , women lost their political rights
of attending assemblies. Child marriage also came into
existence. According to Aitrreya Brahman, a daughter has been
described as a source of misery. Atharava Veda also deplores the
birth of daughters.
 Yet, certain matrilineal elements are discernible in this period
also. However during this period, we see that growing tendency
to stratify the Indian society along gender lines. The position of
women gradually deteriorated as the Vedic ideals of unity and
equality began to fade off through the passage of time.
 In this period, women were not treated equally with men or we
can say that they were not enjoying equal rights and privilege as
compared to men. Though the women participated in each
family ceremony with men, but they only played a role as silent
observer, not an active person.
 Women started being discriminated on the ground of education
and others rights. Child’s marriage emphasis on physical
chastity of women and their unquestioned obedience to husband
lead’s to progressive deterioration of their position.

15.  Manu’s opinion on the status of women was in no
way different from the other ancient political
thinkers, who believed that they were an entity which
cannot exist by itself and it needed protection and
care. But, this opinion held by the thinkers made
women submissive beings.
 According to Manu, women are like property on
which only the owner has absolute powers. He
categorically stated that women are like property,
neither by sale nor by repudiation can a wife be
released from her husband. In Manu’s code, women
were treated on par with slaves or Shudras at various
occasions. Manu prohibited divorce or remarriage for
women in any circumstances. She was expected to
treat her husband as her God, whatever may be the
character of the husband.

16.  ‘Though destitute by virtue, or seeking pleasure
elsewhere, or devoid of good qualities, yet a husband
must be constantly worshipped as God by the faithful
wife’. Further, Manu was completely against education
and property rights to women.
 He very clearly stated that ‘a wife, a son, and a slave,
these three are declared to have no property; the wealth
which they earn is acquired from him to whom they
belong’. In addition to the above codes, Manu also
prescribed certain laws to women-related to the issue of
progeny.
 According to Manu, it is the duty of woman to provide
her husband with a son when he is incapable, only to
save him from being sent to hell. If the husband is
incapable, Manu stated that it is not wrong if a woman
cohabits with any other man for the purpose of
begetting children either forced or voluntary.
 But she is expected to return to her husband once the
act is over if that act was voluntary in nature. Thus, the
above opinion that Manu held with regard to women
clearly demonstrates that Manu’s code is purely male-
oriented in nature.

17.  From the above description, it becomes clear that
Manu, in fact, spoke on various issues. His ideas
depict that he was greatly influenced by the Hindu
philosophy and tradition. His primary concern was
the institution of kingship. He had very strict
notions, in fact rigid with his ideas, on social
hierarchy that were evident in his Varna theory.
 His writings made the social divisions an integral
part of the entire ancient Hindu political philosophy.
His excessive stress on caste system and the
kingship resulted in sidelining of other aspects of
political philosophy, viz., the theory of state or that
of the government.
 Further, Manu made no attempts to explain entire
political phenomena as a distinct identity but had
discussed the same as part of a wider social set-up,
which is connected with religion and morality. For
this reason, views of Manu were understandably
quite discrete with that of the modern assumptions.

18.  Kautilya dictates such as the aim of taking a wife
is to beget sons confirm his stand on considering
women as mindless beings and mere objects to
be used by men for procreation.
 The upper caste women were subjected to more
stringent rules than a low caste woman.
 As per Arthashastra, purpose of giving women
the right to property is to have protection in case
of a calamity. Other than this, a widow was not
allowed to inherit all the property of her
husband; in case of lack of any heir, the property
should be confiscated by the king leaving only
some amount required for her maintenance.

19.  Female spy was a rather irregular profession
performed by women in those times. Although
the profession of prostitute deprived them of any
social status , yet they possessed agency and
freedom more than the socially acceptable wives.
 Women having the status of wives had to
conform to some rules, on fulfilment of which
the women would be given higher social status
and considered as an ideal woman, but
noticeably no agency. On the other hand, a
woman performing the role of spy or prostitute
procured some authority but was not held in
high esteem.

20.  The women of Epic period in ancient India enjoyed an honourable position at
home. Both Ramayana and Mahabharata had given a respectable place for
women.
 Women had been called root cause of ahimsa as well as cause of dharma,
prosperity and enjoyment in both Epics. We find vast references of the
expression of courage, strong, will power and valour of women, like Sita,
Sabitri, Draupadi and others. The Epic Ramayana is a glorious illustration for
the Hindu ideals womanhood, it glorifies the value of ‘patibratya’ and
idealises womanhood as one of the most venerable aspects of our heritage.
The Epic Mahabharata also outlines the duties and the attitude of wife to the
husband. Women held very important position in ancient Indian society.
 But there are evidences to suggest that women power destroyed kingdoms
and mighty rulers. Veda Vyasa’s Mahabharata tells the story of the fall of
Kauravas because they humiliated Draupadi.
 Valmiki’s Ramayana is also about the extinction of Ravana when abducted
and tried to marry Sita.
 Two incidents from the Ramayana are frequently cited to indicate the
subjugation of women: Sita’s Agni Pariksha , trial by fire, and her
banishment to the forest.
 As Rama and Sita were to become king and queen of Ayodhya, they were
obligated to prove, through the Agni Pariksha, that Sita had remained
chaste while held in captivity by Ravana.
 Although these instances are mythological, their influence on society and
culture cannot be overlooked.

21.  During the period of Dharmashastras and Puranas the status of
women gradually declined and underwent a major change.
 The Manusamhita, written long after the Vedic period, is one of
the Dharmashastras. Its derogatory statements about women have
been highly publicized by those who would denigrate and destroy
Hinduism.
 During the period of Smritis, women were bracketed with the
Sudras and were denied the right to study the Vedas, to utter Vedic
mantras and to perform Vedic rites. Marriage or domestic life
became compulsory for women and unquestioning devotion to
husband is their only duty. The girls were deprived of formal
education.
 Daughters were regarded as second class citizens. Freedom of
women was curtailed. Sons were given more weight age than
daughters.
 Girls were prevented from learning the Vedas and becoming
Brahmacharinis.
 Manu, the law giver of Indian society gave the statement that
“women have to be under father during childhood, under her
husband during youth and under her son during old age”.
 At no stage shall she deserve freedom. This was the attitude of a
typical patriarchal society based on private property. She lost
independence and became lifelong dependent on male-dominated
society.

22.  Tulsidas stated in Ramcharitmanas- Dhol,
Ganwar, Shudra, Pashu, Naari, ye sab taran ke
adhnikari.

23.  In the time of Aryans wherein the men were free, valiant, energetic,
brave themselves mingled and acculturating others, Nobel and
significantly supernatural: and the woman were discovered, free and
exceedingly refined; conjointly they offer repentances to the heavenly
creatures, listening sweetly to talks, and slanting toward significant
upliftment to the mission for straightforward riches.
 Additionally, woman addressed the best instance of wedding love,
offering the superior compensation of their lives as a show of their
tendency for their associates in the succinct experience of life.
 This was to be an enduring legacy of Vedic woman who perform
atonements to the awesome creatures by the side of her significant other
as a proportionate associate in offering oblations.
 There were two sorts of smart woman immediately the Brahmavadinis, or
the woman who never married and refined the Vedas for the length of
their lives; what's more the Sadyodvahas who focused the Vedas till they
married. Panini referenced of female understudies pondering Vedas.
Ashoka got his young lady, Sanghamitra, enrolled into addressing
Buddhism. From the Jain compositions, we get some answers concerning
the Kousambi princess, Jayanti, who remained an old servant to
contemplate religion and hypothesis. Woman composed Sanskrit plays
and stanzas, surpassed desires in music, painting and other expressive
expressions. It undeniably showsthat our rulers thought about woman
guidance and even they were furthermore charmed to show their
children without the detachment of male or female.

24.  Purdah System was common.
 Woman in Mughal Period were not allowed to
remarry. Polygamy was fundamental among rich
society.
 The general position of woman in Mughal period
was low, there were various Hindu and Muslim
woman of uncommon limit, whose refinement is
so far appropriate today like, amazingly Rani
Durgawati of Gondwana, Rani Karmawati, Mira
Bai, Tarabai, etc. Among the Muslim woman in
Mughal Period, Nur Jahan, Mumtaz, Chand Bibi,
Jahanara, Raushanara, Zeb-un-nisa, etc had a
critical impact in the issues of that time.

25.  By passage of time, the circumstance of woman
ended up being all the more horrendous in medieval
period, rather to develop some extraordinary changes
in their status. In the midst of the medieval period
only, game plan of Purdah and Jauhar were being
displayed by Muslim and Rajput society against
woman. Immediately 'Purdah' means, woman in
Muslim social order is totally verified with articles of
clothing, so as to cover their body from male.
 Likewise, 'Jauhar' connotes, woman with their own
one of a kind consents immolate themselves so as to
save their body and property from confinement of
adversary, if they are from squashed Warriors family.
In both the structures, opportunity of woman was
diminished by the system that they were not offering
suitable to moment or leave their lives with no
repression of fear and with no weight.

26.  Instead of all these religious restrictions,
woman around then adequately participated in
social, political informational and religious
field like Raziya Sultan who was first lady
Monarch of Delhi, Chand Bibi who has
squashed Akbar, etc in this period too, bhakti
moment had accepted a huge activity for
advancement and impoverishment of the
status of woman. These were the improvement
which tried to give comparable status to
woman in the open eye around at that point.
 The best point of reference, who addresses the
correspondence of men and woman around at
that point, was an 'Ace Nanak'. He advocates
decency of woman in each division that is
religious, political, informational and social.

27.  In the midst of the season of East India Company, various social
reformers, for instance, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandara
Vidyasagar and Jyotiba Phule had fought for the improvement of
status of woman in Indian culture.
 Peary Charan Sarkar had at first started young woman's school in
India in 1847 at Calcutta. Under this period just with the help of
Governor Bentinck, Raja Ram Mohan Roy had winning to
invalidate sati structure from India. In light of the undertakings of
Raja Ram Mohan Roy we have winning to exhibit widow
remarriage.
 Various woman social reformers, for instance, Pandita Ramabai
and other around then similarly started improvement of chance
against society for the security of woman.
 Rani Lakshmi Bai is the best point of reference who has started a
war against the Britishers in spite of the way that she was a lady
who fought for her state opportunity. In that period just there
were various ladies who were bent in Marshal Art as well. Despite
the way that all of the things were existing around then
concerning limit and capacity of woman yet in the meantime in
that period furthermore woman were not treated correspondingly
with men and it was followed in medieval period as well.

28.  Despite all of these models, status of woman
in the overall population was unprivileged.
They were not holding any alternative to
ensure movement in the property of their
own relatives. Thus, to property matter is
concern position of woman was not
satisfactory in light of the way that it exhibits
that they were not having right of heritage,
and as a result of that solitary they have to
depend upon male people from the family.
Exactly when the East India Company was
there the circumstance of woman was
everything considered, that woman had been
treated as a slave, their position was
continually inferior in family as a rule, they
didn't have any status as a living person.

29.  As we all in all acknowledge woman expected
amazingly crucial employment in circumstance fight
against British standard in India for example Kasturba
Gandhi, Anni Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali and Sarojini
Naidu, etc. Before rising of twentieth century,
Mahatma Gandhi started advancement for emptying
handicaps against woman in the open field. Thusly in
a medieval period each undertaking was made by
social expert, open door contender, Bhakti
improvement figures and various individuals to
improve and propel the circumstance of woman in
India.
 They furthermore attempted to give comparable
noteworthiness to woman with men thusly in this
period simply various regulatory foundation has been
maintained by administrator for confirmation and
headway of polite Act of Sati (repeal) 1829, The
Hindu Widow Remarriage Act, 1856, The Child
Restriction Act, 1929, The Woman Property Right Act,
1937, The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, The Hindu
Adoptions and Maintenance Act, 1956, The Dowry
Prohibition Act of 1961etc

30.  The place of woman in Hindu society has been a
centre of debate and often derision in the western
circles. The historical and philosophical place of
woman in our society and yet criticise us as if
they are the only ones who know how a civilised
society should be.
 In hinduism, a woman is known as sahadharm
charin- who has equal shares of the husband’s
duties. She is called ardhangini- other half of the
husband. A husband is not allowed to perform
religious duties without his wife.

31.  It is true that woman was having equal place
that with her husband in religious sphere but it
is also true that her only right was restricted to
home only. To take care of family, to look after
kitchen etc.
 Problem of female infanticide was quite high
simply because it was thought that a boy is the
one who can redeem his father from pitrashran
for the attainment of moksha.
 Girls were denied the education rights and child
marriage was quite common.
 Polygamy was common at that time that’s why,
at every moment they have to face the grievance
and violence..

32.  Dowry system was common practice, kings
usually marry to the princess of the subjugated
state and that state gives much of money
consideration with the princess as dowry.
 They were denied the political rights even they
were not having inheritance right at that time.
 Even Tulsidas stated that Dhol, Ganwar, Shudra,
Pashu, Naari, ye sab taran ke adhikari.

33.  http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/political-
science/manus-opinion-on-the-status-of-
women/40145.
 Biman Bhattacharjee, “Position of Women in Kautilya’s
 Arthashastra”, International Journal of Humanities &
Social Science Studies (IJHSSS) , Volume-IV, Issue-IV ,
January2018, Page No. 108-115.
 Atasi Mahapatra, “Gender equality and ancient Indian
culture: A study” International Journal of Humanities
and Social Science Invention (IJHSSI), August2018, 22,
Volume 7 Issue 08.
 Dr. Puja Khetrapal, Gender Justice and Feminist
Jurisprudence, Puja Law House, Indore.