4.2 landscape report 10.ppt

Topic : 1. Pedestrian Circulation
2. Bicycle Circulation
3. Vehicular Circulation
4. Site Furniture & Feature
Submitted to: Ar. Tanjima Siddika Chandni, Assistant Professor,
Department of Architecture, Leading University
Ar.Salina Akther, Lecturer,
Submitted by:
Date: 01.08.2021
Report
Group-2
Course Code: ARCH-424
Course Title: Landscape Design
Name ID
Tomisra Tridiba 1812040003
Nayma Sultana 1812040011
Md. Emon Miah 1812040014
Taslim Hossain Anik 1712040007

CONTENTS
SECTION Pedestrian Circulation
1 .0 Introduction
1 .1 General
1 .2 The Pedestrian Experience
Convenience
Amenities
Spatial Considerations
Sensory Stimuli and Related
Considerations
2.0 Physical Characteristics of the Pedestrian
2 .1 Dimensional Criteria
Human Dimensions and Activity
Forward Spatial Bubbles
2.2 Movement Criteria
Walking Rates
Acceptable Walking Distances
Pedestrian Density Criteria
2.3 Visual Criteria
Eye Levels and Cone of Vision
Visual Perception
3.0 Spatial Standards
3.1 Pathway Width and Slope Criteria
General Considerations
Calculation of Walkway Width (by Formula)
Walkway Slope Criteria
3.2 Stairways
Widths
Tread-Riser Ratios
Height between Landings
3.3 Ramps
Widths
Slope Criteria
Distance between Landings
3.4 Seating Criteria
3.5 Handrailings
3.6 Pedestrian Signage
Pedestrian Circulation

1 .0 INTRODUCTION
The design of Pedestrian Circulation system involves simultaneous consideration of many issues:
The manner in which pedestrians move, surface over which the move, visual spatial and temporal issues.

1 .1 General
Pedestrian circulation systems fall into two broad categories :
(1) those where the basic structure of a system already exists and
(2) those where no circulation currently exists .
With existing systems, projects typically involve aesthetic enhancement of the system by provision of various amenities,
improved views, conveniences, and imageability. This type of work involves improvement of the "pedestrian
experience" as much as it involves improvement of the functional aspects of the system .
In the case of new systems, circulation must first be laid out according to proposed origin and destination points and
must have adequate width to accommodate expected loads of pedestrian traffic during peak periods of use . Part of
this process includes studying aesthetic aspects which will be carefully integrated with the functional aspects of the
proposed system .

1 .2 The Pedestrian Experience
Convenience:
The functional aspect of a pedestrian system is of primary importance, and the quality of this functional aspect is measured in
terms of the "convenience" offered by the system . These include walkway width (e .g ., wider walkways suggesting greater
importance), formality (e .g ., curvi-linear walkways suggesting a more relaxing experience), paving material (e.g ., expensive or
highly articulated materials suggesting greater importance), and the presence and quality of ancillary features (the nature of
which may suggest the predominant purpose of the walkway) .
Carefully designed visual cues (including signage) can aid the pedestrian in way finding and in general orientation within a larger
environmental context . This is especially important in complex environments .
Negotiation refers to the relative ease of moving from one destination to another.
Pedestrian density, including conflicts at intersections and potential gathering spots, plays an important role in this regard .
But other aspects also contribute to difficulty of negotiation . These include physical obstructions (e .g ., trash receptacles, light
fixtures, flag poles, parking meters, water hydrants, telephones, benches, etc .) ; the presence of water or ice on the walkway ;
the nuisance of excessive litter ; seed and fruit droppings from overhanging vegetation ; and excessive wind problems .
Pathways should be accessible to all types of pedestrians, and sometimes on a selective basis, to emergency vehicles such as
police cars, ambulances, and firefighting equipment .

Amenities:
The purpose of any pedestrian circulation system is the connection it offers between various natural or cultural amenities,
including the attraction of human activity . Social interaction, both passive and active, is extremely important and in many
cases is the primary determinant regarding enjoyment of a place . Because the activity of watching other people is
appealing to many, spaces to gather with ample opportunities to sit are crucial to the success of most places, especially
those in urban contexts . It has been observed that the availability of food and the activity of eating is a strong stimulus
which attracts significant numbers of people to a place . For this reason, vendors are often encouraged to operate in
pedestrian environments .
Spatial Considerations:
The most comfortable human environments are those characterized by a relatively strong degree of spatial enclosure . It is
important to remain cognizant not only of weak spatial structures in outdoor environments but also of the differences between
transitional space and nodal space Because movement through an environment is a visual-spatial sequential (kinesthetic)
experience, the "modulation" of transitional space and the "hierarchical ordering" of nodal space are important design
principals . Figures 340-1 and 340-2 illustrate these two principles in general terms.

Table 340-1 . COMMON SENSORY STIMULI IN PEDESTRIAN ENVIRONMENTS
Sensory category
Examples of common stimuli
Tactile
Temperature
Humidity
Wind and breezes Precipitation
Benches and seatwalls
Sittable ground surfaces
Bars, knobs, and handles
Handrailings and armrests
Telephones, vending and banking machines
Textures under foot
Vegetation within reach
Water
Architectural facades
Food and drink
Human contact
Auditory
Normal traffic noise
Excessive truck traffic
Underground rumblings
Air traffic
Distant highway noise
Echo
Conversation
Play activity
Music and song
Professional and amateur entertainment
Wind
Water
Wildlife
Bells, chimes, and whistles
Wind-blown flags and fabrics
Movable furniture
Vendors
Machinery
Heating, ventilation, and cooling systems
Foot traffic on various pavements
Sensory Stimuli and Related Considerations:

visual
Spatial perception (form, scale, etc .)
Form of objects
Proportion and scale of objects
Social activity
Vehicular activity
Prominent landforms
Vegetation
Water features
Miscellaneous natural features
Sun and shadow
Rain, snow, fog, mist
Smoke
Litter
Signage
Storefront advertisements
Window displays
Posted bills
Billboards
Walls and fences
Street furniture and features
Overhead wires and cables
Architecture
Vegetation
Wildlife
Overall character of a place
Sites under construction
Surface textures
Color compositions
Tonal contrasts
Diurnal change
Seasonal change
Moonlight
Night-lighting
Glare and albedo
Viewsheds from important vantage points
General order
Overall congruencies

Olfactory
Vehicular emissions
Odorous smoke
Fresh air
Fragrant vegetation
Restaurant doorways
Outdoor cafes
Odorous litter and debris
Refuse areas
Exhaust fans

2 .0 PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE PEDESTRIAN
Reference can be made to physical characteristics of the human figure itself in
order to make rational decisions about required spatial dimensions and other
details of a proposed pedestrian environment .
2 .1 Dimensional Criteria
Human Dimensions and Activity.
Figure 340-3 illustrates approximate dimensions of human figures in
various activity positions. Spatial requirements differ in various regions
and between different cultures as a function of accustomed densities of
people, heritage, and social and environmental values .

Forward Spatial Bubbles:
Forward spatial bubbles, as illustrated in Figure 340-4, refer to the extent of unobstructed forward vision held to be
psychologically comfortable for the average pedestrian under various circumstances .

2 .2 Movement Criteria
Walking Rates:
Type mm/min ft/min km/hr
Average adult 78 000 260 4.3
Elderly (75 yrs) 64 500 215 4
Bunching 60000 200 3.7
Stairways (going down) 45600 152 2.8
Stairways (going up) 33 900 113 2
Table 340-2. AVERAGE WALKING RATES OF ADULT PEDESTRIANS

Acceptable Walking Distances:
Figure 340-5 illustrates the average range of walking distances that people (in the United States) are typically willing to
walk . Acceptable distances will vary from these averages depending on the purpose of the trip, cultural differences,
climactic conditions, etc.

Pedestrian Density Criteria :
Figures 340-6 and 340-7 show pedestrian flow volume, speed, and density for walkways and stairways.

Figures 340-7

2.3 Visual Criteria
Eye Levels and Cone of Vision:
The eye level of an average adult in a standing position and a sitting position is illustrated in Figure 340-8.

2.3 Visual Criteria
Eye Levels and Cone of Vision: .
The human cone of vision (i .e ., the fixed eye) is approximately 30
degrees vertically and 60 degrees horizontally, with angles of acute
vision somewhat less than this, as illustrated in Figure 340-9.

Visual Perception :
Sense of Spatial Enclosure:
An external enclosure is most
comfortable when its vertical planes are
one-half to one-third as high as the
width of the space enclosed .
If the ratio falls below one-fourth, the
space begins to lack a sense of enclosure
(Figure 340-10).

Visual Perception :
Sense of Spatial Enclosure:
It is helpful to possess a general understanding of
the capabilities and limitations of normal human
vision in terms of social communication. Several
examples are illustrated in Figure 340-11 .

3.0 SPATIAL STANDARD
3.1 Pathway Width and Slope Criteria
General Considerations :
A minimum pathway width of 1 200 mm (4 ft) for public walkways.
Calculation of Walkway Width (by Formula):
Pathway Width = V(M)/S
where V =volume, pedestrians/minute
M = space module, M square (ft square)/ pedestrian
S = walking speed, m (ft)/minute

Walkway Slope Criteria:
Figure 340-12 provides longitudinal and cross-slope
criteria for walkways under various circumstances .

3.2 Stairways
Widths:
Minimum width for public stairways should be 1500 mm
(60 in) .
Minimum width for private stairways should be
1050 mm (42 in) .
Tread-Riser Ratios:
2R + T = 650 to 675 mm (26 to 27 in)
where R = riser
T = tread
Figure 340-13 is a quick-reference chart of typical
tread-riser ratios for outdoor stairways
RISER TREAD
100
(4")
450-475
(18 - 19")
106.25
(4 .25")
437.5 -462 .5
(17.5 - 18.5")
112.5
(4.5")
425-450
(17- 18")
118.75
(4.75")
412.5 - 437.5
(16.5 - 17 .5")
125
(5")
400-425
(16-17')
131.25
(5 .25")
387.5 - 412.5
(15.5 - 16 .5")
137.5
(5.5")
375-400
(15-16")
143.75
(5.75")
362.5 -387.5
(14.5 - 15 .5")
150
(6")
350-375
(14- 15")
156.25
(6.25")
337.5 -362.5
(13.5-14.5")
162.5
(6 .5")
325-350
(13 -14")
168.75
(6 .75")
312.5 - 337.5
(12 .5 -13.5")
175
(7")
330-325
(12 - 13")
181.25
(7.25")
287.5-312 .5
(11.5"-12.5")

Additional Considerations :
1 . Outdoor stairways should be made easier to ascend and descend than interior stairways . People tend to move at greater
rates outdoors than they do indoors .
2. Inherent to a particular tread-riser ratio is the ease at which the stairway can be ascended or descended, and consequently,
the sense of rhythm to be experienced by the pedestrian . Ideally, the kinesthetic character of a stairway should be congruent
with the character of the environment in which the stairway is a part .
3. Single steps in a walkway are very dangerous and should never be specified . At least two steps, but preferably three, should
be specified, and their presence should be announced conspicuously with railings, plantings, or lighting .
4. Risers for outdoor stairways should be a minimum of 115 mm (4 .5 in) and a maximum of 150 mm (6 in) . Under utilitarian
circumstances a 175 (7 in) riser may be considered .
5. Treads should be pitched downgrade 2 percent for drainage .
Nosing and Shadow Line Profiles : Shadow lines are often included in steps for aesthetic reasons, used mainly to give a
"refined" look to a stairway . They can, however, be hazardous if large enough to catch the toes of pedestrians . Nosings can also
catch toes unless they are rounded .
Figure 340-14 shows various nosing and shadow line profiles, some of which are potentially hazardous and therefore not
recommended, particularly in public areas

Height between Landings:
Height between stairway landings is an important criterion for psychological reasons as well as for reasons of human
endurance . Although many building codes state maximum heights of 3 600 mm (12 ft), lesser heights are recommended.
In terms of environmental psychology, it is known that abrupt changes in ground levels, even as little as 300 to 500 mm (1
to 1-1/2 ft) can decrease incentive to proceed .
Changes of 1 800 mm (6 ft) or more are found to be strongly discouraging . For this reason, heights between stair
landings are best designed so an adult of average height standing on one landing can see the ground plane of the next
higher landing (i .e ., 1 500 mm (5 ft) or less (Figure 340- 15) .
Conversely, height between landings is sometimes made to be greater than 1 500 mm (5 ft) to effectively control sightlines
in conjunction with other design elements.
In terms of human endurance, it should be remembered that elderly and handicapped individuals use stairways, and their
abilities are more limited than the average, physically healthy adult . For this reason, all changes in elevation should be
designed with an understanding of the diversity of human ability that exists among members of the population .
Figure 340-15 summarizes several important considerations for the design of outdoor stairways and landings .

3.3 Ramps
Widths:
Ramp widths are determined according to the type and intensity of
use . One-way travel requires a minimum width of 900 mm (3 ft)
clear, whereas two-way travel requires a clear minimum width of 1
500 mm (5 ft) (Figure 340-16) .
Slope Criteria :
Ramp slopes should be no greater than 1 :12 or 8 .33 percent (Figure
340-12) . Curb cuts are an exception, 1 :8 or 12 percent being
acceptable if the running distance is less than 900 mm (3 ft) .
Distance between Landings :
Landings should be provided within every 9000 mm (30 ft) or less
of ramp length (Figure 340-16) .

3.4 Seating Criteria
Benches should be designed to ensure greatest
comfort for the individual .
Figure 340-17 illustrates preferred height and seating
angle for outdoor benches. Seat walls are typically 400
to 450 mm (16 to 18 in) wide and between 400 to
450mm (14 and 18 in) in height, 400 mm (16 in) being
most preferred.

3.5 Handrailings
Handrailings are important on all stairways and ramps, and should allow a secure and comfortable grip for maximum
support. (Figure 340-18).

3.5 Handrailings:
Handrailing heights for outdoor stairways and ramps typically range from 750 to 850 mm (30 to 34 in) (Figure 340-19).
HANDRAILING HEIGHTS RISER/TREAD RATI0S
825 mm (2'- 9") 150/350 mm (6"/14") TO 175/ 325 (7/13")
850 mm (2'- 10") 125/800 mm (5"/16") TO 150/ 337 (6"113 .5")
HANDRAILING HEIGHTS FOR RAMPS:
800 to 850 mm (2'- 8" to 2'- 10")
Figure 340-19. Handrailing heights for exterior stairs and ramps.

3.5 Handrailings:
Municipal codes should always be checked to ensure conformance of proposed heights.
The ends of railings should extend beyond the top and bottom step by 300 to 450 mm (12 to 18 in) and should be
rounded off or turned under for safety reasons. This detail is especially important for individuals with impaired vision .
Additional Considerations :
1 . Handrailings on both sides of a stairway or ramp are important because some people have one-sided strength .
2. Extra-wide stairways should have center railings for greater convenience. Handrailings should be no more than 6000
mm (20 ft) apart.
3. Railings should continue across intermediate landings .
4. Railings should be capable of supporting 114 kg (250 Ibs) of weight .
5. Handrailings for children, at a lower height than that specified for adults, are sometimes advisable and are also useful
on ramps for individuals who use wheelchairs.

3.6 Pedestrian Signage
Design and placement of
signs for use by pedestrians
involves consideration of
visual field, scale of letters,
proportion of letters, and
contrast between letters
and background (Figures
340-20 and 340-21).

Bicyclists
Bicyclists fall into two major categories:
1 . The recreational bicyclist, who uses the bicycle for pleasure or exercise
2. The functional bicyclist, who uses the bicycle as an alternative form of transportation to school, to work, or to
shop
Mountain Bikes
Although the primary focus of this section is the design of facilities for touring bicycles, the use of
mountain bikes is increasingly popular. Mountain biking typically occurs on all trail systems, and the
integration of biking into existing trail systems is a challenge for providers around the country.

There are four primary types of bikeways which are designed to accommodate the
recreational and functional needs of bicyclists.
1 . Bicycle path: Ideal with dedicated right-of-way and separate furnishings, 2 400- 3 600 mm (8-12 ft)
min .
2. Bicycle lane: Part of road but separated by markings or textured strip, 1 500-
1 800 mm (5-6 ft) min .
3. Wide outside lane: Less desirable, but common, 4 200 mm (14 ft) min.
4. Shared roadway : Common, but has highest potential for conflict with autos,
1 500-1 800 mm (5-6 ft) min.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classifies
four primary types of bikeways. These are described below.

Bicycle Traffic Generators
An estimated range of 5 to 10 km (3 to 6 mi) covers most recreational and functional bicycle trips. These
can be identified with a specific traffic generator including:
1 . Residential concentrations
2. Schools
3. Parks and recreational facilities
4. Community activity centers
5. Employment concentrations
6. Shopping and commercial centers

Proper route selection requires :
1 . Identification of traffic generators and anticipated user types within a 5-10 km (3-6
mi) circuit.
2. Linking scenic and recreational potential of multi-use route to secure broad user
interest .
3. Mapping and inspecting physical route conditions to determine :
a. Extent of uphill grades to stay within acceptable gradient/distance ratios .
b. Potential for uninterrupted and direct pathways to encourage frequent use .
c. Available widths to allow for proper setbacks for signs, lights, benches, etc.
d . Obstacles and negative contextual physical factors, including adjacent structures
or transportation mode conflicts

Width of Bikeways
Factors to consider when determining
widths for bikeways must include :
1 . The spatial dimensions of bicyclist and bicycle
2. Maneuvering space required for balancing
3. Additional clearances required to
avoid obstacles
4. Anticipated volumes of traffic
Continuity
Continuity is important to assure a relatively direct trip and continuous path without excessive out-of-
the-way travel (which tends to discourage use)

Design criteria
Minimum levels of safety can be provided by carefully considering bicycle speed, sight/stopping
distances, curve radii, intersection design, widths, surfacing, and protection from hazards.
Bicycle Speed
Design speed refers to the speed for which a bicycle path is
designed. A design speed should be chosen that is at least as
fast as the preferred speed of the faster bicyclists. In general,
a minimum design speed of 32 km/h (20 mph) should be used
. However, when downhill grades exceed 4 percent or where
strong tail winds often exist, a higher minimum design speed
of 48 km/h (30 mph) may be advisable . On unpaved surfaces,
a lower minimum design speed can be used .

Sight/Stopping Distance
Sight/stopping distance is the physical distance required for a bicyclist to see an obstruction and come to
a complete stop .
(Figure 341-6) shows minimum sight/stopping distances for various design speeds and grades based on
a total perception and brake reaction time of 2 .5 seconds and a coefficient of friction of 0 .25, to account
for the poor wet-surface braking characteristics of most bicycles .
Curve Radii
General:
The design speed chosen determines the
appropriate curve radii . If bikeways are part
vehicle roadway, then no
of a motor changes in radii are needed. If
separate then the curves facilities are planned,
should be designed to allow unbraked turns at
a prescribed design speed .

Minimum Curve Radii for Unbraked Turns:
Minimum curve radii for unbraked turns are based on the bicycle speed, the rate of super elevation,
and the coefficient of friction between bicycle tire and pavement .
Intersections
Conflicts at Intersections :
A large share of bicycle-related accidents occur at intersections of streets and bikeways because of
the confused comingling of bicycles, motor vehicles, and pedestrians. Major problems occur from the
following
conditions :
1 . Bicyclists turning left across traffic
2 . Bicyclists crossing an intersection when vehicular traffic is entering from or turning to the right
3 . Failure to yield by both bicyclists and motorists

Bicyclists Turning Left across Traffic.
There are several ways for bicyclists to turn
left across vehicular traffic, each one posing
serious hazards to the rider. Following illustrates the many
intersection conflict points that exist when a bicyclist turns
left
across traffic .
Bikeway design is based upon the following
safety issues :
1 . Designated design speed, typically 32 km/h (20 mph), up to 48
km/h (30 mph) for
sustained down hill runs .
2 . Sight/stopping distance and related clearances may require
path widening at horizontal
curves, and markings at intersections and some vertical curve
crests .

3 . Curve radii range from 28 500-165 500 mm (95-565 ft) depending on design
speed, and super elevation rates range from 1 .0-2 .0%, depending on speed, radius, and
climate .
4 . Potential conflicts at intersections/crossings due to turns across traffic by both cyclists and
motorists .
Freeway Ramp Crossings:
Bicyclists should be encouraged to cross intersections early enough to be easily seen by exiting
vehicles where bikeways follow highways or freeways with off ramps
Underpasses and Overpasses:
Ramp grades for either underpasses or overpasses should preferably be no steeper than 5 percent . The
approach to the underpass or overpass should be visually obvious and should provide the easiest and safest
alternative to crossing the roadway

Curb Ramps:
A ramped curb should be provided when a bikeway
encounters a roadway curb. These structures also permit
crossings by wheelchairs, baby carriages, etc . The
maximum running grade should not be greater than 1 :12,
or about 8 percent .

Problem of entering
or right turning auto traffic. If auto traffic is light, bicycle
traffic can continue straight through the intersection and
should be treated as a vehicle.
Midblock intersection
The bikeway should cross the roadway as close to right
angles as possible.
Freeway ramp crossings
Bikeways should cross freeway ramps early enough to be
seen by right turning traffic.

Paving and Surfacing
1. Asphalt
2. Concrete
3. Soil cement
4. Stone chip aggregate
5. Stabilize earth
Hazards of drainage grates.
Department of Transportation . This source identifies five basic requirements that a traffic control device
should meet to be effective;
it should:
1 . Fulfill a need
2 . Command attention
3 . Convey a clear, simple meaning
4 . Command respect of road users
5 . Provide adequate time for response

Types of Signage :
Signs are categorized into three basic types :
(1) regulatory,
(2) warning, and
(3) guide .
Storage lockers and racks design
1 . Surfacing materials vary in terms of suitability, cost and durability . Durable easily
maintained pavements which conform to accessibility regulations are recommended.
2 . Positive drainage should accommodate the pavement and bikeway type to minimize
hazards . A 2% minimum cross-slope is desirable . Locate drain structures off
of the path to minimize accidents due to settlement or heaving of structure at
paving surface .

3 . Traffic control/informational systems such as signage and pavement markings facilitate use .
a . Sign post should be set-back at least 900 mm (3 ft) from path edge, and bottom sign edge should be
set 1 500-2 100 mm (5-7 ft) above grade for proper visibility.
b . Limit number of signs to minimize confusion .
c . Use signs primarily to mark route, regulate use, and provide safety warnings as required.
4 . Lighting at intersections and along path are essential for safety and utility, and typically range from
6-10 Ix (0.6-1 .0 fc).
a. Placement of lights and other path furnishings require design coordination to prevent a cluttered
appearance along the path .
b. Benches, racks, and other furnishings require significant setbacks from path to prevent conflicts
5. Barriers and separators such as fencing, plantings, and painted lines, are used to delineate facilities
and uses .
a. Raised or textured surface barriers may pose a hazard in left-turn or in high speed conditions .
Choose barrier type appropriate to facility use .
b. Plantings require proper set-backs to allow for safety clearances and adult plant growth . Select
species for safety and maintenance considerations .

Racks and Locking Devices for Bicycles.
Three primary methods for parking bicycles
and protecting them from theft are :
1 . Enclosing the bicycle in a locker, cabinet, or other lockable space
2 . Rendering the bicycle inoperable by weaving a chain and lock through the frame and wheels
3 . Locking the bicycle to a rack, post, or other stationary object
Fixtures for Bicycle Routes:
Depending upon the character, scale, and anticipated use of a bikeway, such elements as shelters,
benches, tables, grills, rest rooms, trash receptacles, bulletin boards, telephones, and drinking
fountains may be
provided .
Convenience to bicyclists
Tree canopies can reduce the amount of rainfall reaching the bicyclist.

Bikeway Lighting:
Bikeway lighting requirements vary from 6 lux (Ix) [0 .6 foot-candles (fc)] in parks and similar areas,
to 10 Ix (1 .0 fc) in commercial areas, to 20 Ix (2 .0 fc) at intersections with heavily trafficked
streets. Commercial areas with existing illumination may require no additional lighting . The
positioning of new luminaires should be such that bicyclists are backlighted against approaching
traffic.

Barriers and Separators
Bikeways which share or are immediately adjacent to a roadway may be delineated as described below.
Fencing and Plantings:
Fencing provides the least space consumptive physical barrier to contain the path for
either screening or safety reasons. Fencing should be deeply setback from the path for safety reasons . Many
fencing options are available and may be combined with vine cover to soften less expensive open wire or simple
rail fencing. Shrub planting is an effective screening option, but requires more space than does fencing. Care
should be taken to specify plants with appropriate growth habits to meet clearance requirements, and to avoid
thorns or excessive fruit droppings . Single standard trees may afford a better multi-purpose option due to a
potential for canopy.

Painted Lines:
The simplest and least expensive bikeway delineation is the painted line . It can continue
through intersections, allow bicyclists to leave the lane to make left turns, and permit
automobiles to enter driveways. A disadvantage of painted lines is the lack of a physical barrier
or tactile warning to prevent the encroachment of motor vehicles. Paint that will not become
slippery when wet should be specified .
Traffic Buttons:
Raised and reflectorized traffic buttons are
sometimes used to delineate bike lanes, either
alone or in combination with painted lines . This
method provides a visual and tactile warning to
the motorists while still allowing lane changes
and access to driveways. However, the raised
buttons, or other raised elements, are dangerous
to cyclists and may make left turns difficult .

Bikeway Plantings
Plants can reduce headlight glare and traffic dust and can
prevent accidental crossovers when used to provide a visual
and physical barrier between bicycle and motor vehicle traffic .
Plant materials can also mitigate the discomforts of weather. A
canopy of deciduous and coniferous trees over a bikeway, for
instance, can reduce
the amount of rainfall reaching bicyclists by as much as 20 to
40 percent. Leaf buildup may require increased maintenance .
Dense planting of trees in a row, perpendicular to prevailing
winds and parallel to the bikeway, can reduce wind speeds by
50 percent for a distance downwind of from 10 to 20 times the
height of the windbreak

INTRODUCTION
General
Elements placed in a landscape or streetscape for comfort,
convenience, information, circulation control, protection, and
user enjoyment are collectively referred to as site furniture.
Benches, bollards, signage, lighting, tree grates, and utility boxes
are but a few examples . Their design and placement require
careful consideration, involving several factors, each of which is
described in this section .
The larger setting provides the context of site furniture .
Design Objectives
Appropriateness:
Appropriateness is a major objective in the design and placement of site furniture elements. It is important to respond to the
character of a site as well as its existing and proposed functions
Response to Setting:
Design should respond to the essential identity or inherent character of a place . Successful, lasting design will flow out of its
setting, continually responding to the needs of its users, meeting functional requirements, and adapting to the environmental
stresses affecting

Design Objectives
Appropriateness:
Appropriateness is a major objective in the
design and placement of site furniture elements.
It is important to respond to the character of a site
as well as its existing and proposed functions .
Response to Setting:
Design should respond to the essential identity
or inherent character of a place . Successful,
lasting design will flow out of its setting,
continually responding to the needs of its users,
meeting functional requirements, and adapting to
the environmental stresses affecting
Site context : Informal character
Site context : Formal character

DESIGN DETERMINANTS
Settings should be analyzed in terms of both cultural and physical factors
.
Cultural factors include :
1 . Social context
Attention to both the existing and proposed large-scale social setting
will indicate who is currently using the site and who will likely use the site
in the future . The manner in which the site is being used requires careful
investigation.
The traditions and habits of particular user groups provide a basis for
unique design departures that can enliven the setting as a whole, while at
the same time serving specific needs. This can be reflected both in site
organization as a whole and the design of individual elements
themselves .
Inattention to the cultural habits and desires of particular groups and
the use of improper elements can foster negative reaction in a
neighborhood . The use of themes or vernacular forms which have no
local cultural root seldom contribute to the evolving identity of a place .
Some ethnic groups, for instance, have need for special types of site
furniture appropriate to particular activities. Finding what is needed is not
only a basic responsibility of the designer, but often opens up an
opportunity to explore new design ideas
Diversity of social settings

2 . Political context
Design ideas will evolve from thoughtful examination of
the natural, built, and social setting, but a complex and
contradicting array of administrative, operational,
regulatory, and legal issues can compromise a design .
Designing solely to meet these regulations often
produces nothing of present or enduring value . This is
particularly true regarding the design and placement of
furniture in public spaces where a great number of
functional, visual, and regulatory factors coincide .
The nature of the setting, whether a public square or a
corporate courtyard, implies major differences in the
choice of design elements. Public streets and spaces
are susceptible to incidences of vandalism, and are
also periodically abandoned by revenue-starved local
governments . Lastly, issues of long-term maintenance,
public safety, and circulation control require careful
consideration .
Diversity of regulatory standards.

Physical factors include :
1 . Climate
2 . Natural physiography
Different climates and/or dramatic seasonal changes can
significantly influence the design of site furniture and the
consequent comfort of the users . A thorough understanding of
the consequences of seasonal variation, including both
advantages and disadvantages, is an essential prerequisite for
the design of site furnishings . Climatic factors .
Particular landforms, vegetation, and other distinctive qualities which
give an area its special regional or local character should be
responded to in a congruent manner For instance, in the United States
the building vernacular of the Rocky Mountains is distinctly different
from that of the Appalachian Highlands . Special attention should be
given to examining local landscapes and materials before translating
program requirements into built elements.
Physiographic factors .

3 . The existing built environment
Site furnishings can strengthen the link between a
development and its surroundings, can personalize
the setting, and can enhance the positive aspects of
the surrounding built landscape . A careful inventory
of the existing built environment should precede
decisions of scale, pattern, color, sequence, age,
quality, materials, and construction detailing .
illustrates the typical mix of uses and settings to
which furnishing systems must relate . Furniture
elements should reflect the character of the built
environment, be internally integrated between
themselves, and not promote a cluttered
appearance. In any streetscape, for instance,
effective site furniture design and placement can
resolve a chaotic scene of light standards, parking
meters, mailboxes, newspaper stands, and trash
receptacles . There should be a balance between the
visual importance of individual furniture elements
and their compatibility within the visual context of the
setting . It is important to incorporate the vistas,
views, and visual composition of the entire site .
Built environment .

KEY POINTS OF DESIGN DETERMINANTS
1 . The cultural traditions and habits of particular user groups
provide a basis for unique design departures that can enliven
the setting as a whole. Similarly, inattention to these habits and
desires can foster negative reaction in a neighborhood .
2 . Design must balance the thoughtful examination of the
natural, built, and social setting, with regulatory concerns and
politically-charged issues of maintenance and safety .
3 . Particular landforms, vegetation, vistas, and other distinctive
qualities that give an area its special character should be
considered in the selection, design and placement of site
furnishings.
4. Furniture elements should reflect the character of the built
environment, be internally integrated between themselves, and
not promote a cluttered appearance.
5. The physical dimensions and movement characteristics of the
human body are essential determinants for the design of site
furniture . Sections 210: Spatial Standards, and 340: Pedestrian
Circulation, provide information on human dimensions and
movement .
Environmental factors .

Environmental Factors
Individual site furniture elements should meet the following environmental criteria
Temperature:
Heat:
The climate of a particular area is a key consideration when trying to determine whether permanent, partial, or temporary
shade and glare reduction measures are needed . Furniture elements, such as permanent benches, should not be placed
near extensive areas of paving or wall surfaces which reflect or radiate excessive amounts of heat, unless adequately
buffered by shade, etc .Physiographic factors . Benches, handles, and handrails exposed to full sunlight should be
nonmetallic and/or light in color to remain comfortable to the touch .
Cold:
Site furniture should be placed to take advantage of natural sun traps in cool weather regions, thereby extending the
usefulness of the site . Materials which absorb and radiate heat are advantageous in cold climates . Darkly colored, smoothly
textured materials will inhibit snow and ice accumulation. Furniture should be designed to minimize water or ice
accumulation. For some elements of furniture it may be necessary to periodically shut down service on the site or totally
remove the furniture . Such factors should be considered when selecting each item . Consult with manufacturers to
determine the all-weather value of various products . Materials used in cold climates should not become brittle when cold,
especially in locations where they may be stressed by normal use . Most cast metals and some kinds of plastics should be
carefully analyzed before being used in cold climates . Fasteners and joints should also be able to withstand stresses caused
by expansion and contraction of the materials .

Precipitation:
Rain :
In regions subject to rain and/or snowfall, some of the site furniture used for sitting should be placed in sheltered locations .
Benches should drain well ; they could be constructed of nonabsorptive materials to promote rapid drying . They should also be
located to take advantage of the warming effects of sunlight . Materials selected for use in humid climates should be naturally
decay and fungus-resistant, or specially treated to minimize mildew, rot, and consequent staining .
Snow:
Logical placement of site furniture in areas of high snowfall will depend on the methods to be used for snow removal . Areas
where snow is trapped or stockpiled should be identified before locating furniture to avoid damage from snow removal equipment
. Maneuvering space and clearances should be provided so that major pedestrian ways can remain open to all essential access
points . Adequate drainage is essential for carrying off snowmelt and preventing ice formation . Furniture should be located where
winter sunlight can help to melt the snow.
Wind:
Site furniture (benches, tables, etc .) should be located to minimize any negative gusting impacts upon users in areas subject to
strong prevailing winds. Patterns of snow drifting should be studied to minimize its accumulation on furniture . Furniture can be
located to take advantage of natural cooling breezes in warm climates. Trees can provide shade and, to some extent, control the
movement of air.
Light:
Site furniture should take advantage of the quality and character of light available on the site. Wherever possible, minimize the
glare from light fixtures and intense sunlight . Recognizing that light conditions change both daily and seasonally, locate furniture
and especially outdoor signs in such a way as to minimize the glare caused by low sun angles on wet, frosted, or otherwise
reflective surfaces .
Noise:
Site furniture may be focused toward pleasant sources such as the sounds of songbirds, children, street performers, and the like
. Reciprocally, undesirable sounds can be blocked. Sound barrier walls, earth mounds, and other techniques of noise control
should be considered . (Refer to Section 660: Sound Control, for more information .)

The selection and design of site furniture should take climatic issues of
temperature, and precipitation into consideration .
1 . In hot climates, furniture elements should be nonmetallic or light in color,
and placed away from surfaces that reflect or radiate excessive amounts of
heat .
2 . In cool climates, furniture should be dark in color, placed to take advantage
of natural sun traps and avoid areas where snow is stockpiled .
3 . In wet climates, benches should drain well and be constructed of
nonabsorptive materials to promote rapid drying .
4 . Materials selected for use in humid climates should be be naturally decay
and fungus-resistant, or specially treated to minimize mildew, rot, and staining
.
KEY POINTS OF CLIMATIC FACTORS

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Selection Process
illustrates how site furniture and features can be selected by careful evaluation of stated site objectives and use
criteria . These objectives and needs are matched with a range of alternatives, such as whether to select the
elements from existing ready-made sources, make modifications to such manufactured designs, or develop a new
design . Key factors in the process of either selecting ready-made or custom designing elements are : (1)
availability of each unit, (2) maintenance requirements, (3) initial and lifetime costs, and (4) whether the solution will
be consistent with the overall design of the project.
Regulatory Standards . Selection process diagram

Design Elements
The categories of design elements ,ummarized in Figures 510-
12 through 510-20 illustrate a range of designs, materials, and
uses of site furniture for various purposes . These figures show
basic components of each element, along with generic examples
. Diagrams and notes illustrating site concepts are included to
further aid the designer. Appropriateness is the key to the siting
and design of these elements. (See 1 .2 Design Objectives in this
section .) Only after careful inventory and evaluation of these
critical design objectives and criteria can proper concepts and
solutions for placement and design be made for these elements .
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