Excerpt - Internship Report for UPEACE - Work Example

ii
Could Maize Be Central America’s Most
Important Grain? An Analysis of Maize and its
Implications for Regional Food and Nutritional
Security
Tania Hernandez
University for Peace
Universidad para la Paz
An Internship report submitted to the Department of Environment and Development,
University for Peace, in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for Master of Arts
Degree in Environment, Development and Peace.
December, 2015
Department of Environment and Development
University for Peace

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ABSTRACT
This report is a summary and reflection of the student’s 3-month internship experience
working at an United Nations Subregional Headquarters in Mexico City. The report includes
lessons learned, an institutional analysis of the organization, problems encountered and solutions
applied, and preliminary findings of the intern’s primary assignment. The intern was tasked with
beginning a maize analysis for the working region of the organization (Central America and the
Dominican Republic) which would later be incorporated as part of the Unit’s contribution to a
publication set to be completed in 2016. Preliminary findings showed that maize production has
increased since the period 1980-1990 and continues to increase in region but with an annual
average growth rate that exhibits a downward trend. Additionally, results show that maize and
its products may be the most important energy and protein source for inhabitants of the following
countries: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua. In fact, they could be the most
important food source for these Central Americans and thus a vital component for household
food security. At the same time, the predominance of maize in the diet varies greatly among
countries within the region.
Este reporte es un resumen y una reflexión de la experiencia que tuvo la pasante durante
su pasantía mientras trabajando para una sede subregional de la Naciones Unidas en la Ciudad de
México por tres meses. El reporte incluye las lecciones aprendidas, un análisis institucional de la
organización, los problemas enfrentados y las soluciones aplicadas, y los resultados preliminares
de la tarea principal de la pasante. La pasante fue asignada de comenzar un análisis de maíz de
la región en donde enfoca la organización (Centroamérica y la República Dominicana) lo cual
sería incorporado como parte de la contribución de la Unidad a la publicación que se completará
en 2016. Los hallazgos preliminares demuestran que la producción de maíz ha aumentado desde
el período 1980-1990 y continua a incrementar en la región aunque con una tasa de crecimiento
promedio anual que muestra una tendencia a la baja. Adicionalmente, los resultados señalan que
el maíz y sus productos puedan ser la fuente más importante de energía y proteína por los
habitantes de los siguientes países: Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras y Nicaragua. De hecho,
podrán ser la fuente de alimento más importante para estos Centroamericanos y por lo tanto, un
componente esencial para la seguridad alimentaria del hogar. Al mismo tiempo, la importancia
del maíz a la dieta varía considerablemente entre los países de la región.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract..…………………..………………………………………………………………………ii
List of Tables………………………………………………………………...……………………v
List of Figures…………………….………………………………………………………………vi
List of Acronyms…………………………………..…………………………………………….vii
SECTION I: Job Description....…………………………………………………………….……..1
SECTION II: Graph and Table Work Examples...……….…………………..……………….2
SECTION III: Preliminary Results of My Work in the Agriculture and Climate Change Unit at
ECLAC-Mexico……………………………………………………………………………….…14
References………………………………………………………………………………………..18

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1 World and Regions: Maize Production and Yields, 1980-2013…………………..3
Table 2 Central America: Maize Production and Yields, 1980-2013……………………...3
Table 3 Central America and the Dominican Republic:
Gini Coefficient, 2013 and 2014…………………………………………………..9
Table 4 Levels of Poverty by Country, 2014……………………………………………..10
Table 5 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Prevalence of Undernourishment,
1990-2016……………………………………………………………………..…10
Table 6 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Prevalence of Food Over-
Acquisition by Country, 1990-2013……………………………………………..11
Table 7 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of Energy,
Protein and Fat from Food Supplied by Maize and Products by Country, 1999-
2001 and 2009-2011……………………………………………………………..16

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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Maize Harvested Area and
Production, 1980-2013…………………………………………………….2
Figure 2 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Maize Imports by Country,
1980-2013…………………………………………………………………4
Figure 3 International Maize Prices, January 2005-July 2015………………..…….4
Figure 4 Central America: Maize Net Production, Imports, Exports and Apparent
Consumption, 1980 and 2013……………………………………………..5
Figure 5 Consumer Price Index, Food, Total, 2000-2015…………………………..6
Figure 6 Consumer Prices for Basic Foods, 2000-2015…………………………….6
Figure 7 Minimum Wage Index, Real, By Country, 2000-2013……………………8
Figure 8 Minimum Agricultural Wage, By Country, 2000-2013…………………...8
Figure 9 Price Paid to the Producer, Maize, 2000-2013……………………………9
Figure 10 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of
Daily Food Energy Supplied by Maize and Products by Country, 1999-
2001 and 2009-2011…..…………………………………………………12
Figure 11 Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of
Food Energy Supplied by Maize and Products, Animal Products and Fruits
and Vegetables by Country, 1999-2001 and 2009-2011……………..….13
Figure 12 Figure 7: Average Proportion of Daily Food Energy Supply Provided by
Maize by Region, 2009-2011……………………………………………17

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LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
CEPAL Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe
CEPALSTAT Statistics of Latin America and the Caribbean
ECLAC Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean
FAOSTAT Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Statistics Division
Ha Hectares
Kcal Kilocalories
MS Microsoft
QGIS Quantum Geographic Information System
SIRSAN Sistema Integrado de Información Regional en Seguridad
Alimentaria y Nutricional
t Tons
UN United Nations
UPEACE University for Peace

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SECTION I: Job Description of the Internship
The intern, under general guidance of the Chief of the Agricultural Development and Climate
Change Unit of ECLAC-Mexico City, performed the following activities:
• Collected, evaluated, interpreted and analyzed specified statistics and qualitative socio-
economic information obtained from a variety of sources and pertaining to food security
and climate change with special focus on Central America and the Dominican Republic
• Used various tools (Microsoft Excel and mapping software (QGIS)) to synthesize,
compare and display data in preparation for insertion into a section of an ECLAC
document focused on the aforementioned themes
• Researched and prepared written analyses to accompany visual displays of data and
drafted reports with a special focus on climate change and food security in the region and
in a way that is meaningful to non-specialists
• Maintained regular contact with direct supervisor and incorporated
corrections/suggestions into work for continuous improvement

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SECTION II: Graph and Table Work Examples
Below are many of the tables and graphs that I created using data gathered from several
databases regularly used by ECLAC-Mexico and which are part of the maize analysis I assisted
with and are to be included in Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe. (2016).
Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en Centroamérica. Naciones Unidas, CEPAL, LC/MEX/L.:
Figure 1: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Maize Surface Area and
Production, 1980-2013
(Thousands of hectares and thousands of tons)
Source: CEPALSTAT, 2015

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Table 1: World and Regions: Maize Production and Yields, 1980-2013
(Tons and tons/hectares)
Source: FAOSTAT, 2015
Table 2: Central America: Maize Production and Yields, 1980-2013
(Tons and tons/hectares)
CENTROAMÉRICA: PRODUCCIÓN Y RENDIMIENTOS DEL MAÍZ, 1980-2013
(Toneladas y toneladas/hectáreas)
Período Belice Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panamá Rep. Dominicana
Producción
1980-1990 19 709,00 95 517,45 519 240,27 1 103 898,55 466 416,55 220 803,18 80 661,55 49 994,55
1991-2000 32 112,80 32 212,30 591 108,00 1 119 860,50 572 159,90 289 780,50 98 828,50 36 529,90
2001-2013 44 147,00 15 580,23 740 936,77 1 385 054,08 532 334,00 493 384,08 90 435,15 36 127,69
2013 71 926,00 13 969,00 866 701,00 1 731 772,00 596 071,00 545 938,00 131 657,00 45 416,00
Rendimientos
1980-1990 1,6 1,7 2,0 1,7 1,4 1,2 1,1 1,5
1991-2000 2,3 1,8 2,0 1,8 1,4 1,2 1,5 1,3
2001-2013 2,8 2,0 2,9 1,9 1,6 1,4 1,6 1,5
2013 3,4 2,2 3,0 2,0 1,6 1,7 2,4 1,6
MUNDO Y REGIONES: PRODUCCIÓN Y RENDIMIENTOS DEL MAÍZ, 1980-2013
(Toneladas y toneladas/hectáreas)
Período Mundo Américas Centroamérica
Producción
1980-1990 442 725 207,27 240 908 572,55 14 893 485,82
1991-2000 558 137 587,50 301 757 405,30 20 265 328,50
2001-2013 776 227 542,14 409 777 701,49 24 585 085,17
Rendimentos
1980-1990 3,5 4,4 1,8
1991-2000 4,1 5,3 2,2
2001-2013 4,9 6,7 2,8

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Figure 2: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Maize Imports by Country, 1980-
2013
(Thousands of tons)
Source: SIRSAN, 2015
Figure 3: International Maize Prices, January 2005-July 2015

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Figure 4: Central America: Maize Net Production, Imports, Exports and Apparent
Consumption, 1980 and 2013
(Thousands of tons)
A. 1980

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Figure 5: Consumer Price Index, Food, Total, 2000-2015
Figure 6: Consumer Prices for Basic Foods, 2000-2015
A. Maize
*No data available for Costa Rica, Belize, Nicaragua and Panama.

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B. Corn tortilla
*No data available for Belize, Dominican Republic and Nicaragua.
C. Sugar
*No data available for Belize and Nicaragua.

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Figure 7: Minimum Wage Index, Real, By Country, 2000-2013
*No data available for Belize
Figure 8: Minimum Agricultural Wage, By Country, 2000-2013
*No data available for Belize.

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Figure 9: Price Paid to the Producer, Maize, 2000-2013
(Dollars per ton)
*No data available for Belize.
Table 3: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Gini Coefficient, 2013 and 2014*
*These are the most recent figures reported by countries for the years 2013 and 2014.
**No recent data available for Belize.
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: COEFICIENTE DE GINI, 2013 Y
2014*
Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panamá
Rep.
Dominicana
0,52
(2013)
0,41
(2012)
0,54
(2002)
0,57
(2012)
0,53
(2005)
0,54
(2003)
0,50
(2010)
0,51
(2014)
0,40
(2013)
0,59
(2006)
0,54
(2013)
0,48
(2009)
0,54
(2008)
0,51
(2011)

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Table 4: Levels of Poverty by Country, 2014
(Percentage of population)
NIVELES DE POBREZA POR PAÍS, 2014
(Porcentaje de la población)
País
Pobreza
Nacional
Pobreza
Urbana
Pobreza
Rural
Costa Rica 22.4 19.5 30.3
El Salvador 34.78 30.57 41.72
Guatemala 53.71 34.97 71.35
Honduras 70.07 65.99 73.64
Nicaragua 58.3 52.9 65.4
Panamá 26.5 59.7
República
Dominicana
40.42 36.53 48.44
Table 5: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Prevalence of Undernourishment,
1990-2016
(Percent)
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: PREVALENCIA DE LA SUBNUTRICIÓN, 1990-2016
(Porcentaje)
1990-92 1995-97 2000-02 2005-07 2010-12 2013-15 2014-16
Belice 9,7 6,7 5,8 <5 5,7 6,3 6,2
Costa Rica 5,2 5,6 5,1 5,6 5,3 5,5 <5
El Salvador 16,2 15,4 10,6 10,7 12,6 12,6 12,4
Guatemala 14,9 17,1 20,4 15,9 14,8 15,6 15,6
Honduras 23 19,8 18,5 16,4 14,6 12,3 12,2
Nicaragua 54,4 42,9 31,3 23,2 19,5 17,1 16,6
Panamá 26,4 25,6 27,6 22,9 13,4 10 9,5
Rep. Dominicana 34,3 27,3 28,4 24,2 15,9 12,5 12,3

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Table 6: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Prevalence of Food Over-
Acquisition by Country, 1990-2013
(Percentage)
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: PREVALENCIA DE SOBRE-ADQUISICIÓN DE LOS ALIMENTOS
POR PAÍS, 1990-2013
(Porcentaje)
1990-1992 2000-2002 2005-2007 2010-2012 2011-2013
Belice 25,6 31,1 34,2 31,3 30,6
Costa Rica 23,1 21,1 20,1 20,8 20,6
El Salvador 17,6 22,8 21,9 18,8 18,5
Guatemala 22,4 15,2 24,8 26,4 26,3
Honduras 20,9 23,3 25,1 27,0 28,2
Nicaragua 4,5 12,5 18,9 22,4 23,5
Panamá 10,0 8,8 11,5 20,1 22,2
Rep. Dominicana 4,4 5,3 7,0 11,9 13,5

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Figure 10: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of Food
Energy Supplied by Maize and Products by Country, 1999-2001 and 2009-2011
(kcal/capita/day)
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: PROPORCIÓN PROMEDIO QUE APORTA EL MAÍZ Y
SUS PRODUCTOS AL SUMINISTRO DE ENERGÍA DE LOS ALIMENTOS POR PAÍS, 1999-2001 Y
2009-2011
(kcal/cápita/día)

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Figure 11: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of Food
Energy Supplied by Maize and Products, Animal Products and Fruits and Vegetables by
Country, 1999-2001 and 2009-2011
(kcal/capita/day)
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: PROPORCIÓN PROMEDIO QUE APORTA EL MAÍZ Y
SUS PRODUCTOS, LOS PRODUCTOS DE ORIGEN ANIMAL Y LOS VEGETALES Y FRUTAS AL
SUMINISTRO DE ENERGÍA DE LOS ALIMENTOS POR PAÍS, 1999-2001 Y 2009-2011
(kcal/cápita/día)
Note: The category “fruits” does not include wine.

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SECTION V: Preliminary Results of My Work in the Agriculture and Climate Change Unit at
ECLAC-Mexico
Primary Assignment: Maize Analysis
As part of the publication entitled “Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional en
Centroamérica1
” which is expected to be published in 2016, the Head of the Agriculture and
Climate Change Unit has tasked several members of the team with conducting a detailed analysis
of maize as the Unit’s contribution to the document. Unlike previous documents which have
covered all three basic grains, maize has been selected as the sole focus for this study because of
its unique dietary importance to the peoples of Central America.
Although the majority of my work on this assignment has been
concentrated on gathering, computing and arranging data in the form of charts and graphs for
comparison and analysis, I have translated and summarized some of the key preliminary
results/findings from my written analysis thus far (which often company visual displays of data)
below in bullet form:
 Although maize production in Central America has increased since 1980-1990, the
average annual growth rate exhibits a downward trend (FAOSTAT, 2015).
 In the period 2001-2013, yields were 4.9 t/ha on a world level, 6.7 t/ha in the Americas,
and 2.8 t/ha in the Central American region (FAOSTAT, 2015).
 Central American maize production has increased within the last three decades from 21,
290, 000 tons in 1980 to 37, 420, 000 tons in 2013 (CEPALSTAT, 2015).
 The countries with higher maize production are Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras and
Nicaragua; the countries with lower maize production are Belize, Costa Rica, Panama
and the Dominican Republic.
 Guatemala was producing almost one million tons of maize in 1980, and in 2012
production reached approximately 1,750,000 tons. In general, an increase in production
1
English translation: Food and Nutritional Security in Central America

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can be associated with an increase in yields which grew from 1.5 t/ha to 2.1 t/ha by the
end of the period, with a maximum level of 2.5 t/ha in 2006 (CEPALSTAT, 2015).
 El Salvador is the second biggest producer of maize in the region. In 1980 it was
producing around 500,000 tons, while in 2013 the country produced more than 850,000
tons. The increase in production reflects an increase in yields which improved from 1.8
t/ha in 1980 to almost 3 t/ha in 2013, with a maximum of 3.4 t/ha in 2008. What is
notable is the annual variation in production, a result of the behaviour of yields, which is
itself probably associated with the country’s climatic variability given that it is
susceptible to experiencing extreme weather conditions, particularly droughts, flooding
and tropical storms – all of which affect agricultural activities (GFDRR, n.d.).
 Panama’s maize production increased until 1995 when the country produced more than
100, 000 tons. After this year, production fell and has since leveled off at around 80, 000
tons on average although with as much variability in production as in yields. The fall in
Panama’s maize production is attributed to a reduction in the cultivated surface area; at
the beginning of the 1990s, Panama cultivated 88,000 hectares while in 2009 the country
cultivated 58, 000 hectares (SIAGRO, 2013; CEPALSTAT, 2015).
 The Dominican Republic has maintained production at around 40,000 tons since 1980.
The most recent figure is of 45,000 tons in 2013. This demonstrates that the country has
no experiences an improvement in yields which increased from 1.3 t/ha to 1.6 t/ha in the
same period. Various factors can explain the lower production of maize and the lack of
improvement in yields: by and large, maize is produced by small-scale producers
utilizing low levels of technology; the demand for maize for human consumption is
insignificant, especially in comparison with demand for rice which is the country’s staple
food (IICA, 1997; FAOSTAT, 2015).
Although I had not yet reached the nutritional section of the written
analysis, my findings on this topic were of particular interest to me. As shown in the graphs I
presented earlier (see Figures 5 and 6) the importance of maize to the diets of peoples in
Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador and Nicaragua is especially striking. For example, in the
periods 1999-2001 and 2009-2011, for all four these countries, on average maize accounted for
20% or more (over 30% in Guatemala for both periods) of daily energy and protein supply per

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person whereas in the remaining countries (Belize, Costa Rica, the Dominican Republic and
Panama), maize accounted for less than 10% of daily energy and protein supply per person for
both periods (see Table 4) (FAOSTAT, 2015). Actually, in Guatemala, Honduras, El Salvador
and Nicaragua, maize appears to be the most important food source providing more daily energy
per person than any other food including animal products and fruits and vegetables. When I
investigated further, I found that for the period 2009-2011, on average maize supplied 30% of
daily energy supply per person (kcal/per capita/day) in Central America making maize the
region’s most importance source of energy. The only other two regions in the world where
maize accounts for such a significant portion of daily energy per person is Southern Africa
(29%) followed by Eastern Africa (23%) (see Figure 7).
Table 7: Central America and the Dominican Republic: Average Proportion of Energy,
Protein and Fat from Food Supplied by Maize and Products by Country, 1999-2001 and
2009-2011
(Percent)
CENTROAMÉRICA Y LA REP. DOMINICANA: PROPORCIÓN PROMEDIO QUE APORTA EL MAÍZ Y SUS PRODUCTOS
AL SUMINISTRO DE ENERGÍA, PROTEINA Y GRASAS DE LOS ALIMENTOS POR PAÍS, 1999-2001 Y 2009-2011
(Porcentaje)
1999-2001
Belice Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panamá Rep. Dominicana
Energía 7 1 29 39 31 20 6 4
Proteina 6 1 30 40 33 21 5 4
Grasas 1 1 15 23 13 11 1 1
2009-2001
Belice Costa Rica El Salvador Guatemala Honduras Nicaragua Panamá Rep. Dominicana
Energía 9 3 27 33 28 25 6 2
Proteina 8 3 26 33 29 25 5 3
Grasas 1 1 14 17 12 12 1 1

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Figure 12: Average Proportion of Daily Food Energy Supply Provided by Maize and
Products by Region, 2009-2011
(kcal/capita/day)
Percent
Despite not having had the chance to dive into the nutritional components
of maize and its products, where maize is over-represented as a single energy source in the diet
may be problematic. This is because maize, transformed into staple foods found in Guatemala,
El Salvador, Honduras and Nicaragua such as tortillas or tamales de elote2
, is not a significant
source of any nutrients (save for maybe fiber) and instead serve as greater sources of fats and
carbohydrates. However, apart from cultural considerations, taking into account the high levels
of poverty in these countries, especially in rural areas, coupled with high consumption levels of
this grain, I would hypothesize that these preliminary findings may indicate that for low-income
populations, maize products are extremely important ‘tummy fillers’ and thus vital to household
food security.
2
Corn tamale, widely consumed in El Salvador; contains no other type of filling.

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REFERENCES
CEPALSTAT. (2015). Data available at
http://estadisticas.cepal.org/cepalstat/web_cepalstat/Portada.asp?idioma=i
FAOSTAT. (2015). Data available at http://faostat3.fao.org/home/E
Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and Recovery. (N.d). Disaster Risk Management in
Central America: GFDRR Country Notes, El Salvador. Washington, D.C.: GFDRR.
Retrieved from http://www.gfdrr.org/sites/gfdrr.org/files/El_Salvador_DRM.pdf
IICA (Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture). (1997). Agriculture in the
Dominican Republic, 1991-1995 & beyond. Port of Spain, Republic of Trinidad and
Tobago.
SIAGRO (Sistema de Información Agropecuaria). (2013). Data available at
http://www.cepal.org
SIRSAN (Sistema Integrado de Información Regional en Seguridad Alimentaria y Nutricional).
(2015). Data available at http://www.sica.int/sirsan/

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