Sanitation research fund_NEW JULY

SUMMARY
The Sanitation Research Fund for Africa Programme aims to stimulate local competency and
capacity in the sanitation sector in the Eastern and Southern African Regions, and to provide
solutions based on good scientific evidence related to up-scaling dry sanitation technologies. The
Programme was established through a USD 2.5 Million grant from The Bill & Melinda Gates
Foundation (BMGF).
• Duration: Nov. 2012 - January 2017
• Grant size: $2,499,982 (OPP1044943)
• WRC Contribution: USD 0.3 Million (two South African-based projects)
Two key research areas identified for the project:
• Characterisation of pit contents and developing a scientific understanding of processes oc-
curring in onsite dry pit latrines systems in low income urban areas
• Developing innovative techniques for pit desludging and subsequent sludge management in
low income urban settlements
Twelve research contracts were awarded, on a competitive basis to research institutes or organi-
sations in the targeted areas. The projects were executed using the WRC model of research and
innovation generation and dissemination.
Six institutions/organisations were selected for developing innovative techniques for pit de-
sludging and subsequent management:
ATL-Hydro (South Africa - Dr. Wade Edwards)
Water for People (Uganda – Ms. Cate Nimanya)
Mzuzu University (Malawi - Dr. Rochelle Holm)
Chinhoyi University of Technology (Zimbabwe - Dr. Kurazhi Bangira)
Rhodes University (South Africa – Mr. Richard Laubscher)
University of the North-West (Potchefstroom) (South Africa -Prof. Carlos Bezuidenhout)
Six institutions were offered research contracts to analyse various physico-chemical proper-
ties of faecal sludge:
University of Botswana (Botswana - Dr. P. Odirile)
Jimma University (Ethiopia – Dr. Abebe Beyene)
Egerton University (Kenya – Mr. Edward Muchiri)
University of Malawi (Malawi- Dr. Bernard Thole)
Makerere University (Uganda –Dr. Ahamada Zziwa)
University of Zambia (Zambia - Professor Imasiku Nyambe)
Contact:
Mr. Jay Bhagwan (jayb@wrc.org.za)
Dr. Sudhir Pillay (sudhirp@wrc.org.za)

BACKGROUND
Substantial progress has been made with regards to access to sanitation in the developing world.
With the conclusion of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the United Nations (U.N)
reported that Goal 7, Target 10 - to halve the world population which did not have basic sanitation
by 2015 - was achieved with 2.1 billion gaining access to improved sanitation . However, these
figures are based on infrastructure targets – there is little evidence on the condition of the toilets
and how the waste is collected and managed.
The developing world is noted for the predominant usage of on-site sanitation technologies.
When on-site sanitation systems fill up or becomes full, it is no longer an appropriate and hygienic
system. In such a situation, it leads to the question: What Happens When the Pit is Full?
Faecal sludge – a mixture of human urine and faeces of varying stability and pollutant
concentration – accumulates in on-site systems and needs to be regularly collected, emptied and
disposed. Faecal Sludge Management (FSM) – the management of this supply chain - has gained
prominence in recent years with the realisation that on-site sanitation is not a temporary solution
for many developing countries.
The Water Research Commission (WRC) together with the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation
(BMGF) has strategically invested in growing the technical capacity and knowledge base needed
to support FSM in sub-Saharan Africa. In 2013, the Sanitation Research Fund for Africa (SRFA)
Programme was launched through this joint strategic initiative to provide solutions in FSM based
on good scientific evidence collected from sub-Saharan Africa. Through the SRFA Programme,
12 sub-Saharan African institutions and organisations were provided exclusive research contracts
of up to US$200,000 to:
• Scientifically elucidating the treatment processes occurring in VIP latrines and their variants
and pit filling rates; or
• Develop emptying and faecal sludge beneficiation technologies.
The overall goal of the SRFA Programme aligns with the development targets proposed through
the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), namely:
Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all:
• By 2030, expand international cooperation and capacity-building support to developing
countries in water- and sanitation-related activities and programmes, including water
harvesting, desalination, water efficiency, wastewater treatment, recycling and reuse
technologies
• Support and strengthen the participation of local communities in improving water and
sanitation management
And Goal 17: Revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development, specifically:
• Enhance international support for implementing effective and targeted capacity-building in
developing countries to support national plans to implement all the sustainable development
goals, including through North-South, South-South and triangular cooperation
1
United Nations (U.N) (n.d). We Can End Poverty: Millennium Development Goals and Beyond 2015. Retrieved from:
http://www.un.org/millenniumgoals/environ.shtml. [Date accessed 14 April 2016].

CAPACITY BUILDING DETAILS
Twelve research teams were competitively-awarded research contracts for up to US$200,000. The
Terms of Reference for the SRFA Programme had a requirement for post-graduate candidates,
specifically MSc and PhD candidates. The research projects were managed through the WRC’s
45 year old Research and Innovation model which includes peer review from the world’s leading
sanitation experts.
PIT CHARACTERISATION
Six research teams were selected to perform in-country analysis of the physico-chemical charac-
teristics of faecal sludge:
Research Team Country Project Leader
University of Botswana Botswana Phil Odirile
Jimma University Ethiopia Abebe Beyene
Egerton University Kenya Edward Muchiri
University of Malawi Malawi Bernard Thole
Makerere University Uganda Ahmed Zziwa
University of Zambia Zambia Imasiku Nyambe
EMPTYING AND BENEFICIATION TECHNOLOGIES
Six research teams were selected to develop pit emptying and faecal sludge beneficiation technol-
ogies:
Research Team Country Project Leader
Mzuzu University Malawi Rochelle Holm
ATL-Hydro South Africa Wade Edwards
Rhodes University South Africa Richard Laubscher
University of North-West South Africa Carlos Bezuidenhout
Water For People Uganda Uganda Cate Nimanya
Chinhoyi University Zimbabwe Kurazhi Bangira
NUMBER OF RESEARCHERS SUPPORTED
The research contracts have
facilitated the support of 53
researchers and their support
staff. There are twelve project
leaders for each of the 12
research and development
projects with two female
project leaders.
8; 15%
Project Team (n=53)
Male Female
45; 85%
2; 17%
Project Team (n=12)
Male
PL
Female
PL
10; 83%

In addition to the support staff, several partnerships have made with other institutions and organ-
isations to add value to other research programmes:
Research Team Research Partner Partnership Role
Mzuzu University North Carolina University Field-testing support
University of Botswana University of KwaZulu-Natal Data support
University of Zambia University of KwaZulu-Natal Co-ordination of BMGF Omni-
ingestor workshop in Zambia
NUMBER OF STUDENTS
A total of 35 active postgraduate students were involved in research activities with 5 PhD and 30
MSc candidates. Female students represent 23% of the total.
MSc PhD
5; 14%
30; 86%
Post-Graduates (n=35) Post-Graduates (n=35)
8; 23%
27; 77%
Male Female
Osbert Otwijukye is a MSc Civil Eng candidate who
has been leading the research for the Water For People
Uganda’s Dewatering Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant.
Khumbo Kalulu is PhD candidate who is investigat-
ing the characteristics of faecal sludge for subsequent
co-composting and sand filter treatment in Malawi.

Scientific Evaluation of Pit Latrine Processes

TOPICS ON PIT PROCESSES
A range of topics relating to the characterisation of faecal sludge is being conducted in six coun-
tries:
First Name Family Name Country Degree Topic
Mohau Moshoeshoe Botswana PhD Establishing a methodology for determination of
sludge chemical properties
Innocent Thukwi Botswana MSc Impacts of sludge management practices and
policy on characteristics of sludge
Dintwa Ontiretse Botswana MSc To be determined – coursework completed
Tshenyego Lamong Botswana MSc To be determined – coursework completed
Tamene Debela Ethiopia PhD Characterisation of dry toilets along their depth
profile towards valorisation of their contents
Wakigari Gamu Ethiopia MSc Evaluation of biochar derived from faecal sludge:
nexus approach towards sanitation, energy and
soil amendment
Jayson Maingi Kenya MSc Assessing helminthic ova viability in faecal sludge
and desludging practices in Nakuru county Kenya
Fredrick Gudda Kenya MSc Characterisation of faecal sludge and user
activities of Pit latrines in peri-urban settlements
of Nakuru county, Kenya
Khumbo Kalulu Malawi PhD Applicability of faecal sludge-solid waste co-
composting and sand filter as treatment options
for treatment of faecal sludge from pit latrines in
unplanned areas in Blantyre City
Chancy Chavula Malawi MPhil Microbiological characterisation of sludge and
potential pit sludge contamination to nearby water
source in Mtandire Township in Lilongwe
Darlington Chimutu Malawi MPhil Examination of pit sludge management, chemical
sludge characteristics and potential pit sludge-
water interaction in Ntopwa, Blantyre
Charles Chirwa Malawi MSc Assessment of undrained faecal sludge shear
strength in low income areas in Mzuzu city and
the potential for its application in sanitation
business
Maureen Nabulime Uganda MSc Evaluation of faecal sludge physiochemical and
rheological properties influencing emptying of
unlined pit latrines in Kampala slums
Yvonne Lugali Uganda MSc Modelling sludge accumulation rates in pit
latrines: Case of Kampala city slums
Daniel Kimuli Uganda MSc Potential of nutrient recovery from pit latrines for
soil enhancement: A case study of Kampala city.
Sylivia Nabateesa Uganda MSc Occurrence and survival of pathogens at different
sludge depths in pit latrines and proximal
groundwater sources and drainage water channels

James Tembo Zambia PhD Faecal sludge characterisation for enhanced
sanitation provision in low income urban areas: A
case of Lusaka's peri urban areas
Zamiwe Mbewe Zambia MSc Assessment of parasitic ova and oocysts in pit
latrine faecal sludge: A case study of Chaisa,
George, Kanyama and Madimba Compounds Of
Lusaka, Zambia
PIT SAMPLING INNOVATIONS
By sampling through various layers of a pit latrine and analysing its contents, research teams aim
to establish the processes occurring in pit latrines and subsequently have a better understanding
of how to manage faecal sludge. Sampling was not an easy task – the majority of pit latrines en-
countered by research teams had with no access ports or slabs. Innovative sampling devices were
designed and manufactured by research teams to enable sampling without destroying the super-
structure of the latrines. Sampling tools were customised to match the latrine design limitations
in their respective study areas.
WHAT IS HAPPENING IN PIT LATRINES?
In Uganda – an easily assembled sam-
pling device was manufactured
In South Africa– the standardised latrine design with
access slab enabled the research team to gain easy access
to faecal sludge.
In Zambia – The “Drinker” proved to be best option.
In Kenya – a cone-shaped
sampling device was used.
In Ethiopia – an easi-
ly-assembled cone-shaped
sampling device was used.
In Zambia – sample taken
with a modified tube with
lid.
In Zimbabwe – a stick
with cup and lid was used.

FAECAL SLUDGE CHARACTERISATION
Research teams encountered a variety of latrines in the field. The lack of latrine design standardi-
sation was common in the most study areas; researchers had to develop innovative techniques to
access sludge. Botswana, South Africa and Zimbabwe were the exceptions – in these countries,
large infrastructure programmes were implemented with standardised design features including
access ports.
A range of parameters tested by research teams:
WHAT IS HAPPENING IN PIT LATRINES?
In Zambia – latrine sludge is
accessed via hole (top left).
In Malawi – a pit latrine without a
sturdy superstructure (top middle).
In Malawi – detritus removed from
squat hole (top right).

Technologies accross the supply chain

INNOVATIONS ACROSS FAECAL SLUDGE MANAGEMENT CHAIN
A range of topics relating to innovations in the FSM supply chain is being evaluated across six
countries:
First Name Family Name Country Degree Topic
Willy Chipeta Malawi MSc Investigation on new technologies for pit
desludging in peri urban Mzuzu, Malawi
Daniel Nyrirenda Malawi MSc Faecal sludge management in peri-urban
Malawi: An analysis of policy gaps
Rashid Chiposa Malawi MSc Situation analysis of pit latrines –A snapshot
analysis of pit latrines in peri-urban area 1b
Gabriel Kapanda Malawi MSc Establishing the status of sanitation and faecal
sludge management in Mzuzu; a focus on
schools, markets, hospitals, bus depots and
prisons
Chifundo Kayoka Malawi MSc CLTS and disability in Rumphi District, Malawi
Yaseen Salie South
Africa
MSc Solar pasteurisation of faecal sludge using a
trail-mounted parabolic reflector
Senta Berner South
Africa
PhD Priority setting for the installation of sanitation
systems integrating organic waste management
Liandi Bothma South
Africa
MSc Study on the microbial community shift during
co-fermentation of substrates
Bren Botha South
Africa
MSc Anaerobic digestion of faecal sludge and
associated microbial communities in batch
reactors
Phindile Madikizela South
Africa
MSc Investigation of the ADAPT (Anaerobic
Digestion and Pasteurisation Treatment) process
for the treatment and re-use of faecal sludge
George Otaka Uganda MSc Assessment of the performance of a
decentralized faecal sludge treatment system
and reuse potential of end products
Anthony Okucu Uganda MSc An investigation into the physical properties
and the fluidisation of pit latrine sludge for
improved emptying
Salome Ajuna Uganda MSc Development of a method for on-site treatment
and dewatering of pit latrine faecal sludge in
high water table areas
Habert Atayo Uganda MSc A motorised faecal sludge emptying device:
pump and go.
Osbert Atwijuke Uganda MSc Faecal sludge dewatering and carbonisation to
make briquettes
Munyaradzi Changara Zimbabwe Mphil Potential of anaerobically digested pit latrine
sludge on soil properties and plant growth
Nathan Gubi Zimbabwe Mphil Feasibility of anaerobic digestion of pit latrine
sludge: effect on methane production and
pathogen composition

INNOVATIVE PEDESTALS AND SUPERSTRUCTURES
Water For People Uganda through their SaniHub Project demonstrated new pedestal designs and
superstructures aimed at upgrading traditional latrines to pour flush alternatives. The purpose
of the demonstrators was to provide an appealing product to customers which could limit trash
through innovative P-Trap designs and which could be manufactured and erected quickly. The
ultimate aim of the demonstrators was to de-skill the supply chain thereby creating a standardised
product which should increase consumer confidence and uptake.
The pour flush system developed under Water For People Uganda’s SaniHub Project has been
branded and marketed as Dura-San. The latrine superstructure was made from pre-fabricated
interlocking concrete blocks to reduce the construction time and the level of skill needed for
construction. Further it allowed the latrine superstructure to be easily disassembled in order to
relocate the latrine. Such strategy also circumnavigates landlord-tenant issues allowing tenants to
take the technology with them should they relocate.
The initial design was refined from a structure comprised of 40 blocks to a 1m x 1m structure
consisting of just 24 blocks reducing the manufacturing cost and installation time. The same inter-
locking blocks for the superstructure are used for the lining of an offset pit. Because of the Kam-
pala’s seasonal high water table and risk of ground water contamination, Kampala City Capital
Authority has stated that all new pit constructions should be impermeable. Sani-Hub is currently
planning an investigation into using different block configurations to create low-cost septic tanks
and their derivatives, such as baffled reactors.
NEW PEDESTALS AND UPGRADES
Interlocking concrete blocks Blow-out schematic of the
Dura-San
An erected Dura-San
supersturcture
Pour flush system made with interlocking blocks An installed off-set pour flush latrine pit

With a labour force of three men, all the concrete components of one latrine can be manufactured
in one day. Assembly time takes around 4 hours per latrine. Ten Dura-San latrines have been
installed in Mukono district, an 8-day operation in which on day one all the components for 10
latrines were loaded on to a 2 pick-ups and delivered to each of the 10 households. All 10 latrines
were then successfully assembled over the following 7 days. The total cost for installation for one
latrine was around US$343 including labour costs.
Customer feedback and performance surveys were carried out for technology. Over 90% of re-
spondents indicated that the Dura-San was better than their current facility with over 80% indi-
cating that the system was affordable at the market price of close to US$600.
Water For People Uganda also examined whether existing latrines could be upgraded to pour flush
systems by installing an off-set pit adjacent to existing superstructure. A ceramic pan and P-Trap
are then installed at existing slab level, and concrete is poured around the pan to raise the floor to
pan level. As the upgrade system may not be suitable for all households, a set of criterion has been
developed to assess a facility’s suitability for this upgrade. Innovative P-Traps products, such as the
Flapper, have been installed in latrines to limit detritus.
NEW PEDESTALS AND UPGRADES
Schematic showing upgrade of traditional latrine to
pour flush
Flapper upgrade installed
Model of traditional latrine before (bottom left) and after the renovation (bottom right).

PIT EMPTYING TECHNOLOGIES
The SRFA Programme has resulted in the development and testing of several desludging products.
Mzuzu University, Malawi
ThestudyareawasthecityofMzuzulocatedinthenorthernpartofMalawi.Thecityhasapopulation
of around 130,000 people with almost half of households occurring in informal settlements. There
is no centralised sewerage system. Pit emptying is handled by private entrepreneurs. The research
undertaken by Mzuzu University aims to review existing and new technological desludging
options for the Mzuzu city with the purpose of improving the efficiency of pit emptying services.
The solutions evaluated included the Pressure Washer and Sludge pump – commonly used in peri-
urban areas; the Excrevator Auger System developed by North Carolina University, the Gulper
and a treadle pump system developed by post-graduate students from locally-available parts. The
development of pit fishing tools – tools to remove detritus from pits – proved to be important for
pit emptying operations.
EMPTYING TECHNOLOGIES
The Mzuzu University research
team remove detritus before testing
equipment
Exploratory designs for fishing tools
were formulated and demonstration
tools tested
The North Carolina Excrevator Auger
was tested by Mzuzu researchers
A Gulper powered by a treadle and
manufactured entirely from local
spares

Water For People Uganda
Kampala is the capital city of Uganda and has around 1.6 million inhabitants. The sewerage net-
work serves about 6% of the population and is limited to the central business district. Approxi-
mately 94% of Kampala’s residents use on-site sanitation facilities of variable quality and effective-
ness that require emptying from timeously. Simple Pit and VIP Latrines as the 2 common latrine
types in Kampala. The emptying period may vary from 6 months up to 5 years depending on the
nature of construction, height of the local water table, the amount of detritus deposited in the
pit and the ground conditions. Water For People Uganda estimated the faecal sludge demand for
Kampala to be 937 m3
/day. The research activities target semi-manual pit emptying entrepreneurs
by providing them with more efficient emptying devices that reduce emptying time.
EMPTYING TECHNOLOGIES
A synthetic sludge formulation
was developed by the team to
safely test equipment under a
range of shear strengths.
The Nibbler – Device that has
motor bike chain onto which
circular discs are welded to scoop
viscous sludge.
The Gulper – a simple direct lift
pump to reach 1.5m into pit.
The Rammer – a modified Gulper
with a butterfly valve that can be
extended to 3.0 m inside a pit.
providing operator feedback to pit
emptying entrepreneurs.
Field-testing of the Rammer in
Kampala.

TRANSPORT
Water For People Uganda developed and tested several innovative containerised and loading
devices aimed at improving the operations for pit emptying entrepreneurs through increased
convenience and reducing loading time to transport faecal sludge to point of disposal.
TRANSPORT
The Shlifter (left) - an easily assembled
and transportable barrel lifting device
that works on the simple principle of
counterweight. The product aims to
reduce loading times.
The Handcart (right) – aims to provide
a simple lifting device to enable pit
emptiers to deliver more sludge to
transport vehicle. The maximum
weight that can be carried by the
device is 250 kg.
A clamp device (left) was developed
to reduce spillage from 220 ℓ transport
drums. Previous metal clamps would
warp lids and slip off.
The Grappler (right) - a small con-
tainerised device that is used by two
pit emptying operators to carry a 50 ℓ
barrel. The products targets high-den-
sity settlements which are not suitable
for the Handcart.

BENEFICIATION
In this section, the beneficiation products developed through the SRFA Programme are presented.
Water For People Uganda has been promoting pit emptying business using low-cost locally
fabricated equipment. This business has attracted entrepreneurs but the challenge in making the
business profitable was the long distances to safely dispose of faecal sludge. The research team
investigated the possibility of introducing Decentralised Faecal Sludge Treatment (DeFAST) units
that could be installed in close proximity to emptying services. The beneficiation of dewatered
faecal sludge using carbonisation techniques, vermicomposting and black soldier fly digestion has
been explored by the research team.
BENEFICIATION TECHNOLOGIES
Carbonisation products and
briquettes.
Vermicompost using
Tiger worms.
Black Solider Fly larvae colonies
established.
Schematic of the DeFAST system in Lubaga, Kampala. Loading platform for semi-mechanised emptying
services.
The liquid supernatant from faecal sludge collect and
disposed at the DEFAST system undergoes a staged
anaerobic treatment process. The dewatered faecal
sludge is then placed on drying beds. Plastic tanks
enable the system to be installed quickly.
The planted gravel filter provides secondary treatment
to the anaerobically-treated faecal sludge
supernatant. The combined process enabled COD,
BOD5 and Faecal coliforms removals over 90%, 70%
and 96%, respectively.

The pilot results have informed the upscaling of two DeFAST demonstration facilities funded
by the Interchurch Organization for Development Cooperation (ICCO) and Kole District Local
Government. This new project will serve as a demonstration model for the sustainable scaling
up of semi-mechanised pit emptying services linked to beneficiation in other regions of Uganda.
ATL-Hydro, South Africa
The business model developed by ATL-Hydro South Africa is based on a closed-loop, point-of-
use dry sanitation entrepreneurship model linking a solar pasteuriser and associated faecal sludge
beneficiation technologies with servicing of toilet units.
Training provided to new semi-mechanised pit
emptiers.
The new DeFAST facility built in Kole District .
The mobile solar pasteuriser developed by ATL-Hydro.
Temperatures of close to 300o
C can be reached without
sludge input. The innovation has undergone several
iterations to enable greater efficiency. These modifica-
tions include the inclusion of improved feeding inlet
using a modified mincer, lubricants to prevent scouring
of sludge within heating tube, and installation of a
glass tube around the sludge transfer tube to reduce
heat loss.
The research team developed a gasification stove which
integrates the design of a top-lit updraft (TLUD) stove
and a rocket stove to re-use solar pyrolysed treated
sludge for heating purposes. The stove was introduced
to rural communities to evaluate uptake of the tech-
nology and user acceptance of re-use of faecal sludge
products.

Rhodes University, South Africa
Rhodes University, based in Grahamstown, South Africa, evaluated the concept of Anaerobic Di-
gestion and Pasteurisation Treatment (ADAPT) for beneficiation of faecal sludges from pit latrines
into agricultural products. Two types of anaerobic digester experiments were performed; one set
with a pilot-scale anaerobic system and the other with a series of bench-top experiments using
modified Schott bottles as mini-anaerobic digesters. The experiments aimed at determining opti-
mising the biogas output for re-use in the pasteurisation process. Co-digestion with other organic
feeds and pathogen die-off experiments were also performed. Greenhouse agricultural trials using
pasteurised faecal sludge products provided useful information on the potential for re-use.
Bench-top anaerobic tests performed
with faecal sludge and / or algae,
paper, sewerage and manure co-feeds
(left). Algae co-feeds were found to
improve biogas production the most.
A hand-cranked laboratory-scale
anaerobic digester used to measure gas
yields from investigations (right).
Faecal sludge pasteurisation tests on a
gas plate using LPG as a proxy combus-
tible gas in place of biogas for heating
(left). The gas usage was determined by
weight loss from the gas cylinder. The
equivalent volume of biogas that would
be required to pasteurise 1 kg of faecal
sludge is 5.5 m3
.
Pasteurised faecal sludge was evalu-
ated as an agricultural product. The
photo to the right shows the response
of garden cress to various strength
fertilisers derived from anaerobically
digested faecal sludge.

University of the North-West
In Potchefstroom, South Africa, the University of the North-West’s Integrated Faecal Sludge Man-
agement (iFSM) Project aims to establish whether anaerobic co-digestion could be used to treat
faecal sludge with other organic waste streams. Although the majority of the population is ser-
viced by waterborne sanitation in the study area, there is approximately 15% of the population
which rely on on-site systems. The research activities support Tlokwe City municipality’s strate-
gy to integrate faecal sludge management into existing municipal infrastructure including their
wastewater treatment works digesters.
Batch reactors are used to determine
gas yields from various organic
substrates available within the study
area, including agricultural products
such as pig slurry (left).
The batch reactors consist of Schott
bottles with a gas outlet.
The outlet is connected to gas bag
with push-lock T-connector and
Hoffman clamp (middle right)
Two continuously stirred tank
reactors (CSTR) have been used in
order to investigate the influence of
variation in organic loading on gas
production (bottom left). Co-diges-
tion tests were performed using a
combination of faecal sludge with
sewerage sludge, food waste and
grass cuttings.

Chinhoyi University
Historically, Zimbabwe has always pursued a dual sanitation system, with the urban sector relying
on waterborne sewerage networks designed to the highest international standards and the use
of the pit latrines, of which the Blair Ventilated Pit Latrine (BVIP) is the most common, in rural
areas. The informal and peri-urban settlements in and around the capital city, Harare, show that
the distinguishing feature of these settlements is lack of land-use planning and water and sewer
reticulation systems. In these areas, the great majority of residents rely on pit latrines and their
variants for sanitation. In central northern Zimbabwe, Chinhoyi University is evaluating anaero-
bic technology for treatment of faecal sludges in these peri-urban and rural areas with agricultural
beneficiation envisaged following treatment.
Samples were collected from pit latrines
located in Hatcliffe and Shackelton. Faecal
sludge samples were analysed from pit
latrines in the study area to complement
other characterisation studies in the SRFA
Programme. A 3.5kg moist faecal sludge
sample was weighed and placed into
laboratory-scale anaerobic reactors.
The optimum HRT was found to be 25
days with variation in degradation rates
noted between different pit latrines. The
anaerobic process was able to statistically
reduce the number of pathogen indicator
bacteria but the process could not achieve
the WHO guidelines for unrestricted land
application.
A sequence of pilot biogas digester
development starting from top left: (A)
Laying foundation, (B) An almost complete
dome-shaped bio-digester. The three men
on the mid top photo are standing on
the site of the toilet. The pipe from the
rectangular toilet box connects to the
bio-digester, (C) a completed dome-shaped
bio-digester with the gas delivery pipe
at the centre, (D) cattle rumen contents
being loaded onto the lorry as a start-up
material. The rumen is co-digested with
faecal material from the toilet, (F) The
delivery pipe was connected to a valve
which, in turn was connected to the gas
delivery pipe which passed through a (D)
desulphuriser. (H) The gas is connected to a
two-plate LPG gas stove.

KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
This section provides an overview of the knowledge management for the SRFA Programme.
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS
A total of 22 conference presentations were made by research teams. The SRFA Programme was
able to contribute 10 presentations towards the FSM3 Conference in Hanoi, Vietnam. A further 3
presentations were made at various WEDC Conferences.
SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS
A total of 6 scientific journals have been published through the SRFA Programme with a further
5 in the journal review stage. Further scientific publication is anticipated as the SRFA Programme
concludes.
OTHER PUBLICATIONS
In 2015, the WRC through independent contractor, Sarah Slabbert, compiled The Status of Faecal
Sludge Management in Eight Southern and East African Countries from deliverable reports from
each research team. The report provided useful insight into the general state of sanitation, and the
FSM policies and practices in study areas. The Sanitation Matters 2014 magazine produced by the
WRC also provided brief highlights from the SRFA Programme and other sanitation programmes
in Africa.
Conferences (n=22)
7; 32%
FSM3 WEDC Conf.
IWA Other
10; 45%
2; 9%
3; 14%
Journal Publica on (n=11)
5; 45%
Published
6; 55%
Submission
WRC Research Report KV340 by
Sarah Slabbert (2015).
Sanitation Matters Magazine
(2014).
Brochures detailing activities and
results for research teams (2016).

WORKSHOPS
A total of 6 workshops were held by the WRC and its contracted researchers; two of the work-
shops were Annual Reference Group meetings aimed at assisting and guiding the research teams
in achieving the objectives of their project. SRFA Researchers and WRC staff members have also
participated and / or assisted in arrangements for workshops of strategic importance, including
the BMGF Omni-ingestor workshop 24-29 April 2016.
KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT
Dr. Rochelle Holm presents the Mzuzu
University research outputs at the 1st
Annual Reference Group meeting in
Johannesburg, 30-31 January 2014.
Mr. Jay Bhagwan from the WRC
thanks Reference Group members
Prof. Thammarat Koottatep and Prof.
Katrik Chandran for their guidance at
the 1st Annual Reference.
Mzuzu University’s Centre of Excellence in
Water and Sanitation hosted a faecal sludge
management review workshop, 24 August
2014. The purpose of the workshop was to
bring Malawian stakeholders together to
understand the challenges associated with
faecal sludge management in the country and
to showcase some of work progress under the
SRFA Programme.
Water For People Uganda hosted a work-
shop on sustainable sanitation technologies
during AfricaSan Dakar, 25 May 2015. A
model of the DeFAST system was presented
at the workshop together with emptying
devices. Various other technologies from
Water For People Uganda and the SRFA
Programme were also presented.

AWARDS
Individuals and research teams’ have been recognised for their contribution to FSM Research and
Development. This section provides a summary of awards.
Organisation / University Representative Title of Award Date
Water For People Samuel Malinga 2nd prize at the Civil Society Innovation 2016
University of Malawi Khumbo Kalulu Student Sanitation Prize at WISA-IWA YWP,
Pretoria
2015
Water For People Samuel Malinga Finalist Royal Academy of Engineering 2014
In 2014, Water For People Uganda was one of 12 finalists for The Royal Academy of Engineering
Africa Prize. This prize recognises sub-Saharan African researchers from all disciplines to develop
scalable solutions to local challenges for improved quality of life and economic development.
Water For People Uganda also claimed 2nd
Place at the Civil Society: Water Innovation Award 2016,
which was announced at the WASH Futures Conference Dinner, 17 May 2016.
University of Malawi researcher and PhD candidate Mr. Khumbo Kalulu was awarded the Jay
Bhagwan Sanitation Award for the Highest Scoring Sanitation Themed Presentation or Poster at
the WISA-IWA Young Water Professionals Conference in Pretoria, South Africa 18 November
2015

The WRC’S 45-YEAR R&D MODEL
A fundamental guiding framework is the construct of the WRC Knowledge Tree. The ‘tree’ met-
aphor reflects strength in foundation - ‘roots’ firmly embedded in sound knowledge - & strong
growth - ‘branches & leaves’ - each having its contribution to development targets, either directly
or indirectly. The goals are not mutually exclusive.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For more information contact
Jay Bhagwan at jayb@wrc.org.za
www.wrc.org.za

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