Understanding the principles and theories of motivation and emotion

Submitted By:
Motivation and
Emotions

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Table of Contents
Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 2
Defining Motivation........................................................................................................................ 2
Theories of Motivation................................................................................................................ 2
Motivational Strategies ................................................................................................................... 4
Reward Management .................................................................................................................. 4
Flexibility.................................................................................................................................... 6
Personal Involvement.................................................................................................................. 7
Emotion and its components........................................................................................................... 8
The Subjective Experience.......................................................................................................... 8
Physiological Arousal ................................................................................................................. 9
Behavioral Expression ................................................................................................................ 9
Theories of Emotions.................................................................................................................. 9
Emotions in the workplace............................................................................................................ 12
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................... 13
References..................................................................................................................................... 14

Introduction
Motivation and emotions are often viewed by individuals as two essential psychological
elements that shows a cause and effect relationship on each other. Motivation basically
stimulates an individual to behave or act in order to achieve the desired goals. On the other hand,
emotions can be referred to the feelings that are derived from the motive, from the failure or
achievement of desired objective, or the action caused by the motive. The purpose of this
research assignment is to overview the two phenomena’s “Motivation” and “Emotion” more
deeply by understanding the principles and theories of motivation and emotion. The theories of
motivation explains the drive behind the behaviors of individual. While, emotional theories
points out how individual recognize and interpret his or her emotions at cognitive, physiological
and social level.
Defining Motivation
Motivation is associated with a force that acts upon an individual that instigates him or
her to behave or perform an action. The behavior is not apparent and thus cannot be directly
observed. However, behavior is used to satisfy certain drive or need. The theorists of motivation
defines motivation in terms of three distinct elements: Intensity, Persistence and Activation
(Rabey). Intensity is associated with vigor or energy, meaning thereby, individuals spend more
efforts, energy and time on more motivated behaviors. Persistence is associated with behavior
durability, meaning thereby, highly motivated behaviors persist more even they are successful
initially. Activation is associated with an initiative (Rabey).
Theories of Motivation
The theories of motivation are linked with interpretation of behaviors by identifying the
purpose, cause and rationale of any behavior.

 An evolutionary perspective has been taken by the motivation’s instinct theories.
According to this theory, individuals engage in certain fixed actions such as play,
sociability, curiosity and attachment as these behaviors are adaptive and increases the
chances of reproduction and survival (Fried and Slowik).
 The drive theory of motivation explains that biological needs initiate an internal state of
drive which motivates the individuals’ behaviors. Generally, these drives are associated
with biological needs such as sex, sleep and hunger drives (Lawrence and Jordan).
 According to Arousal theory, goal in the optimal arousal instead of homeostasis. It can be
extremely useful in explaining the differences among personalities such as difference
between introverts and extroverts. Introverts requires less stimulation while extroverts
require more. These theories also linked with emotional phenomena of depression,
boredom and stress (Levoy).
 Incentive theories of motivation states that individual behaviors are motivated by
extrinsic forces rather than the intrinsic one. Extrinsic forces of motivators are the ones
which come from outside environment of an individual. For example, a person may be
more motivated on a job if he receives higher salary.
 Humanistic theory is in contrast of incentive theory that highlights the importance of
intrinsic emotional and psychological needs. For example, a person may perform well on
the job not because of external incentives but because of intrinsic factors such as he
enjoys doing work (Fu, Richards and Jones).
 The cognitive approach has a focus on decision making and rationality capabilities of
humans. It is stated that motivations can be both intrinsic and extrinsic. However,
individuals with intrinsic motivation, may reduce their level of motivation when they are

received external rewards. This is because they desire for intrinsic rewards more.
Moreover, if behaviors are not associated with long term complex goals, intrinsic
motivation is far better than extrinsic motivation (Fu, Richards and Jones).
 The theory of Maslow explains motivation in terms of needs hierarchy that must be
fulfilled in the following manner (Maslow):
o Physiological
o Safety
o Love and belongingness,
o Self Esteem
o Self-actualization
Motivational Strategies
Motivating employees is an extremely complex task for management. It can be said that
one of the greatest strategy of motivation is to develop and implement eco-friendly polices
within an organization (Lawrence and Jordan). Improper and mismatch strategies may result in
the hindrance of work of employees as well as managers. Motivation has a direct link with
employees as well as organization (Levoy). So, it is extremely important to develop appropriate
strategies to improve employee and organizational performance.
 Reward Management
There are two driving forces of motivation (Emery). Firstly, according to the need theory
when an individual needs to gain organizational resources is fulfilled, the person becomes
motivated (Lawrence and Jordan). Secondly, another great driving source of motivation is the
commitment of an employee towards external opportunities or problems. The true success of
organization lies in the fact that common goals are shared by employees as well as management.

In other words, organization has achieved a strategic fit among employees and organizational
policies (Emery).
Effective reward systems within the organization have well established performance
appraisal system for employees. In addition to this, there should be integration of appraisals with
the actions of management in order to ensure that feedback taken is meaningful and will
contribute in making significant improvements within organization. Effective feedback and
appraisal system will ensure clear communication between employees and management (Emery).
Moreover, the rewards system effectiveness does not solely depends upon financial rewards.
Instead, the focus of organization should shift from financial one to the behavioral system of
rewards (Aubrey, James and Bill). Moreover, benefits payment may still remain extremely
insufficient for employees although it has become a need of organization (Emery).
Reward system has a direct link with the performance and success of organization. It has
been argued that effective reward schemes results in positive reinforcement among employees.
In order to bring positive reinforcement, there are number of factors that plays a major role in the
designing process of effective reward system (Aubrey, James and Bill). Firstly, the reward
system should be designed in such a manner to replace the old subjective techniques with the
incredible objective performance system of measurement. In organizational settings, supervisors
and managers hold powers of giving feedbacks and appraisals to the employees. This has
increased the likelihood of biasness and unfair practices within the organization. Every employee
has the right of receiving information, procedural and distributive justice. But, personal
perceptions, likeness and prejudice can create devastating impacts on organizations. Secondly,
bonuses paid by the organizations at the end of the year on the basis of performance should be
replaced by pay. Since, bonuses have been considered as a discretional mode of payment to

employees for their good performance (Aubrey, James and Bill). Thirdly, organization should
minimize performance measurement strategies for groups as these measurements does not take
into account individual performances. Organization should give more focus on personal
performance measurement techniques in order to create greater sense of accountability among
employees (Aubrey, James and Bill). Lastly, organization should not only focus on outputs of
employees for payment purpose. Sometimes, employees exert high level of energy but does not
yield fruitful results due to uncertainty of circumstances. This, it should provide pay not only on
the basis of performance but on the basis of inputs and behaviors as well (Aubrey, James and
Bill).
 Flexibility
Inherent flexibility provided by organization in terms of its resources has significantly a
great influence of the performance of company (Ketkar and Sett). The availability of the
resources is not the main issue, instead optimal utilization of resources and its application is of
main concern. The effectiveness of an organization lies in how efficiently it utilizes its disposed
of resources (Ketkar and Sett).
The organizational human resources should be provided flexibility in terms of their
relationships with other employees and supervisors because it helps in achieving desired goals
and performance if managed properly (Ketkar and Sett). During the selection of employees,
organization should provide intense trainings to the new staff for the purpose of developing their
skills and polishing their existing skills. Management should also take proactive measures to
accurately determine the performance and outputs of employees to demonstrate the deviance in
expected and achieved results (Ketkar and Sett). Additionally, application and provision of
attractive rewards, incentives and compensation packages may contribute in more energy

exertion by employees for improving performance of organization (Ketkar and Sett). In addition
to this, the organization should implement open door policy or have good and accessible
communication channels so that information can be communicated to employees or to
management at any point in time when needed (Mishra, Mishra and Spreitzer). Additionally,
empowerment among employees should be encouraged by organization by arranging more
avenues and participatory forums within the organization. This effort by organization will boost
up the morale of employees and they will more willingly perform their job duties to contribute
towards success of organization (Ketkar and Sett).
 Personal Involvement
Personal involvement of top management is organization affairs is very essential to keep
track of activities of employee and organization as a whole. In addition to strategies of effective
rewards systems and flexibility, management must consider some other opportunities as well to
motivate employees. The personal involvement of management within the organization along
with culture of flexibility, creativity and innovation, with huge level of trust and open
communication atmosphere results in motivation of employees and higher performance of
organization (Mishra, Mishra and Spreitzer). The personal involvement is improved by various
factors. Innovation and creativity philosophies encouraged by the management of organization
can increase employee job commitment and result in positive changes within organization
(Mishra, Mishra and Spreitzer). Moreover, open communication within an organizational culture
that meets the needs of all of organizational stakeholders is also positively contributing in
motivation of employees (Mishra, Mishra and Spreitzer).

Emotion and its components
Emotions are referred to as complex psychological and physiological experiences that
acts as strong motivators. It includes three distinct components: physical arousal, subjective
experience and behavioral expression. Emotions can perform different functions such as it can
act as information, as goals, and as motivators. For using emotions for the purpose of
information, emotional intelligence is required for practicing the emotional experiences (Ekman,
Are there basic emotions?).
The purposes of emotions are not clear exactly, but it allows individuals to provide and
share information with other members. The basic emotions such as sadness, anger, surprise,
happiness, fear and disgust are recognized universally regardless of any race, language or
cultural boundaries. This emphasize the concept that emotions are associated with information
sharing (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett).
The process by which an individual undergoes a complex psychological and
physiological experiences due to his/her interactions with the surroundings is known as Emotion.
Different human beings experiences variety of emotions on daily basis. It can be positive or
negative. Emotions can be based on objects, events, self-appraisal, social emotions etc. Primary
emotions are the ones which are inborn and present at the time of individual’s birth such as joy,
fear, anger, care, love etc. Secondary emotions are the ones which people learn via experiences
during their course of life. It includes horror, neglect, shame, rage, pride, sympathy etc.
The Subjective Experience
Subjective experience is the most complex and trickiest component of emotions. Under
this, an individual interprets emotional information based on expectations, awareness, and

experiences, social and cultural expectations and label it as grief, guilt, elation or sadness.
Emotions can be evaluated and organized on the basis of (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett)
1. Activation (Arousal intensity)
2. Valence (Whether the emotion is negative or positive)
3. Interpersonal engagement (Whether the emotion is of personal or social nature)
Physiological Arousal
Emotions are experienced on the basis of activation of physical systems such as limbic
system and autonomic nervous system. Different kinds of physiological activations are observes
and associated with different kinds of emotions. However, generally the activation of
sympathetic nervous system and amygdala (part of brand used for interpreting experiences of
emotions) are required for experiencing emotions (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett).
Behavioral Expression
There are 2 broad classifications of behavioral expression. The expressions for complex
hybrid emotions can be learned by interaction with members of community, culture and family.
Contrary to this, the expressions for basic emotions can be pre-programmed on the basis of
evolution. Behavioral expressions are controlled by external display rules which not only
explains the manner of expression of emotions but the person and time for expression emotions
are also discussed. Expressing emotions appropriately by understanding display rules is essential
for participating at personal, community and society level (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett).
Theories of Emotions
There are various theories of emotions in the field of psychology. These theories are briefly
discussed below:

 The Cannon- Bard theory was originated by two physiologists, Philip Bard and Walter
Cannon. This theory is based on the belief that experiences and emotions can be feel
simultaneously (Lyons). Consider an example of a situation in which an individual is
alone in a dark room and suddenly starts hearing strange sounds from nearby. This
situation will increase the heart rate of an individual and he begin to tremble. During this
process of experiencing physical reactions, the person will experience the fear emotion at
the same time.
 William James and Carl Lange proposed James Lang theory related to emotions. This
theory is based on the philosophy that the emotional reaction of an individual is based on
his/her physical reactions interpretation. The nervous system of individuals formulate
physical reactions after experiencing different events including stomach ache, trembling,
increase heart rate etc. As a result of these physical reactions, emotional reactions are
created such as sadness, fear, anger, etc. (Lazarus). Consider the same example of a
situation in which an individual is alone in a dark room and suddenly starts hearing
strange sounds from nearby. This situation will increase the heart rate of an individual
and he begin to tremble. The person will interpret this physical reaction due to
nervousness and thus he experiences fear.
Event
Arousal
Emotion
Event Arousal EmotionInterpretation

 Schachter-Singer theory is based on the philosophy of logical reasoning. According to
them, reasoning plays a significant role in experiencing of emotions. During the
occurrence of an event, the elements of reasoning takes place in accordance with emotion
and arousal (Ekman). In the same example discussed above, the person realizes that
physical reactions of increased hear beat and trembling are due to the fact that
unaccompanied in this dark room. The person will assume that he may be in the position
of danger and thus feels the fear emotion.
 Schachter-Singer’s Two-Factor theory focuses on physiological arousal and cognitive
aspects in experiencing emotions. This theory states that interactions exist b/w
physiological arousal and how we label that arousal cognitively. Consider the same
example, is which person feels fear after listening strange sounds in a dark room.
According to this theory, the emotional cognitive experience process starts with
occurrence of an external stimulus i.e. strange sounds in the dark room, which results in
physical arousal (trembling and increased heart rate). The labels of cognitive experiences
arises when physiological arousal is associated with emotion of fear (Ekman).
Event Arousal EmotionReasoning
Event Arousal EmotionCognitive
Label

Emotions in the workplace
Emotions and motivations are subjective lens in the world of objectivity. In workplaces,
the process of decision making should be free from emotions as much as possible. It is essential
for managerial positions to discard emotions in decision making. Emotions can result in
complications of social interactions and can cloud judgments as it has the potency to create
imbalance in the human mind (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett).
Emotions can influence personality, disposition, temperament and motivation. Behavior
implications are important for every employee to understand. They must continuously identify
emotional dispositions affecting their judgments and behaviors in order to ensure that emotional
consequences are either neutralized or positive. Positive emotions can result in energy,
extroversion and job satisfaction. However, on the other hand, both negative and positive
emotions can affect the decision validity. Organizations can achieve the balance in person’s
emotions by encouraging positive employee dynamics and management. Job satisfaction and
motivation of employees also plays an important role in ensuring positive emotions of employee
at workplace. A satisfied employee may have reduced stress levels and turnover intention and
increased motivation and commitment. Additionally, organizational benefits such as company
retreats, meditation classes and gym and sports facilities can also significantly influence
motivational level and emotions of person. Monitoring and controlling functions are not the only
tasks of management instead they should have a focus on recognizing the emotional dissonance
levels in subordinates. They make a positive contribution in achieving the emotional balance to
ensure healthy mental and physical well-being. Managers must be strategic and perspective in
ensuring mental balance at work (Lewis, Haviland-Jones and Barrett).

Conclusion
To conclude, it can be said that motivation and emotions have a causal relationship on
each other. However, this relationship is more than that. Emotions and motivations play a great
role in the effectiveness of employees and organizations. Both of these constructs has a direct
link with employees and with organization. Emotion can be defined as the process by which an
individual undergoes a complex psychological and physiological experiences due to his/her
interactions with the surroundings. While, motivation is referred as a force that acts upon an
individuals to instigate them to behave or perform an action. Both of these constructs are
important to understand to increase organizational performance. Management should carefully
devise strategies to increase motivation among employees by providing rewards, flexibility and
personal involvement capacity. Along with this, open communication channels and good
performance measurement techniques should be adopted to increase the morale of employees.
Additionally, emotions can influence personality, disposition, temperament and motivation of
employees. It has been observed that strong positive or negative emotions can create imbalance
and affect the rational decision making capabilities of managers at workplace. Positive emotions
can result in energy, extroversion and job satisfaction. While, negative emotions can result in
turnover intension, stress, depression etc. So, for this purpose, management should make efforts
to harmonize positive and negative emotions of employees. A balance between both positive and
negative emotions is desirable for employees and organizations.

References
Aubrey, C Daniels, Daniels James and Abernathy Bill. "The Leader’s Role in Pay Systems and
Organizational Performance ." Compensation and Benefits Review (2006): 56-60.
Ekman, P. "An argument for basic emotions." Cognition and Emotion (1992): 169-200.
—. "Are there basic emotions?" Psychological Review (1992): 550-553.
Emery, Charles R. "A cause-effect-cause model for sustaining cross-functional integration."
Business Process Management Journal (2009): 93-108.
Fried, Y. and L. Slowik. "Enriching goal-Setting Theory with time: An integrated Approach."
Academy of Management Review (2004): 404-422.
Fu, F., Q, K., A Richards and E Jones. "The motivation hub: Effects of goal setting and self-
efficacy on effort and new product sales." Journal of Personal Selling & Sales
Management (2009): 277-292.
Ketkar, S and P. K. Sett. "HR flexibility and firm performance: analysis of a multi-level causal
model ." The International Journal of Human Resource Management (2009): 1009-1038.
Lawrence, S and P. Jordan. "Testing an Explicit and Implicit measure of motivation."
International Journal of Organizational Analysis (2009): 103-120.
Lazarus, R. S. Emotion and adaptation. New York: Oxford University Press, 1991.
Levoy, B. "Quiz: Test your knowledge of employee motivation strategies." Veterinary
Economics (2009).

Lewis, M, J. M Haviland-Jones and L. F Barrett. Handbook of emotions . New York: Guilford
Press, 2008.
Lyons, W. E. Emotion. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
Maslow, A. H. "A Theory of Human Motivation." Psychological Review (1943): 370-396.
Mishra, A, K Mishra and G Spreitzer. "Downsizing the Company Without Downsizing Morale."
MIT Sloan Management Review (2009): 39-44.
Rabey, G., P. "Motivation is response." Industrial and commercial training (2001): 26-28.

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