Article -Production and disposal of EV car batteries.

1. The Future of EV Battery Disposal:
Trends and Technologies to Watch
EV Battery Life EV Battery a Second Life What is in an EV Battery?
Battery Management EV battery disposal Environmental impacts
Future of EV Batteries Specialist Re-Cycling Commodity brokers
Bi-Products Alternative Batteries FAQs
Many of us have experienced the frustration of buying a new phone or laptop with excellent battery
life, only to have it decrease over time until it starts to affect our daily use.
This is also a common concern for potential electric vehicle (EV) drivers who worry about their car's
battery life. And the cost of replacement
EV ba eries can outlive the cars they power.
Yet, this fear is misleading as EV batteries can last between 15-20 years or around 100,000 to
200,000 miles, which is longer than the average car's lifespan of 12 years.
To ensure the battery’s longevity, EVs have built-in battery management software (BMS) that
regulates charging and discharging to protect battery cells.
(pic Nissan Leaf)
To help your EV battery last longer, we recommend following these tips: keep the charge between
20 and 80 % for your daily use, steer clear of charging in extreme temperatures, and avoid charging
every night. These easy steps can make a big difference in your battery's lifespan!
Second Life
As time passes, an electric vehicle may end its life cycle, but its battery may still keep a significant
part of its original capacity.
According to Nissan, a pioneer in EV manufacturing, old EV batteries can maintain 60 to 70 per cent
of their original capacity even after years of heavy usage.

2. While this may not be enough to power another EV, the battery can still be utilised for less energy-
intensive purposes.
(Pic Nissan)
In the future, as V2I and V2H technology become more popular, old EV batteries can serve as energy
storage solutions for homes, businesses, and the power grid.
Promoting the reuse of EV batteries through second-life programs can extend their useful lifespan
before disposal is necessary.
It's important to note that electric car batteries need a significant amount of cobalt, often mined in
the Democratic Republic of Congo, where human rights violations and child labour are prevalent.
Mining also harms the environment, causing pollution and other ecological concerns.
What are the components of an EV Ba ery?
It is a common fact that lithium-ion batteries contain lithium, but have you ever wondered about the
other materials required for their production? To create a Li-ion battery, there are many layers
involved.

3. (pic Henkel)
Like other batteries, these batteries have a cathode with a positive charge, an anode with a negative
charge, and an electrolyte that separates them. The cathode generally comprises a combination of
lithium, nickel, cobalt, and manganese, whereas the anode primarily comprises graphite.
Finally, the individual cells are enclosed in an aluminium or steel casing that holds the battery pack
together and protects it against mechanical damage.
Breaking Down an EV Cell
The battery pack comprises several interconnecting modules, each resembling an AA battery. These
modules are comprised of hundreds of individual cells.
The Cathode makes up 51% of the battery’s cost, and the quality of the components, Lithium, Nickel,
Cobalt, and Manganese, determine the battery’s power and capacity.
The Anode is the negatively charged electrode made of Graphite.
The separators prevent contact between the cathode and the anode; typically, they are Polyethylene
(PE) separators, although ceramics can be used.
The electrolytes used are a chemistry of organic solvents capable of dissolving the lithium salt and
provide a conductive medium for the movement of lithium ions between the battery's electrodes
during charge and discharge cycles.
The battery housing and casings to protect the battery packs are usually aluminium.

4. (Pic Krishna Kumar)
Raw Material Where it Comes From Environmental Impact
Lithium
(Lithium is the
lightest metal known
and floats on water
due to its low
density.)
The element lithium is sourced
from brine deposits and found
in salt lakes in Australia, Chile,
and China.
Extracting lithium is fairly low-cost and
efficient, but it demands an enormous
amount of water, reaching up to
500,000 gallons per ton of lithium. This
is especially true in arid regions.
Nickel
(Cathode high energy
density)
Nickel is mined from impure
ore found in nature. It is
extracted and refined to
become useful. Russia,
Australia, Indonesia, and
Canada are the top nickel
producers.
The main problem surrounding nickel
mining is that the ores normally contain
only a very small percentage of good
nickel, resulting in a large amount of
waste material and where and how it
gets dumped.
Cobalt
(Cathode heat
stabiliser)
The Democratic Republic of
Congo accounts for two-thirds
of global Cobalt production. EV
batteries use 42% of the
capacity.
Cobalt is an element that occurs
naturally in the environment; long-term
exposure to high limits can harm health.
Predominantly the issues with Cobalt
production are the reported exploitation
of workers, lack of regulation and the
destruction of the surrounding
environment.

5. Manganese
(Cathode Stabilizer)
Manganese Ore mines are
found in Mexico, Australia
China, with South Africa having
the largest concentration.
Manganese is generally regarded as a
harmless element since it is present in
soil and water in low concentrations.
However, mismanagement or
corruption of redox processes in coastal
ecosystems could have adverse effects.
Graphite
(Anode)
The biggest mine is in
Mozambique, with large
deposits in Turkey, Brazil, and
China.
Although graphite/carbon is generally
unreactive and has a minimal
environmental impact, synthetic
graphite production involves an energy-
intensive heat treatment process that
can release hazardous emissions.
Aluminum
(Bauxite) (Alumina
Compound)
One ton of aluminium needs 2
tons of alumina, which needs 4
tons of dried bauxite. Main
Sources: Guinea, Vietnam, and
Australia
Aluminium is light, conducts heat well,
has a minimal environmental impact
and is infinitely recyclable.
E

6. Legislated Cobalt Mine in Australia (pic Foreign Brief)
Ba ery Management Systems
The Battery Management System (BMS) regulates and optimises the battery's performance. Every
cell's charge level is closely monitored and adjusted, and the BMS decides which cells should be
charged or discharged.
The temperature of the battery pack is also constantly tracked. The BMS can automatically adjust
energy usage if any aspect of the battery's operation falls outside the normal range. This is a critical
function as it protects the battery pack and alerts the driver if necessary.
A battery management system is also necessary to properly manage the electrical system. It must
have well-maintained wiring, connections, fuses, and other vital electrical components.
Just like smartphones and laptops, EV batteries also experience heating during operation. Due to
their large size, electric car batteries generate substantial heat that requires dissipation.
Fortunately, the battery cooling system is in charge of this task, which includes a sealed coolant that
transports the heat away from the battery cells and releases it into the air.
What are the most common methods for EV ba ery disposal?
Sadly, Landfilling is one of the popular options and is a straightforward and relatively inexpensive
disposal method.
Leaching is risky if EV batteries are dumped in landfills or improperly stored. Heavy metals and toxic
chemicals can seep into the soil and contaminate groundwater, affecting nearby ecosystems and
could enter the food chain.
Total recycling involves extracting valuable materials from the batteries. These materials can be
reused to produce new products. Recycling helps conserve resources and reduces the need for
mining raw materials.

7. There is a growing focus on creating battery chemistries that are both sustainable and efficient, as
well as enhancing recycling processes and infrastructure to ensure a more responsible approach to
battery usage.
The good news addresses this common concern: electric car batteries are recyclable. Through
various techniques, it’s worth noting that the field of EV battery disposal is constantly evolving as
technology advances and new solutions emerge. It’s possible to recover up to 95% of the raw
materials.
What are the environmental impacts of disposing of EV ba eries improperly?
The Improper disposal of electric vehicle (EV) batteries can have significant environmental impacts.
EV batteries contain heavy metals like lithium, cobalt, nickel, lead, and other toxic chemicals.
Improperly handling EV batteries is a serious matter that can cause incineration or fires, releasing
toxic fumes into the air. These fumes contain harmful gases and particulate matter that can
contribute to air pollution, posing significant health risks to humans and wildlife.
How can the EV industry improve its ba ery disposal prac ces?
Establishing a robust battery recycling infrastructure is crucial. This involves setting up specialised
facilities capable of safely and efficiently recycling EV batteries. Hold manufacturers accountable for
the entire lifecycle of their products.
Promoting the reuse of EV batteries through second-life programs can extend their useful lifespan
before recycling becomes necessary. Batteries that are no longer suitable for EVs can be repurposed
for stationary energy storage applications, providing value and reducing the need for immediate
recycling.
Numerous automakers and battery manufacturers have teamed up with recycling companies to
ensure EV batteries are disposed of and recycled properly.
Volvo's Battery Loop project involves developing electric car batteries that can be used in a solar
energy storage system, providing power for charging stations for cars and bicycles.

8. Honda works with Société Nouvelle d’Affinage des Metaux (SNAM) to collect and recycle batteries
for secondary use or to extract valuable elements.
Jaguar Land Rover has created a portable electric car charger called the Off-Grid Battery Energy
Storage System (ESS) using battery packs from I-Pace prototypes, which have a capacity of 125 kWh
and features integrated solar panels. It's meant for commercial hire when access to the main
electricity is unavailable.
Specialist Re-Cycling
When dealing with the disposal of EV batteries, recycling is the most preferred method. Recycling
involves extracting valuable materials from the batteries, such as lithium, cobalt, nickel, and other
metals.
These materials can be reused to produce new batteries or other products. Recycling helps conserve
resources and reduces the need for mining raw materials.
Accessing these valuable materials requires specialised recycling facilities that can handle the unique
characteristics of these batteries. These facilities are equipped to dismantle and recycle the batteries
while minimising environmental impact safely.
Wiring and plastic can be stripped and recycled. The precious mined metals contained in the battery
cell electrolyte can be dangerous to access since they are flammable, explosive, and very toxic.
These hazards must be dealt with before cell components can be recycled.
One of the companies at the forefront of sustainable recycling is Nth Cycle from Massachusetts. It
uses metals processing technology, and electrochemical refining, which allows battery
manufacturers to convert lower-grade critical metals into EV-battery grade on-site without heating
to 1,400°C.
The company’s approach prevents large portions of cumbersome and dirty metal supply chains for
crucial EV battery metals like nickel. Nth Cycle claims the technology can be applied to existing
batteries just as it can be to newly mined ore, thus accelerating circularity for the lithium-ion battery
and battery recycling.
In the UK, Veolia launched its first battery recycling facility in the West Midland in January 2022 to
recycle 20% of the UK's electric vehicle batteries that reach the end of their life by 2024. This will be
accomplished using an innovative “urban mining” process, which is more efficient than conventional
mining practices and emits 50% fewer greenhouse gases.
Trading Places
The other good news is that there is an international commodity market for recyclable EV batteries,
which means that there is money available for investment in the technology of recycling., backed by
Governments globally, also mandating EV batteries to be designed and manufactured in an easily
recyclable way.
Black Mass refers to the commodity trade of crushed and shredded End of Life (EoL) battery cells,
also known as e-waste.
This mixture contains valuable metals such as lithium, manganese, cobalt, and nickel. The process
involves collecting, sorting, discharging, and disassembling waste batteries.
The interest in this relativity new commodity is driven by Government zero emissions policies by
2030-35, and it is expected that total lithium battery demand will increase six-fold over the next ten
years.

9. Speculators in this business see Transport as the main driver of growth, representing more than 80%
of the market. Forecasters expect the lithium, nickel, and cobalt markets to be in deficit in 2033,
driving demand for recycled materials.
However, End-of-life (EoL) supply won’t become the main source of battery scrap until 2033. The
black mass market is new and opaque, presenting a new business opportunity.
Types of black mass
The process of pyrometallurgical refinement for black mass requires heating it to 1,400°C, causing
the loss of lithium to the slag. This method is not feasible for refining Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
black mass. It is viable for Lithium cobalt (LCO) and nickel cobalt manganese (NCM) black mass.
Hydrometallurgical (hydro) refining is more expensive per ton of black mass, rendering it unsuitable
for LFP recycling. In Asia, where lithium recovery rates are at their peak, hydro is a commonly
utilised recycling technique.
Electrochemical refining is a newer technology that boasts lower operational costs and a wider range
of effectiveness in recycling black masses, including LFP. As LFP grows in popularity worldwide,
especially in China, the amount of LFP black mass is expected to increase.
Alterna ve Ba ery Technology
Sodium-ion batteries function similarly to lithium-ion batteries and are recyclable using the same
methods.
The advantage of sodium-ion batteries lies in the fact that sodium is more abundant and less
expensive. However, the technology still needs further development to achieve the same
performance rate as lithium-ion batteries.
Solid-state batteries are being explored by major car manufacturers due to their increased efficiency
and decreased flammability compared to lithium-ion batteries.

10. However, solid-state batteries present unique recycling challenges. They can store more energy and
be charged more quickly and safely than lithium-ion batteries.
Solid-state batteries utilise thin solid layers for their electrolytes, making them significantly more
stable and less flammable than the liquid electrolytes found in lithium-ion batteries.
Despite these benefits, electric cars do not currently use solid-state batteries due to the difficulty of
scaling up production to meet the necessary volume for widespread usage.
The future of battery recycling may involve creating new batteries from old ones. However, solid-
state electrolytes need good conductivity, which can be challenging since they are thin and fragile,
resulting in a manufacturing cost of around eight times higher than other types of batteries.
Nissan has launched "Ambition 2030", which is their commitment to electrification and includes
plans to release a solid-state battery car by 2028 from their pilot plant in Yokohama, Japan. Nissan
also aims to reduce the costs of solid-state batteries to eliminate the price gap between electric and
combustion-engine cars.
FAQs
Will we run out of Lithium?
The amount of available lithium is uncertain, but current estimates suggest around 22 million
extractable tons worldwide. This figure constantly changes as we find new sources and better
extraction methods.