Fluid & electrolytes management in neonates

1. Dr. Saurav Kumar Upadhyay
1st year, Junior Resident
Guide : Asst. Prof. Dr. M R Upadhyay
Dept. of Pediatrics
SVPPGIP, SCBMCH, Cuttack

2. INTRODUCTION
 Disorders of fluid and electrolyte are common in
neonates.
 Proper understanding of physiological changes in
fluid and electrolyte after birth is necessary to
overcome the morbidities.

3. Developmental changes
Changes during intrauterine period
Changes during labour & delivery
Changes in postnatal period

4. 16wks 6 birth 3 6 9 12 3y 6y 9y 12y
Age
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
tbw
icf
ecf
% body
weight

5. Age wise distribution of TBW
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwaterAge TBW % ECF % ICF %
16 wks 90 60 30
Birth 75 40 35
3 month 70 35 35
12 month 60 20 40

6.  Therefore infants born prematurely have TBW excess
and extracellular volume expansion compared with
their term counterparts with majority of expanded
ECF being distributed in the interstitium.

7. Changes during labor & delivery
Arterial blood pressure rises several days before delivery in
response to increases in catecholamine, vasopressin, and
cortisol plasma concentrations and translocation of blood
from the placenta into the fetus.
This rise in arterial blood pressure, along with changes in
the fetal hormonal milieu and an intrapartum hypoxia-
induced increase in capillary permeability, results in a shift
of fluid from the intravascular to the interstitial
compartment.

8.  This fluid shift results in an approximately 25%
reduction in circulating plasma volume in the human
fetus during labor and delivery

9. Changes in the postnatal period
In normal conditions in the first few days after birth, the
postnatal increase in capillary membrane integrity favors
absorption of the interstitial fluid into the intravascular
compartment.
The ensuing rise in circulating blood volume stimulates the
release of atrial natriuretic peptide from the heart, which
in turn enhances renal sodium and water excretion
resulting in an abrupt decrease in TBW and attendant
weight loss.

10. Although it is generally accepted that this postnatal weight
loss is primarily due to the contraction of the expanded
ECF compartment
 Some water loss from the intracellular compartment can
also occur, particularly in infants with extremely low
birthweight (ELBW) and increased transepidermal water
losses

11. Healthy term newborns lose an average of 5% to 10% of
their birthweight during the first 4 to 7 days of life
 Because preterm infants have an increased TBW content
and extracellular volume, they lose an average of 10% to15%
of their birthweight during transition.
 Failure to loose this ECW may be associated with
overhydration and problems of patent ductus arteriosus
(PDA), necrotizing enterocolitis (NEC) and chronic lung
disease (CLD) in preterm neonates.

12. Electrolyte Composition

13. Osmolality
 Calculated osmolality
2 [Na+] + [Glucose] /18 + [BUN]/2.8
 Effective osmolality /Tonicitiy
2[Na+] + [Glucose]/18
 Calculated Osmolality –measured by degree of
freezing point depression

14. Starling forces

15. Maturation of Organs Regulating Body
Composition and Fluid Compartments
 Maturation of the Cardiovascular System
There is a direct relationship between gestational maturity
and the ability of the neonatal heart to respond to acute
volume loading .
The blunted Starling response of the immature
myocardium results from its lower content of contractile
elements and incomplete sympathetic innervations.

16. Because central vasoregulation and endothelial integrity
are also developmentally regulated , an appropriate
effective intravascular volume is seldom maintained in a
critically ill preterm infant.

17. Maturation of Renal Function
The kidney has a crucial role in the physiologic control of
fluid and electrolyte balance.
 It regulates extracellular volume and osmolality through
the selective reabsorption of sodium and water,
respectively

18.  Immaturity of renal function renders preterm infants
susceptible to both excessive sodium and bicarbonate
losses . In addition, the inability of the preterm infant to
respond promptly to a sodium or volume load results in a
tendency toward extracellular volume expansion with
edema formation.
 The limited capacity to excrete either concentrated ( due to
immaturity of distal nephron with an anatomicaly
shortened loop of Henle ) or diluted urine ( due to
physiologicaly low GFR)

19.  Physiological range for urine osmolality in neonates
varies from 50 mmol/L to 600 mmol/L in preterm &
800 mmol/L in term neonates.
 Acceptable osmolarity range of 300-400 mmol/L
corresponds to a daily urine output of 2-3 ml/kg/hr

20. During the first few weeks of life, hemodynamically stable
but extremely immature infants produce dilute urine and
may develop polyuria because of their renal tubular
immaturity.
As tubular functions mature, their concentrating capacity
gradually improves from the 2nd to 4th week of life.
However, it takes years for the developing kidney to reach
the concentrating capacity of the adult kidney.

21. Skin changes

22. Management of fluid & electrolyte
requirement
 Total fluid & electrolyte requirement =
Resuscitation fluid + Maintenance fluid +
Deficit fluid + ongoing losses
 Maintenance fluid = sensible water losses ( urine + stool ) + Insensible
water loss (skin + lung )
+ Water for tissue growth
IWL= Fluid intake-Urine output + wt loss or
IWL=Fluid intake-Urine output – wt gain
 All, Resuscitation, maintenance, Deficit & ongoing fluid are different
in volume,composition & rate of adminstration.

23. Sensible water loss
 Urine output is most important source of sensible water
loss
 Extremely preterm infants without systemic hypotension
or renal failure usually lose 30 to 40 mL/kg/day of water in
the urine on the first postnatal day and approximately 120
mL/kg/day by the third day.

24.  In stable, more mature preterm infants born after the 28
weeks’ gestation, urinary water loss is approximately 90
mL/kg/day on the first postnatal day and 150 mL/kg/day by
the third day .
 Normal water losses in the stool are less significant,
amounting to approximately 10 mL/kg/day in term infants
and 7 mL/kg/day in preterm infants during the first
postnatal week .

25. Insensible water losses
Evaporation loss through skin usually contributes to 70%
IWL ,rest 30% is contributed by respiratory tract.
Gestational age, postnatal age, and environmental factors
determine the amount of daily insensible water losses
through the skin .
During the first few postnatal days, transepidermal water
losses may be 15-fold higher in extremely premature infants
born at 23 to 26 weeks’ gestation than in term neonates

26. Although the skin matures rapidly after birth, even in
extremely immature infants, insensible losses are still
somewhat higher at the end of the first month than in the
term counterparts.
 Prenatal steroid exposure is associated with substantially
less insensible water loss (IWL) in premature infants .

27.  Incubators, heat shields, transparent plastic barriers,
coconut oil application, caps & shocks are effective in
reducing insensible water loss.
 Thin transparent plastic barrier (e.g cling wrap) reduces
IWL 50%-70% without interfering thermal regulation of
warmer.
 The emphasis in fluid and electrolyte therapy should be on
prevention of excessive IWL rather than replacement of
increased IWL.

28. Mean IWL in incubators during first
week of life
Birth weight (gm) IWL(ml/kg/day)
750 -1000 82
1001 -1250 56
1251 -1500 46
>1501 26

29. Clinical situations affecting insensible
water loss in neonates
 Increased insensible water loss (IWL)
 Increased respiratory rate, increase tidal volume,
 Conditions with skin injury (removal of adhesive tapes)
 Surgical malformations (gastroschisis, omphalocele, neural tube
defects)
 Increased body temperature: 30% increase in IWL per .C rise in
temperature
 High ambient temperature: 30% increase in IWL per .C rise in
temperature
 Use of radiant warmer and phototherapy
 Decreased ambient humidity.
 Increased motor activity, crying: 50-70% increase in IWL
 Increase surface area to body wt ratio

30.  Decreased insensible water loss (IWL)
 Use of incubators
 Humidification & Temp of inspired gases in head box and
ventilators
 Dead space ventilation
 Use of plexiglas heat shields
 Increased ambient humidity
 Thin transparent plastic barrier
 Use of emolient ointments or coconut oil

31. Babies requiring IV fluid therapy
 Neonates with lethargy and refusal to feed
 Moderate to severe breathing difficulty
 Babies with shock
 Babies with severe asphyxia
 Abdominal distension with bilious or blood stained
vomiting
 All preterm baby with birth weight less than 1250 gm – 1500
gm

32. GUIDELINE FOR FLUID REQUIRMENT
Day 1 Term babies and babies with birth weight > 1500gms
 A full term infant on intravenous fluids would need to excrete a
solute load of about 15 mosm/kg/day in the urine.
 The infant would have to pass a minimum of 50 ml/kg/day.
 Allowing for an additional IWL of 20 ml/kg, the initial fluids should be
60-70 ml/kg/day.
 The initial fluids should be 10% dextrose with no electrolytes to
maintain GFR 4-6 mg/kg/min.
 Hence total fluid therapy on day 1 would be 60 ml/kg/day.

33. Day 1: Preterm baby with birth weight 1000-1500 grams
 Urine output similar to term baby however fluid
requirement is more in preterm because of inreased IWL
and increased weight loss(ECF loss).
 To reduce the IWL under warmer,there should be liberal
use of socks,cap,plastic barriers.
 80ml/kg/day of 10%dextrose is adequate on day 1.

34. Day 2 - Day 7: Term babies and babies with birth weight
>1500gm
 As infant grows and receives enteral milk feeds, the solute
load presented to the kidneys increases and the infant
requires more fluid to excrete the solute load.
 Water is also required for fecal losses and for growth
purposes.
 The fluid requirements increase by 15-20 ml/kg/day until a
maximum of 150 ml/kg/day.
 Sodium and potassium should be added after 48 h of age
and glucose infusion should be maintained at
4-6mg/kg/min

35. Day 2 – Day 7: Preterm babies with birth weight 1000-1500
grams
 As the skin matures in a preterm baby, the IWL progressively decreases
and becomes similar to a term baby by the end of the first week.
Hence,the fluid requirement would become similar to a term baby by the
end of first week.
 Plastic barriers, caps and socks are used throughout the first
week in order to reduce IWL from the immature skin.
 Fluids need to be increased at 10-15 ml/kg/day until a maximum of 150
ml/kg/day.
>Day 7: Term babies and babies with birth weight >1500 grams
Fluid should be given at 150-160 ml/kg/day.
>Day 7: Preterm babies with birth weight 1000-1500 grams
Fluids should be given at 150-160 ml/kg/day and sodium
supplementation at 3-5 mEq/kg should continue till 32-34
weeks corrected gestational age.

36. Fluid Requirement
Birth wt (gm) Day 1 Day 2 Day 3-6 Day >7
<750gm 100-140 120-160 140-200 140-160
750-100gm 100-120 100-140 130-180 140-160
1000-1500gm 80-100 100-120 120-160 150
>1500gm 60-80 80-120 120-160 150
4/22/2017

37. 4/22/2017

38. Additional allowances
 These are applicable more for very preterm baby due to
increased IWL
 Radiant warmer -20 ml/kg/day
 Phototherapy -20 ml/kg/day
 Increased body temperature -10-20 ml/kg/day

39. GUIDELINES FOR ELECTROLYTE
REQUIRMENT
 SODIUM
Do not add on day 1.
Start after ensuring initial diuresis(U.O. > 1ml/kg/hr),
a decrease in serum sodium (<130meq/L) or at least 5-
6% wt loss.
 Term - 2 meq/kg/day
 Preterm- 2-3 meq/kg/day to begin with & 3-5
meq/kg/day after 1st week

40.  Failure to provide this amount of sodium may be
associated with poor weight gain
 Very low birth weight infants on exclusive breast-feeding
may need sodium supplementation in addition to breast
milk until 32-34 weeks corrected age

41.  Na supplementation is considered in the first 48 hrs if
ECF loss exceeds 5% of body weight per day.
 If ECF volume expansion is necessary, normal saline is
preferred over 5% albumin solutions in order to reduce
risl of CLD.

42.  Potasssium
 Add from day 3rd after make sure baby has UOP of >
1ml/kg/hr & k+ <5.5meq/L. caution must be taken for
ELBW who develop severe hyperkalemia in initial few days
of life.
 Both term & preterm – 2 meq/kg/day

43.  Potassium is mostly intracellular: blood levels do not
usually indicate total-body potassium
 pH affects K+: 0.1 pH change=>0.3-0.6 K+ change
(More acid, more K; less acid, less K)
 ECG affected by both HypoK and HyperK:
 Hypok:flat T, prolonged QT, U waves
 HyperK: peaked T waves, widened QRS, bradycardia,
tachycardia, SVT, V tach, V fib

44. Management of Hyperkalemia
 Stop all fluids with potassium
 Calcium gluconate 1-2 cc/kg (10%) IV
 Sodium bicarbonate 1-2 mEq/kg IV
 Glucose-insulin combination
 Lasix (increases excretion over hours)
 Kayexelate 1 g/kg PR (prepared in water or NS ,not
with sorbitol! Not to give PO for preterms!)
 Dialysis/ Exchange transfusion

45.  Calcium
• At birth, levels are 10-11 mg/dL. Drop normally over 1-
2 days to 7.5-8.5 in term babies.
• Hypocalcemia:
▫ Early onset (first 3 days):Preterm, Asphyxia . If
asymptomatic, >6.5: Wait it out. Supplement calcium if
<6.5
▫ Late onset (usually end of first week)”High Phosphate”
type: Hypoparathyroidism, maternal anticonvulsants,
vit. D deficiency etc.

46.  No electrolyte supplementation is required during
initial 48 hrs of life.

47. Choice of fluid
 Give 10% Dextrose (wt>1250gm) or 5% Dextrose(wt<1250gm) for the
initial 48 hours of life.
 After the age of 48 hrs if the baby is passing urine 5 – 6 times a day, use
commercially available IV fluid, such as Isolyte P.
 If the premixed solution is not available or baby requires higher
GIR (Glucose infusion rate),
 Add normal saline (NS) 20 ml/kg body weight (which contains 3meq
of Na /kg) to the required volume of 10% Dextrose. Add 1ml KCl/100ml
of prepared fluid.
 To calculate the necessary fluid volume, determine the volume of fluid
required for day of life . Provide this as 20 ml/kg of NS and the
remaining as 10% Dextrose.

49. Administration of IV fluid
• Use a microdrip infusion set which has a microdropper (where 1 ml = 60
microdrops)
• In this device, number of drops per minute is equal to mL of fluid per
hour (e.g. If ababy needs 6mL/hr provide 6 microdrops/minute)
• Before infusing IV fluid, check:-
o The expiry date of the fluid
o The seal of the infusion bottle or bag for its intactness
o That the fluid is clear and free from any visible particles
• Calculate the rate of administration, and ensure that the microdropper
delivers the fluid at the required rate.
• Change the IV infusion set and fluid bag every 24 hours; even if bag still
contains IV fluid (this can be a major source of infection).

50. MONITORING OF FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE STATUS
 Body weight:
 Serial weight measurements can be used as a guide to estimate the fluid deficit in
newborns.
 Term neonates loose 1-3% of their birth weight daily with a cumulative loss of 5-10% in the
first week of life.
 Preterm neonates loose 2-3% of their birth weight daily with a cumulative loss of 15-20%
in the first week of life
 Failure to loose weight in the first week of life should be an indicator for fluid restriction.
 Excessive weight loss in the first 7 days or later would be non-physiological and correction
with fluid therapy.
 Clinical examination:
 Usual physical signs of dehydration are unreliable in neonates. Infants with 10% (100
ml/kg) dehydration may have sunken eyes and fontanel, cold and clammy skin, poor skin
turgor and oliguria.
 Infants with 15% (150ml/kg) or more dehydration would have signs of shock (hypotension,
tachycardia and weak pulses)
 Dehydration should be corrected within 24hrs.

51. SERUM BIOCHEMISTRY:
 Serum sodium and plasma osmolarity helpful in the assessment of the
hydration status in an infant.
 Serum Sodium values should be maintained between 135-145 meq/L.
 Hyponatremia with weight loss suggests sodium depletion and would merit
sodium replacement.
 Hyponatremia with weight gain suggests water excess and require fluid
restriction.
 Hypernatremia with weight loss suggests dehydration and require fluid
correction over 48 hours.
 Hypernatremia with weight gain suggests salt and water load and would be
an indication of fluid and sodium restriction.
URINE OUTPUT,SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND OSMOLARITY:
 Urine output would be 1-3ml/kg/hr
 Specific gravity between 1.005 to 1.012
 Osmolarity between 100-400 mosm/L.
 Specific gravity can be checked by dipstick or by a hand held refractometer.

52.  Blood gas:
 Useful in the acid base management of patients with poor
tissue perfusion and shock.
 Hypo-perfusion is associated with metabolic acidosis.
 Fractional excretion of sodium (FENa):
 Reflects the balance between GFR & tubular
reabsorption of Na but is of limited value in preterm
infants due to developmental tubular immaturity
 FE Na+ =Urine [Na] x Serum Creatinine
Serum [Na+] x Urine Creatinine x100%

53.  Serum blood urea nitrogen (BUN), creatinine:
 Serum creatinine is a useful indicator of renal function.
There is an exponential fall in serum creatinine levels in
the first week of life as maternally derived creatinine is
excreted. Failure to observe this normal decline in serial
samples is a better indicator of renal failure as compared
to a single value of creatinine in the first week of life.

54. LABORATORY GUIDELINE FOR FLUID AND ELECTROLYTE
THERAPY:
 Intravenous fluids should be increased in the presence of
(a) Increased weight loss(>3%/day or a cumulative loss >20%)
(b) Increased serum sodium (Na>145 mEq/L)
(c)Increased urine specific gravity (>1.020) or urine osmolality
(>400mosm/L)
(d)Decreased urine output (<1 ml/kg/hr)
 Fluids should be restricted in the presence of
(a) Decreased weight loss (<1%/day or a cumulative loss <5%)
(b) Decreased serum sodium in the presence of weight gain
(Na<130mEq/L)
(c) Decreased urine specific gravity (<1.005) or urine osmolality
(<100mosm/L)
(d) Increased urine output (>3 ml/kg/hr)

55. Monitoring of babies receiving IV fluid
 Inspect the infusion site every hour.
 Look for redness and swelling around the insertion site of the
cannula, which indicates that the cannula is not in the vein and fluid
is leaking into the subcutaneous tissues.
 If redness or swelling is seen at any time, stop the infusion, remove
the cannula, and establish a new IV line in a different vein.
 Check the volume of fluid infused and compare to the prescribed
volume, record all findings.
 Measure blood glucose every nursing shift i.e. 6 – 8 hours.
 If the blood glucose is less than 45 mg/dl, treat for low blood
glucose
 If the blood glucose is more than 150 mg/dl on two consecutive
readings: - Change to a 5% Dextrose solution and measure blood
glucose again in three hours

56. Weigh the baby daily. If the daily weight loss is more
than 5%, increase the total volume of fluid by 10 ml/kg
body weight for one day to compensate for inadequate fluid
administration.
If there is no weight loss or there is weight gain in the
initial 3 days of life, do not give the daily increment, keep
the fluid rate same as the previous day ,however, if there is
excessive weight gain (3-5%) decrease the fluid intake by
15-20 ml/kg/day.

57. If there are signs of overhydration (e.g. excessive weight
gain, puffy eyes, or increasing oedema over lower parts of
the body), reduce the volume of fluid by half for 24 hours
after the overhydration is noted. Check Serum Na, Urine
specific gravity & titrate fluid accordingly.
 Check urine output: Normally a baby passes urine 5 – 6
times everyday. If there is decreased urine output and
weight loss increase fluid intake by 10-20mL/kg;
However, if there is decreased urine output with weight
gain, decrease daily fluid volume by 10mL/kg and evaluate
for renal failure.

58. Adjusting IV fluid with enteral feeding
 Allow the baby to begin breastfeeding as soon as the baby’s
condition improves.
 If the baby cannot be breastfed, give expressed breast milk
using an alternative feeding method .

If the baby tolerates the feed and there are no problems,
continue to increase the volume of feeds by 20-30mL/kg/day, while
decreasing the volume of IV fluid to maintain the total daily fluid
volume according to the baby’s daily requirement.
 Feed the baby every two hours, adjusting the volume at each
feeding accordingly.
 Discontinue the infusion of IV fluid when the baby is receiving more
than two-third of the daily fluid volume by mouth and has no
abdominal distension or vomiting.
 Encourage the mother to initiate breastfeeding as soon as possible

59. Replacement of fluid deficit therapy
 Moderate (10%) to severe (15%) dehydration fluid deficits are corrected
gradually over 24 hours.
 For infants in shock, 10-20 ml/kg of normal saline is given immediately over
20 minutes followed by half correction over 8 hours. The remaining deficit is
administered over 16 hours. The volume of bolus should include in the initial
half correction.
 the replacement fluid after correction of shock, should consist of N/2
composition.
 This fluid and electrolyte solution should be administered in addition to the
maintenance fluid therapy.
 Assuming a deficit of 10% isotonic dehydration in a 3 kg child on day 4, the
fluid calculation would be as follows:
(a) Dehydration replacement: 300 ml of N/2 saline over 24 hours
(150 ml over 8 hours and 150 ml over 16 hours)
(b) Maintenance fluids: 300 ml(100 ml/kg/day on day 4) of N/5 in
10% dextrose over 24 hours

60. Ongoing losses
 Volume by volume replacement is needed(in addition to
maintenance fluid) in situation like diarrhea chest tube
drainage,excess gastric aspirate, surgical wound drainage
and excessive urine loss.
 Estimate losses over 6-12 hour . Replace urinary losses only
if total loss>4 ml/kg/h in 6 hr period . Replace the volume
that is in excess of 4ml/kg/h-volume by volume over next 6
h. Other losses replaced volume for volume every 6 h

61. SPECIFIC CLINICAL CONDITIONS
Extreme prematurity (gestation <28 weeks,
birth weight <1000 grams):
 These babies have large insensible water losses due to thin,
immature skin barrier.
 Fluid requirements become comparable to larger infants by the end
of the second week.
 Fluid requirement in the first week may be decreased by:
Plastic transparent barriers
Coconut oil application
Double walled incubators
 The initial fluids on day 1 should be electrolyte free and should be
made using 5% dextrose solutions to prevent risks of hyperglycemia.
 Sodium and potassium should be added after 48hrs.

62. Perinatal asphyxia and brain injury:
 Perinatal asphyxia may be associated with syndrome of
inappropriate ADH (SIADH) secretion.
 Fluid restriction in this condition should be done only in the
presence of hyponatremia(<120 meq/L) due to SIADH or if
there is renal faliure.
 The intake should be restricted to two-thirds maintenance
fluids till serum sodium values return to normal.
 Once urine production increases by the third postnatal day,
fluids may be gradually restored to normal levels.

63. Renal failure
 Pre renal failure account for 75% cause of ARF
 When a baby has not passed urine in the past 12 hrs, the
first thing is to look for distended bladder by palpation of
the abdomen . It is better to avoid catheterization of the
bladder to prevent infection,.
 After confirming the absence of urine in the bladder, a fluid
challenge can be given. a normal saline bolus of 10 mL/kg
can be given over 20 min (or 20 mL/kg over 2 hrs). In spite
of the fluid challenge, if urine output fails to ensue,
frusemide can be given in a single dose of 1 mg/kg (in a non
dehydrated patient )

64.  Fluid management
 Fluids must be restricted to insensible water loss
(IWL) along with urinary loss. The urinary loss must be
replaced volume for volume 8 hrly. The insensible
water loss in a term neonate is 25 mL/kg/day. In
preterm neonates, this can vary between 40-100
mL/kg/day depending on gestation, postnatal age, use
of radiant warmers, phototherapy etc.
 The insensible water losses should be replaced with 5-
10% dextrose. The urine output should be replaced
volume by volume with N/5 saline.

65. RDS
Surfactant deficiency results in pulmonary atelectasis,
elevated pulmonary vascular resistance, poor lung
compliance, and decreased lymphatic drainage.
In addition, preterm infants have low plasma oncotic and
critical pulmonary capillary pressures and suffer
pulmonary capillary endothelial injury from mechanical
ventilation, oxygen administration, and perinatal hypoxia .

66. These abnormalities alter the balance of the Starling forces
in the pulmonary microcirculation, leading to interstitial
edema formation with further impairment in pulmonary
functions.
In the presurfactant era, an improvement in pulmonary
function occurred only during the 3rd to 4th postnatal day.
This improvement was usually preceded by a period of
brisk diuresis characterized by small increases in
glomerular filtration rate and sodium clearance and a larger
rise in free water clearance .

67.  Because significant improvements in lung function take place
only after the majority of the excess free water is excreted ,
daily fluid intake should still be restricted to allow the
extracellular volume contraction
 The renal function in preterm babies may be further
compromised in the presence of hypoxia and acidosis due to
RDS.
 Positive pressure ventilation may lead to increased secretion
of aldosterone and ADH, leading to water retention

68. If this principle is not followed and a positive fluid balance
occurs, preterm infants with respiratory distress syndrome
are at higher risk for a more severe course of acute lung
disease and have a higher incidence of patent ductus
arteriosus, congestive heart failure, and necrotizing
enterocolitis as well as a greater severity of the ensuing
bronchopulmonary dysplasia..

69. BPD
 Higher fluid intake and lack of appropriate weight loss in
the first 10 days of life are associated with significantly
higher risk for bronchopulmonary dysplasia, even after
controlling for other known risk factors such as those listed
previously.

70. PDA
Under physiologic circumstances in the immediate
postnatal period, renal prostaglandin production is
increased to counterbalance the renal actions of
vasoconstrictor and sodium- and water-retaining
hormones released during labor and delivery .
 Compared with the renal function of the adult kidney in
euvolemia, the neonatal kidney is more dependent on the
increased production of vasodilatory and natriuretic
prostaglandins, rendering it more sensitive to the
vasoconstrictive and sodium- and water-retaining actions
of cyclooxygenase inhibition.

71. Therefore fluid management of the preterm infant
receiving indomethacin must focus on maintaining an
appropriately restricted fluid intake and avoiding extra
sodium supplementation.
As the prostaglandin inhibitory effects of indomethacin
diminish following the last dose, renal prostaglandin
production returns to normal, and the retained sodium
and excess free water are usually rapidly excreted, especially
with the improvement in the cardiovascular status as the
ductal shunt decreases.

72. In clinically symptomatic or echocardiographically
diagnosed PDA, it is recommended to restrict parenteral
fluid intake to 120 mL/kg/day, provided other parameters
like urine output, serum Na, urine specific gravity etc are
within normal limits
 Infants on full enteral feeds with hs-PDA a fluid intake of
up to 150 ml/kg/day may be used and calorie density may
be increased in case of inadequate weight gain

73. Polycythemia
 A) Symptomatic poycythemia or HCT >75%
 The definitive T/t is PET
 PET involves removing some of the blood volume and replacing it with
normal saline so as to decrease the hematocrit to a target hematocrit of
55%.
 Volume to be exchanged
 = Blood volume* x (observed hematocrit – desired hematocrit)
/Observed hematocrit
 B) IF HCT b/w 70% to 74%
Conservative management with hydration i.e. Hemodilution may be
tried in these infants. An extra fluid/feeds of 20 mL/kg may be added to
the daily fluid requirements. The additional fluid may be ensured by
either enteral (supervised feeding) or parenteral route (IV fluids).

74. SIADH
 SIADH may be associated with birth asphyxia,
intracerebral hemorrhage, respiratory distress syndrome,
pneumothorax, and the use of continuous positive-
pressure ventilation .
The treatment is based on fluid and sodium restriction
despite the oliguria and hyponatremia, as well as on
appropriate circulatory and ventilatory support. The
clinician must remember that total body sodium is normal,
but TBW is elevated in such an infant, and that it is
particularly dangerous to treat the hyponatremia caused by
free water retention with large amounts of sodium

75. Shock
 The most frequent etiologic factors responsible for
neonatal shock are inappropriate vasoregulation &
dysfunction of immature myocardium not absolute
hypovolemia.
 Therefore, particularly in premature infant during the
immediate postnatal period, fluid resuscitation Is
recommended to be minimized especially when they have
immature myocardium to tolerate acute fluid load.
 However absolute hypovolemia is a major contributing
factor to neonatal shock in neonates with sepsis and/or in
postoperative period in pt undergoing major surgery. so
early & aggressive fluid therapy is indicated in these pt.
 Dose- 10-20 ml/kg of NS over 20-30 min
 Bolus should not be repeated unless there is convincing
response to first bolus (falling HR ,improve CRT…..)

76. Key home messege
Always add deficit & ongoing losses and subtract volume
of blood product, fluid boluses & drugs as cal gluconate
from maintenance fluid and remember special condition
before prescribing fluid.
Fluid recharting needs to be done every 6-12 hrly on the
status of hydration.
Prefer infusion pump, if not available use paediatric micro-
drip set (60microdrops =1 ml)
Never load more than 4 h fluid in microdrip set(especially
during transport)
Check sign of inflammation at the site of insertion of
cannula & check patency of cannula.
Weight has a key role in monitoring fluid therapy. So assure
regular & precise weight measurement.