Developing a Nation Branding Framework

Classification Code: Confidentiality Grade: PUBLIC
A Dissertation Submitted to China
University of Geosciences for the Degree of
Master of Public Policy
Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a
Public Policy Perspective
Student ID: LSYG20110020
Student Name: Rohan Keith Wright
Major: Public Policy (Master)
Supervisor: Zhang Zhi
College: Public Administration

ii
Date: May 2014
单位代码: 10491 学号: LSYG20110020
在中国地质大学公共政策硕士学位要求下完成论文
基于公共政策方针的国家品牌化结构研究
作者姓名
Rohan Keith Wright
专业名称
公共政策硕士
学院名称
公共管理学院
指导老师
张志
投稿日期
2014 年 7 月
中国地质大学 (武汉)
湖北省武汉市鲁磨路 388 号
邮政编码: 430074

作者简介
Author Profile
Rohan Keith Wright
背景：牙买加罗升·赖特先生是一位热衷社会
和政治的评论员，被西印度群岛大学（莫纳，
西印度群岛）授予国际关系与公共部门管理一
级荣誉学士学位。赖特拥有众多奖项，包括
2009 年的西印度群岛大学卓越校长奖学金，
西印度群岛大学联合课程助学金，以及
Nethersole 和格莱斯顿·米尔奖最佳表现及
最高总成绩的学士学位项目获得者。他于
2011 年在牙买加外交部和卫生部实习，被授
予了政府奖学金在中国地质大学（CUG）攻读
研究生学位。目前是公共政策硕士学位的候选
人。
学业成就：赖特已经完成了一系列的政策相关
课程，包括治理和公共决策，博弈论，现代项
目管理与公共部门经济学;实现了平均课程标
记为 91.4％; 平均学分绩点 4.175; 总学分
51; 总学时 816。
联系 Contact
电子邮件 eMail: research@rohankw.com
网站 Online: http://rohankw.com/research
Background Mr Rohan K Wright of Jamaica
is an avid social and political commentator
who was awarded a BSc in International
Relations and Public Sector Management
with First Class Honours from the University
of the West Indies, Mona (UWI). Wright has
previously interned at the Ministry of
Foreign Affairs and the Ministry of Health
and was also the recipient of numerous
awards including the 2009 UWI Principals
Scholarship for Excellence, the UWI co-
curricular bursary, and the Nethersole and
Gladstone Mill Awards for best performance
and highest overall grades in the BSc
program respectively. In 2011, he was
awarded a government scholarship to pursue
graduate studies and is currently a candidate
for the degree Masters of Public Policy at the
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan.
Academic Achievement Wright has
completed a range of policy-related courses
including Governance & Public Policy
Making, Game Theory, Modern Project
Management and Public Sector Economics;
he achieved an average course mark of 91.4%;
grade point average 4.175; total credits 51;
total credit hours 816.

Contents
目录 vii
List of Figures viii
List of Acronyms ix
Abstract x
摘要 xi
1 Introduction 1
§1.1 Research Context ........................................................................ 1
§1.2 Research Statement ....................................................................2
§1.3 Research Aim..............................................................................3
§1.4 Thesis Structure..........................................................................3
2 Nation Branding Today 5
§2.1 Theoretical Development............................................................ 7
§2.2 Problems & Criticisms ................................................................8
§2.3 Conclusion ................................................................................ 10
3 Nation Branding Policy Analysis 11
§3.1 Methodological Framework.......................................................11
§3.2 Theoretical & Conceptual Considerations ................................ 16
4 Case Studies 27
§4.1 South Africa .............................................................................. 27
§4.2 Kenya ......................................................................................28
§4.3 Germany....................................................................................29
5 Results & Discussion 31
§5.1 Data Sources ............................................................................. 31
§5.2 Nation Branding Framework.................................................... 31
§5.3 Discussion................................................................................. 35
6 Conclusion 45
§6.1 Research Overview....................................................................45
§6.2 Results Summary......................................................................45
§6.3 Research Limitations................................................................46
§6.4 Recommendations ....................................................................46
§6.5 Future Research Considerations............................................... 47
Acknowledgements Error! Bookmark not defined.
致谢 Error! Bookmark not defined.
Notes & References 48

vii
目录
数据列表 viii
缩略词列表 ix
摘要（中文） x
1 介绍
1.1 研究背景········································································································1
1.2 研究陈述 ······································································································ 2
1.3 研究目的 ······································································································ 3
1.4 论文结构 ······································································································ 3
2 文献综述 5
2.1 理论发展 ······································································································ 7
2.2 问题与批评 ··································································································8
2.3 结论 ··········································································································· 10
3 展国家品牌策略分析 11
3.1 方法框架······································································································12
3.2 理论与概念的思考·······················································································16
4 案例研究 27
南非 ················································································································· 27
肯尼亚 ·············································································································28
德国 ················································································································· 29
5 研究结果与讨论 31
5.1 综述·············································································································31
5.2 国家品牌化结构 ··························································································31
5.3 讨论 ··········································································································· 34
6 结论 45
6.1 综述············································································································ 52
6.2 研究结果概要····························································································· 52
6.3 研究局限性 ································································································ 53
6.4 建议 ··········································································································· 53
6.5 未来研究考虑····························································································· 54
致谢（英文） Error! Bookmark not defined.
致谢（中文） Error! Bookmark not defined.
参考文献 57

viii
List of Figures
Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework 3
Figure 3:1 Research methodology process diagram 12
Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection 13
Figure 3:3 Nation Brand Hexagon 25
Figure 5:1 Nation Branding Policy Implementation Framework 33
Figure 5:2 Pure Public Brand Model (Flat) Error! Bookmark not defined.
Tables
Table 3-1 Comparison between the results of the NBI and GI200 26
Table 4-1 Comparison of country case approach 30
Table 5-1 Comparison of Nation Brands to Chemical ElementsError! Bookmark
not defined.

ix
List of Acronyms
CARICOM Caribbean Community
CBI Country Brand Index (FutureBrand™)
CCTV China Central Television
COO Country of Origin Effect
DBR Doing Business Report
FDI Foreign Direct Investments
FIFA International Federation of Football Association
FIST Fully Inclusive Stakeholder Approach
GI200 Global Brands Index 200 (East-West Communications)
ICT Information Communications Technology
IMC International Marketing Council of South Africa
IMD International Institute for Management Development
JAMPRO Jamaica Promotions Corporation
JTB Jamaica Tourist Board
LPP Legal and Policy Protections
NBDO Nation Brand Dual Octagon
NBI Nation Brands Index (Anholt-Gfk Roper)
NCCS Non-Corporate Country Sub-Brand
NTO National Tourism Organization
PCNB Korea’s Presidential Council on Nation Branding
RT Russia Today
SERI Samsung Economic Research Institute
SIDS Small-Island Developing States
TAR Track and React Exercise of Program Monitoring
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
WEF World Economics Forum

x
Abstract
DEVELOPING A NATION BRANDING FRAMEWORK FROM A PUBLIC
POLICY PERSPECTIVE
Rohan Keith Wright, MSc Public Policy
Zhang Zhi, Academic Advisor
Public policy theory has long focused on economic and political means of attracting
investments to improve social welfare and meet the needs of its people. Over the decades,
governments have mobilized resources and exploited assets in an effort to boost exports,
attract resources and amass geopolitical influence. Today, governments are exploring new
forms of capital that can be exploited to meet their development needs; one such is a nation
brand.
While its origins can be traced to the marketing school, nation branding is now a
rapidly developing concept in the policy school. For a time, policy makers remained sceptical
that the principles of marketing could be translated to the domain of public policy to help
solve some of government’s greatest development concerns. Now, a number of governments
have bought into the idea and they acknowledge this approach as a viable alternative to
traditional investment and resource solicitation methods. But the scope and definition of the
term is vague and the exact process and mechanisms for developing a nation brand is
unclear.
To resolve this concern, the marketing practices of nation branding must be
integrated with the theories of the policy implementation process. Using data triangulation,
and several case studies, this research explores the practices and prescriptions of nation
branding and their overlap with the policy process. This research proves that only
governments have the authority and legitimacy to launch a nation branding program and
that a sustained amount of concerted action on the part of the nation, from micro-level
institutions such as the population and the Diaspora to macro-level institutions such as
Ministries and other public institutions is not only essential but imperative. The framework
developed by this research demonstrates the intersection of marketing and public policy
theory and highlights the implications of policy and public institutions on the branding
process. The framework is an 8-phase implementation plan, with 24 activities and 4 sub-
activities that prescribe the methods for governments to cultivate and maintain a positive
and sustainable nation brand.
Keywords: Nation Branding, Policy, Implementation, Framework
May 2014

xi
摘要
基于公共政策方针的
国家品牌化结构研究
Rohan Keith Wright, 公共政策硕士
公共政策理论是长期以来专注于吸引投资以改善社会福利和满足人民需求的经济和政治
手段。几十年来，各国政府都在努力调动资源和利用资产来扩大出口，以吸引资源和积累地
缘政治影响力。今天，各国政府都在探索可以被利用来满足自身发展需要的资本形式；其中
之一即民族品牌。
尽管它的起源可以追溯到营销学，而现在民族品牌在政策学上是一个发展迅速的概念。
一时间，政策制定者仍持怀疑态度，市场营销的原理可以转化为公共政策的领域来帮助解决
政府一些最大的发展问题。现在，一些国家的政府都在引入这一方法，他们也承认这种方法
是一种可行的替代传统的投资和资源的招标方法。但这个词的范围和定义是模糊的，以及发
展一个民族品牌的确切过程和机制尚不清楚。
要解决这一问题，国家品牌的营销实践必须与政策执行过程中的理论整合。使用数据的
三角交叉和若干案例研究，本研究探讨了民族品牌和与其政策过程重叠的实践和处方。本研
究证明，只有政府能权威和合法性地推出一个民族品牌计划并以国家的角色采取持续的协调
一致的行动。从微观层面的机构，如有关人口和移民的，到宏观层面的机构，如作为政府的
各部委以及其他公共机构，不仅是必要的而且是必须的。通过本研究制定的框架表明，市场
营销和公共政策理论的交叉点，并强调政策和公共机构在塑造品牌化过程中的影响。该框架
是一个八级实施计划，包括 24 个活动和 4 个附加规定，通过这种方式政府可以培养和保持一
个积极的和可持续的民族品牌。
关键词：民族品牌，品牌塑造，政策，实施，框架
二 O 一四年五月

The beginning of knowledge is the discovery of something we do not
understand. - Frank Herbert (1920-1986)

1 Introduction
§1.1 Research Context
Countries are engaged in perpetual competition to improve their standing in the
world. Accordingly, over the past two or so decades, international competition among states
to secure a share of world’s limited financial and technical resources and to garner greater
political influence has increased. Today, policy makers, particularly from emerging countries
understand that “countries can be seen as a brand”[1] and are making “overt attempts to
attract foreign investments and increase exports through nation branding” [1].
With the advent of information communications technology (ICT) such as the internet,
mobile phones and laptop computers, the arena for this competition is also rapidly changing.
More countries are employing mass-media marketing techniques to develop interest in their
nation brand and Aronczyk (2013) believes that governments see this as “a natural next
step”, since modern technological and political developments had already set the stage[1].
The reality is that every country’s ability to attract investments and resources is affected by
the efforts of competing nations, so policy makers must realise the importance having a
potent nation brand can have for country differentiation and ultimately for the prosperity of
its industries, markets and constituents.
Nation branding, a term coined in 1996[1] and promoted actively by marketing experts
even today, is now a rapidly developing concept in the public policy scholarship which seeks
to address the aforementioned concerns. It manifests itself as a hybrid of thoughts,
particularly between the corporate school of product branding, the marketing school of
destination and place branding and the policy school of public diplomacy and foreign policy.
At first consideration, the concept may not seem novel. Indeed, just as corporations employ
marketing and advertising schemes to position their products and companies in an
increasingly competitive and globalized environment, so too have governments always
attempted to market their unique features and characteristics to attract investments and
resources, typically towards an economic or political agenda, as such the approach can be
thought of as ‘marketing a country towards a political and economic end’[1].
Nonetheless, preliminary research undertaken by this thesis proves that the definition
and scope of nation branding is significantly more extensive that it appears. From a
practitioner’s perspective, nation branding requires a plethora of multidisciplinary tools and
techniques to develop and launch. From a scholarly perspective it is still highly
misunderstood, and discordant theoretical prescriptions bloat the literature. Essentially, the
concept is a complex and multifaceted school of thought, desirous of urgent theoretical
development. Further, because of the limited, but nonetheless increasing research in this
area, policy positions on nation branding are either non-existent or ill-defined; many
countries develop their nation branding policies impulsively or through innovation as
opposed to reliance on best-practices, scholarly prescriptions or practical precedents. This
thesis will contribute to closing that gap which hinders the theoretical and practical
development of the field, and misleads government officials and branding practitioners on
the nation branding process.

2 China University of Geosciences Graduate Thesis for the Degree Master of Public Policy
§1.2 Research Statement
Despite the multidisciplinary interest in the concept, nation branding is having a
difficult time in terms of its theoretical and practical development. The simplistic yet vague
terminology used in its application has frequently been cited as the culprit. There is no
mechanism in the literature outlining the requisite activities, institutions, policies and
programs to successfully develop, launch and manage a nation branding initiative. Moreover,
research in the field is led primarily by marketing practitioners, so the concept tends to lack
integrated theories from related disciplines such as public policy.
As Sun (2009) explains, the nation branding literature discusses a range of factors
and concepts “but no organizing mechanism to connect these factors exists to explore the
dynamics underlying nation branding”[1]. This thesis attempts to fill that gap by developing a
nation branding framework. This tool will connect themes, theories and perspectives on
nation branding to determine what are the main elements of a nation brand, how they
interrelate, and also how they can be manipulated in a programmatic approach towards
positive economic and social outcomes.
1.2.1 Observations & Assumptions
This research and its methodology are based on several critical observations:
(1) The literature does not put forward any concordant definition of nation branding or a
model that has proven successful in any part of the world;
(2) The nation branding concept is led primarily by branding practitioners, which limits
the discourse to marketing perspectives;
(3) The prescriptions and models identified in the literature can be integrated with
knowledge from other fields to develop a nation branding framework;
(4) Many countries have not yet capitalised on their nation brand and lack the programs,
institutions and policy frameworks necessary to do so; and
(5) Many countries have launched nation branding programs which lack a well-defined
strategy or policy framework for them to be effective.
1.2.2 Research Significance
As there are over two hundred recognized nations in the world, governments are on a
continuous and desperate journey to gain political and economic traction as a means of
improving their standing in the international economy, not just through increasing tourists
arrivals and foreign direct investments (FDIs) but also technology, human resources and
social capital. One of the first steps in competing in this arena is to launch a comprehensive
strategy for defining and promoting a nation image. This research will contribute to the
limited body of knowledge on nation branding techniques but more importantly, it will
develop a framework for designing and executing a nation branding program. As no nation
branding frameworks were found in the literature, this research is completely innovative and
will make an original contribution to the field. In terms of specific implications for
practitioners, researchers, public managers, governments and stakeholders (internal and
external) this thesis will:

June 2014 Rohan K Wright  Developing a Nation Branding Framework from a Public Policy Perspective 3
 Play a critical role in directing the discourse on nation branding;
 Produce a further understanding of what constitutes the nation brand;
 Develop a policy implementation framework for nation brand development;
 Clarify the importance, significance and dynamics of nation brands; and
 Produce new terminology to explain the phenomena identified.
Additionally, strategic implications of nation branding will be exposed and
suggestions for further research not within the scope of this research will be presented.
§1.3 Research Aim
The ultimate aim of this research is “to develop a nation branding policy
implementation framework”. As noted above, there are no best practice templates or
models[5] of nation branding. This requires the interrogation of a range of cases, sources and
literature which can be analysed through a policy perspective to develop the framework.
To resolve these issues and satisfy the aim of this paper, the research was guided by a
predefined list of questions. These include an investigation into what constitutes the scope,
definition and research content of nation branding, identification of what tools and methods
are necessary for measuring the strength of a nation brand, and an inquiry into the requisite
tools and procedures for maintaining a potent nation brand.
To respond to specific concerns in the literature, this research will also explicate the
role of stakeholders in the nation branding process, and the theories and practices most
powerful for developing, launching, maintaining and measuring a nation brand.
§1.4 Thesis Structure
Based on the above stated research requirements and expected outputs, this thesis is
delimited as shown in Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework below:
Figure 1:1 Comprehensive research framework

As demonstrated graphically above, Chapter 1 introduces the research background
and context, research aim and research questions as well as specific research objectives; it
also explains the research significance. Chapter 2 focuses on the specific problems that this
thesis addresses. It captures the dialogue, claims and major theories regarding the concept
and outlines the theoretical development and current trends taking place in the field, it
identifies the problems and issues that this research sought to resolve. Based on the specific
problems and objectives identified in the preceding sections, Chapter 3 then outlines the
tools, techniques and strategies employed to resolve the research problem. This is followed
by the research results in Chapter 4 which not only presents the major outcomes and
responses to the aforementioned research questions, but also a discussion of these findings
with necessary justification of the analytical conclusions made. The research concludes with
Chapter 5, a summary of the primary results, with necessary recommendations,
prescriptions, and future research considerations.

2 Nation Branding Today
Country differentiation is imperative in a 21st century global village. Van Ham (2001)
posits that a country without keen management of its image and reputation stands to
experience difficulty in attracting economic and political attention[2]. But nation brand
management has implications that reach far beyond the economic[2][5][7] and it can
significantly impact on a nation’s prosperity.
Countries have long made attempts to attract investments, increase exports and
improve their social situation. In the past, countries could make passionate appeals to the
international community for aid and assistance, or negotiate agreements with multilateral
lending organizations or with other states. But at present, the growing need for resources
has changed the way in which investors approach opportunities and also how nations solicit
these investments. Traditional methods still exist, but the advent of the internet and
improvements in information communications technology (ICT) tools have introduced a
wider array of platforms through which nations can communicate with potential investors,
travellers, development partners etc., while simultaneously opening portals through which
investors can pitch their investment ideas to suitable host countries. These countries are
carefully selected based on their absolute and comparative advantages, which means that
countries with similar offerings (i.e., investment protection, security, a stable business
environment and economy, abundant natural resources, superior ICT infrastructure and
technology offerings and a talented human resource pool etc.), are now engaged in an ever-
growing competition to attract investments and development funds.
In addition to investment solicitation for development, countries are also attempting
to improve their geopolitical status, international influence, and regional clout to achieve
specific political agenda regionally and internationally. The impact of increased investment
inflows and a stronger and more powerful international presence is undeniably invaluable to
this cause, but with the aforementioned competition it can only be achieved if countries are
clearly differentiated from one another. This requires the cultivation of a specific national
identity, i.e., a nation brand, which can be mounted as a beacon for attracting human,
technical and financial resources and increasing social capital at home and respect for the
country abroad. To this end, a number of governments have embarked on impressive drives
to improve the power and value of their brand, evidenced by the increasing trend to hire
branding consultants and embark on sophisticated nation branding campaigns[8]. This is
owed to the fact that all countries have an identity and reputation which play critical roles in
investors’ assessments of their prospects for growth, development and investment returns.
With billions of investor and tourist dollars traded every day and massive
developments taking place in the vital sectors and industries, governments are patently
more cognizant of the importance of being involved in these changes. If governments hope
to safeguard the interests of their constituents and continue to execute their various
governmental functions effectively, then this alternative method of inward investment
solicitation does not only offer many opportunities but it is also imperative.
The present obstacle is therefore crafting that a distinguishable international presence
that can compete with other countries taking the same approach. While this activity is
described in various ways by branding firms across the world[9], a true standard for doing
this remains lost within a volume of misconceptions, conceptual misunderstandings and
vague descriptions and terminology[1][9][10], so what would certainly be a herculean task on its

own has been further convoluted to nebulous end. If established, a solid international
presence – provided it is packed with enough potency to positively influence the opinions
and perceptions of a country to positive end – can serve as a global beacon for attracting the
much needed attention, funding and support that can drive a country’s development needs.
It is important to note however that this activity is beyond tourism marketing. It is
even larger than what would be described from a foreign policy perspective. Here we discuss
what Simon Anholt described as nation branding[11]. At first glance, the term may conjure
up what many regard as a common tactic by governments around the world, but as the
literature proves it is a highly ambiguous term, whose scope and definition lacks the level of
scrutiny and theoretical expansion that has expanded other concepts in the discipline.
Notwithstanding, nation branding has become an increasingly researched concept over the
last decade and a half[8][12]. Governments are always on the search for new means of
attracting catalysts of development, namely tourists, investors, and skilled human resources
and as they become increasingly aware of the importance of their nation as a brand[8], it has
become not only a tool but also an asset. Today, some scholars employ the term national
reputational capital in reference to the unique form of capital that can be gained from a well
developed brand reputation. Expert Simon Anholt, credited with coining the term in the late
1990s, has advised a number of governments including the Netherlands, Latvia, Croatia,
Jamaica, Chile, Tanzania and Sweden and has noted a significant increase in the number of
countries inquiring about nation branding techniques and strategies since early 2000[8].
This not only reflects the growth of the field generally, but also an increased appreciation for
the role that a nation brand can play in development. It also shows that governments do in
fact regard nation branding as an alternative form of image promotion, separate from say
tourism marketing or public diplomacy. As a newly recognized asset, it has certainly gained
much consideration over a relatively short space of time.
A major challenge now is assessing the strength of a nation brand. There are new
metrics and measures being developed that attempt to index and quantify the strength of
nation brands, but only recently has there been a veritable explosion of literature[8].
Compounding this challenge is that, as the literature suggests, governments and marketing
experts take a greater level of interest in nation branding than scholars in other fields. So,
the nation branding concept has been slow to garner the level of research attention needed
to propel its importance in academia. Fan (2008) concurs that as an emerging field, nation
branding is being led more by practitioners than by academic researchers. This means the
field is being expanded in practice but is supported by limited theoretical research leaving
the concept virtually unexplored and undeveloped theoretically and conceptually[4][12].
In fact, a number of works available today that directly references the nation branding
concept (outside of Simon Anholt’s research) was only published post 2010 and the first
available textbook on the subject, authored by Dr Keith Dinnie was published only in 2008.
Nation branding, like other fields of practice, stands to benefit from the injection of
meaningful theories devised by academicians around the world but it has a long way to go in
its theoretical and conceptual development and this thesis seeks to make a contribution to
closing that research gap.

§2.1 Theoretical Development
During the earliest discussions about image management for investment solicitation,
the literature postulated that nation branding - which was yet to be termed as such - could
be applied by countries as a strategy for gaining national reputational capital. This form of
capital, representing the amalgamation of global perceptions about a country, could be a
beacon for investors, tourists, human and technical resources, international aid or any other
form of development resource. Today, countries use nation branding as a signal that they
have entered the world economy[2] and are ready to re-enter the current economic and
political sphere and participate in a new way.
In trying to understand the process of nation branding, scholars reference the
practices of the related marketing and branding fields; specifically product branding,
corporate branding and place branding. Indeed, before governments and scholars began
speaking about nation branding, the concept of branding in other respects was already well
established. For instance, brand strategists in manufacturing companies have long used
brand development to stimulate interest in their products and services. Consider two
companies, both producing bottled water. When these products enter the market,
consumers will make a choice between them based on factors such as price, functionality
(performance of the good), perceived quality of the good and its physical appearance (i.e.
packaging). Marketing experts at both these companies must therefore devise ways of
enhancing the appeal of these factors by stimulating interest in their own products to
compete effectively in the market.
This means that they must differentiate their goods and services by developing a
brand (Kotler and Gertner 2002)[1] and promoting that brand image. As Sun (2009)
explains, the brand management literature defines a brand as “a name, term, sign, symbol,
or design, or any combination of these that are used to identify the goods and services of one
seller or group of sellers to differentiate them from those of a competitor”[1]. This is known as
product branding and it is especially necessary in a world where products and product
features can easily be duplicated, as seen in the example earlier. Therefore, to increase their
presence in the market, companies associate their products with a catalogue of colours,
symbols, logos, slogans and shapes, which helps consumers to differentiate products.
Similar practice has also taken place in the corporate world where the trend of
corporate branding has long taken place. As the term suggests, it relates to the branding of
corporate entities. It is similar to product branding in the sense that is attempts to build a
brand identity and associate it to a particular product with the objective of differentiating
that product from similar products in the same category. The difference however is that
branded products are targeted at consumers whereas corporate brands are targeted at “an
expanded set of stakeholders including employees, investors, suppliers, partners, regulators
and local communities” (Hatch and Schultz 2003)[1].
Branding has also been applied to locations where parallels have been made between
places and products and how they can be branded[9]. But, similar to nation branding, the
idea is not to attract traditional buyers and consumers but to attract a wider range of settlers,
customers, visitors, traders, investors and human capital. The practice is often confused with
the traditional concept of tourism marketing, which in fact has a more limited focus, i.e., on
the natural landscape, the food and culture, and local tourist attractions, but the concepts
are not the same. In nation branding, emphasis is placed on its resource offerings and its

unique flair and lifestyle, but more importantly the reputation of the nation’s systems, its
social and economic environment and its political landscape.
A common mistake made by countries is offering generic qualities that can be found
in almost any nation, namely an educated human resource pool, a youthful population, and
an attractive landscape and scenery[13]. This approach disregards how the target audience
perceives the country itself, which could render the marketing campaign useless. Indeed,
brand strategists (even in related fields) have identified that the core essence and brand
message of any country must be different from those of competing nations. But most
potential customers demand more than hospitality and natural scenery, they are also
interested in the nation’s economic, political and social stability, domestic security,
enforcement of basic freedoms and respect.
2.1.1 Current Trends
Earlier publications on the concept put the nation branding discourse largely under
the domain of marketing, with some references to public diplomacy and international
relations. Recently, journal articles on nation branding have reflected a shift in the scholarly
focus of the field. A growing number of scholars have either hinted at or directly posited the
need for greater public participation in branding activities (both on the level of the people
and the level of public institutions). Anholt, 2010 (as cited by Teslik 2007) identifies greater
emphasis being placed on the behavioural aspects of managing the national image,
dismissing claims that the focus should be on the use of logos and catch phrases[45]. Today a
number of scholars agree that a critical component in any nation branding initiative is
greater involvement of the population and public institutions. In fact, as the novelty and
complexity of the concept leaves much to be explored, many more scholars are introducing
scholarly perspectives and research developments of related fields into nation branding.
§2.2 Problems & Criticisms
Nation branding is a fairly new and theoretically underdeveloped field of inquiry[1][7].
Nonetheless the literature is inundated with criticisms and concerns, particularly with
regards to the terminology and methodology that defines the concept. There is a debate
among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate tools and practices for
branding a nation. But a major point of confusion and a recurring phenomenon across the
literature is how vaguely defined are the terms nation brand and nation branding. The
multifarious definitions presented in the literature has rendered the term vague. Within the
marketing domain, Sun (2009) argues that the “brand management literature fails to
provide a concordant definition of brand or branding”[1] which could suggest why nation
branding has suffered in its theoretical development.
Retrospectively, Simon Anholt explains that the term “nation brand” was coined out
of his observation that country reputations (just like cities and regions) behave like
corporate and product images which play a crucial role in the progress and development of
the product or entity they represent[9]. Marketing consulting firms adopted this idea and
morphed it into a “promise that the images of countries can be directly manipulated using
the techniques of marketing communications”[9], a claim which has never been supported by
any article, research, case study or other work[7], suggesting that countries cannot advertise
into a new reputation. Further is that nation branding has been reduced by brand
consultants to an operation of simply creating a catalogue of stationery items such as

professional logos, business cards and letterheads etc.; practices which could simply be
regarded as just “good housekeeping” and not the true essence of nation branding.
As more scholars move toward describing nation branding as a comprehensive
process inclusive of stakeholder input and public participation, one researcher advances an
opposing view which characterises it as “the production of symbols, signs, territories and
spaces for consumption”[14]. As for tactics, Szondi argues that nation branding is built on the
use of logos, slogans, advertisements, brochures and e-marketing. This essentially reduces
the conceptualisation of nation branding to country promotion using traditional marketing
methods, i.e., with visual elements comprising signs and logos. This perspective is directly in
contrast to the commonly proposed definition of nation branding that looks beyond the
visual and symbolic elements of a nation to encapsulate the social, political and economic
spheres.
The incongruity in perspectives may be provoked by faulty terminology. Olins (2004)
highlights the fact that “connecting marketing and branding terms to the concept of nations”
invokes a sense of scepticism among policymakers, academics and diplomats[15]. Anholt
(2007) explains that the related terminology is often seen as cynical or too market-oriented,
which continues to be a key challenge for the development of the concept[6]. As elucidated by
Dinnie (2009a), “integrating a marketing and communications approach to the objectives
and ambitions of policymakers may present serious challenges”[6] and Anholt, who coined
the term, admits that nation branding is an erroneous expression since it misrepresents
itself as a promise that governments can directly manipulate perceptions about their country
and its people[8]. Scholars have since introduced the terms ‘competitive identity’ and
‘reputation management as alternative descriptors.
Another scholar introduces the term national reputational capital, describing nation
branding as “the strategic self-presentation of a country with the aim of creating
reputational capital through economic, political and social interest promotion at home and
abroad”. Other scholars avoid the details of the conceptualisation by articulating a general
rather than comprehensive definition of the term. Fan (2008) for instance describes nation
branding as simply “the management of a nation’s image and reputation”, or “the practice of
applying brand and marketing communication techniques to promote a nation’s image”[10].
Nation branding is akin to image management, on a larger scale, and so some authors
have placed emphasis on the visual and symbolic elements of the nation, with an exclusive
“focus on the marketable elements of a country’s culture and people”[10]. Other scholars see
nation branding as just an extension of the familiar “brand” concept, an ideological product
of the corporate world[2] which has no place in public policy or governance. With the
multitude of perspectives in the literature, it will take some time before the concept crosses
the disciplinary divide and is accepted as a valid principle by economists, public managers
and government officials generally.

§2.3 Conclusion
Having an identifiable global image can improve the economic, political and social
situation of a nation. Countries have long employed tactics in the form of public diplomacy,
international relations, diplomatic engagement and other government-level activities.
However as the global landscape for information dissemination and communication changes,
governments have been on a quest to discover new ways of global image management. In
response, scholars have pointed to the branding practices commonly employed for products
and services as an alternative and suggested that a nation can be branded in the same way.
Despite criticisms and scepticism about this practice, nation branding has grown into
a hugely profitable industry, but it is still theoretical underdeveloped. Being a product
primarily of the marketing school of thought, nation branding is patently inundated with
corporate and business-related perspectives and jargons which have little effect in enhancing
its cross-disciplinary appeal. As such, the main (non-marketing) inquirers into this field,
mainly public administrators and policy scholars, value the proposition but are sceptical of
its validity and applicability as a tool of governance. A significant focus has now been placed
on understanding the critical considerations for the implementation of a potent nation
brand and the implementation of a strategic branding initiative.

3 Nation Branding Policy Analysis
Initial scoping of the literature highlighted the limited theoretical and conceptual
development of the nation branding field. Nonetheless, this research is conducted under the
principle that the range of theories, perspectives and practical experiences that exist in other
public policy domains such as economics, project management and public diplomacy etc.
can help inform the development of a nation branding framework. The methodological
approach and research orientation adopted by this research is outlined below.
§3.1 Methodological Framework
This section identifies the research tools that were applied to systematically
manipulate the research data and answer the research questions.
The first option of methodological approaches was do develop a framework based on
case analyses where the research would investigate the experiences of countries that had
already launched nation branding initiatives and develop a framework based on their most
frequently employed policy strategies and approaches. Undesirably, this inductive this
option would eliminate scholarly perspectives – albeit limited – and force the researcher to
obtain data primarily from public records. In the absence of a coordinated nation branding
infrastructure, which is the case in many countries, it would not be feasible to obtain these
records and not in the quantities sufficient enough to inform a policy framework.
The second option was to interview scholars and branding and marketing experts, but
this option would not factor in the experiences of countries that have already launched
nation branding initiatives. Additionally, this research route would not fit within the
predefined temporal or budgetary constraints of the study since completing an appropriate
number of interviews would produce a large quantity of uncategorized qualitative data
requiring more resources than available to the researcher.
The third option, which was ultimately employed, was a qualitative, exploratory
method of data collection and analysis. Through this option, both scholarly perspectives and
practical experiences were assessed.
As described graphically in Figure 3:1, the preliminary literature led to refinement of
the research aim, questions and objectives. Then by applying a framework for literature
selection, a comprehensive literature review was performed on the most relevant pieces of
work on the topic. Thematic analysis was performed to identify themes and patterns from
among the theoretical prescriptions and data triangulation was applied to all other
secondary sources including books, online reports, press releases, government records,
newspaper reports and information posted by the nation branding responsible organization
in different countries. Case studies and other secondary data sources were also subject to
data triangulation. After identifying and later filtering the array of tools presented in the
literature, the final elements were compiled into a device for nation branding. This device,
developed as a nation branding framework identifies the tools and procedures necessary for
the development and execution of a nation branding program. Further details of each phase
are described below.

Figure 3:1 Research methodology process diagram

3.1.1 Data Collection
For data collection, traditional research sources (newspapers, databases, books,
journal articles etc), were consulted. These were sourced via standard search engine queries,
scholarly database searches and government portals. To ensure data was collected from a
wide cross-section of the available literature, non-traditional data sources were also
reviewed, including posts by corporate entities.
3.1.1.1 Literature Selection
In selecting literature, variables such as data format, publication date, authorship and
content were important considerations that varied from source to source to capture a wide
cross section of all available data sources.
Preliminary literature review looked at exploring the development of the concept,
current research trends and dominant theories. This was critical for refining the research
objectives. This preliminary literature review was conducted using a standard search engine
query with such key words as: <nation branding> and <nation branding framework>, with
variations like country/nation and model/framework etc. Upon arriving at a clearer
understanding of what the concept entails, a more specific search strategy was applied.
Subsequent rounds of data gathering involved queries to academic databases and research
portals. Literature was then filtered as described graphically in Figure 3:2. This was
necessary since data triangulation requires a wide range of data sources, collected over a
wide span of time and from different locations. Therefore, to capture the most potent and
relevant pieces of literature, a series of criteria was set up to determine whether a particular
source of information should be included in the research or omitted for lack of relevance.
Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection
3.1.1.2 Case Studies
Several countries have launched what they dub a nation branding program/initiative;
this research is informed in part by the lessons learned from these cases. While cases are
invaluable to this research, one drawback is that not all cases are well-documented. Requests
to obtain public records from some of these countries were made, but the majority of data
regarding their nation branding experience was gathered from electronic reports and
records.

The countries selected as major cases were Kenya, South Africa and Germany. Based
on scoping of the literature, it appeared that these countries had the most active and highly
organized nation branding programs. Information regarding the nation branding exercises
in these countries was readily available as public record (especially via a domestic nation
branding web portal). This made it easy to track developments in their nation branding
activities. Another country frequently mentioned in this research is Jamaica. Jamaica was
selected as it has one of the most recognized nation brands in the world but ironically has an
unstructured nation branding policy strategy.
3.1.2 Methods of Data Manipulation
Data analysis will be performed using two conventional social science research
methods: thematic analysis and data triangulation. The specific application of these research
methods is explained in sub-sections 3.1.2.1 and 3.1.2.2:
3.1.2.1 Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis has been practiced by researchers and scholars for decades; it is the
most common approach in content analysis and is now a conventional practice in qualitative
research[16][17]. Thematic analysis is a qualitative research method that is used to identify,
analyse and report themes (patterns) within a body of literature[5]. This method is useful
since it reveals patterns and themes which are not imposed by the researcher[5]. Since there
are no preset categories or labels and no predetermined themes, then critical and thorough
reading of the literature allows the researcher to identify these themes as they emerge.
Thematic analysis, although quite a conventional research method, is not often
demarcated as such. In fact, several examples can be found in scholarly works were
researchers refer to thematic analysis by other terms, such as discourse analysis. There are
also cases where scholars explain the process without actually referring to it as thematic
analysis, for instance Braun & Wilkinson (2003) state in their research that data would be
“subjected to qualitative analysis of commonly recurring themes”[18]. What the researchers
described here is actually thematic analysis.
This research method played a critical role in the development of the nation branding
framework as it produced a list of themes, patterns, common perspectives and prescriptions
that explained the nation branding process and gave insight into what procedures and tools
should be employed during its implementation.
3.1.2.2 Data Triangulation
In social science research triangulation involves observing a phenomenon from at
least two different perspectives[20]. Specifically, it combines data captured by different
sources in different places and at different times or by different people[20]. Since it involves
data obtained from different types of sources[5], triangulation is one means of validating
research findings and increasing the credibility of research results.
Since this component of the research focused on triangulating patterns across country
case studies and scholarly prescriptions and theories, the qualitative and quantitative data
that supported this study was compiled from carefully filtered literature. (See
Figure 3:2 Framework for literature selection).

3.1.3 Developing the Framework
A comprehensive search of the literature reveals no existing nation branding
framework. The development of such framework therefore required the synthesis of theories,
prescriptions, scholarly opinions, and lessons learned. This thesis is composed of several
important analytical and research components. First, it applied thematic analysis and data
triangulation to the available literature to develop a theoretical framework for nation
branding. Second, using the theories and themes captured by the theoretical framework, a
policy framework was drafted which was a comprehensive outline of the tools and
procedures required for developing and executing a nation branding program. Third, a
graphical representation of the framework was developed to better represent the
interconnectedness of the processes involved. Producing suitable graphics to represent the
framework is an important stage of the framework development process as it helps the
reader to visualise the interrelatedness of the theoretical threads in a clear diagrammatic
representation of the concept[22]. Other successful constructs such as Maslow’s pyramidal
hierarchy of needs and Bruner’s spiral theory of learning are frequently referenced as
examples of diagrammatic representations which have anchored the theoretical and
practical development of their respective fields. Such representations must be accompanied
by an updated catalogue of terminology; a principle which was adopted by this research.
3.1.3.1 Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is meant to be an organized compilation of the main concepts,
ideas and theories regarding the phenomenon under observation[23]. Sinclair (2007) likens a
theoretical framework to a map or travel plan where users can determine where they are,
where they want to go, and how best they can arrive there.
In the context of scholarly inquiry, a theoretical framework is an assemblage of
accounts, experiences, suggestions, theories, prescriptions and expert opinions. It provides a
general representation of the relationships between various elements of the phenomenon[24]
and also an explicit statement regarding the theoretical assumptions surrounding that
phenomenon[25]. In the present study, the theories explored were about nation branding on
one hand and the policy process on the other. The activity was aided by questions adopted
from research by Slevin & Basford (1999). The questions explored:
 The researcher’s current knowledge about the phenomenon;
 The type of knowledge available (empirical, tacit, intuitive, moral, practical etc);
 Whether the theory is proven through theory-linked research;
 Other theories with possible relevance to the phenomenon; and
 How these theories can be applied in practice.
The resulting framework linked the researcher to a wider body of knowledge in
related fields that offer insight into what a nation branding framework should look like.
However the volume and face value of this information leave it largely meaningless when
scrutinised wholesale. So, it is the responsibility of the researcher to synthesize the views,
opinions, observations and existing theories so that a more refined and narrow
representation of the data is created. Application of thematic analysis at this point is critical.

As Sinclair (2007) points out, the synthesis of themes and perspectives require information
permutations and amalgamations on the part of the researcher which leads to a more
scientifically sound body of data. Once developed, the theoretical framework allowed the
researchers to move from describing the phenomena to making generalizations about it[25].
This is ideal since these generalizations would later inform the nation branding framework.
3.1.3.2 Policy Implementation Theories
In the development of a nation branding framework, the researcher had to consider
nation branding as a policy process, rather than a marketing activity. In this sense, the
adoption of policy implementation theories was necessary to describe the phenomenon and
to understand and explain the activity. There are several approaches to policy
implementation including structural, procedural, behavioural and political approaches. In
terms of theories, scholars have long attempted to identify the particular factors that account
for both policy success and implementation failure (See for instance Ostrom 2007; Sabatier
2007). These theories are identified throughout the research discussion.
3.1.3.3 Nation Branding Theories
A range of nation branding theories exist in the literature. Scholars have posited a
number of perspectives and view regarding the effects and benefits of nation branding with a
significant amount of research effort placed on understanding the scope and validity of the
concept. Papers written from a policy perspective often focus on the viability of nation
branding, and the sustainability of a nation brand. A number of theories concerning the
process of nation branding helped inform the development of the implementation
framework.
By integrating these two theoretical datasets, i.e., the public policy and marketing
schools of thought, the researcher was able to develop a nation branding implementation
framework. Considering nation branding as a policy process, the research produced a device
that systematically outlined the steps, tools and procedures required in nation branding.
As expressed in the methodological framework, this process began with the
identification of relevant literature to support the theoretical assumptions, then thematic
analysis and data triangulation, and then finally, through a process of critical policy analysis,
all applicable theories and practices were integrated into one nation branding model.
§3.2 Theoretical & Conceptual Considerations
The literature highlights several themes and prescriptions that are critical
considerations of nation branding strategists. In the interest of understanding nation
branding as a policy process, the following themes (captured from both marketing and
policy-based literature) will be analysed from a policy lens. These themes were deduced
through data triangulation and are explained as follows:
3.2.1 Brand Channels
According to the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), six factors affect the
nation brand. The global population takes these factors into consideration when estimating
the strength of a nation brand. Known as brand channels, these factors are the means
through which nations communicate with publics. They comprise Tourism promotion and

first-hand visitor experiences; Product exports, which act as brand ambassadors through the
country-of-origin effect (COO); examples include Mercedes - Made in Germany and Red
Stripe Beer - Made in Jamaica; cultural exports which appeal to audiences inclined to the
creative and culinary arts. Cultural exchange activities led by famous musicians, athletes,
actors/actresses and other cultural icons can impact on the nation brand, especially if their
creative products (i.e., paintings, works of poetry and musical recordings etc.) are promoted
too; nationals also play a significant part in building the brand. They may be average
members of the local population or Diaspora or well-known individuals with public profiles;
policy i.e. the country’s domestic and foreign policy direction as reported in the
international media can affect perceptions of that country on themes such as democracy,
security, economy, human rights etc; and finally investment solicitation strategies help
international audiences understand what the nation’s business and corporate environments
are best suited for in terms of investments activities. Expansion of foreign companies into
the country is also indicative of particular strengths.
3.2.2 Strategic Positioning
Positioning is a core branding activity wherein an organization’s offerings and image
are designed to occupy a distinctive place in the mind of the target audience[26]. A brand
cannot be sustainable without effective positioning[27]. A good brand position rests on three
qualities namely, uniqueness, i.e., the message should be distinctive and distinguishable
from all others; prevalence, which speaks to how widespread the message is among the
target audience; and strength, which assesses the potency of the nation brand. These
qualities can be achieve by employing any one or a combination of the six approaches to
positioning as identified by Aaker & Shansby 1982[27], these are: positioning by use, user,
attribute, category, price/quality and competitiveness.
3.2.3 Positioning Attributes
There are six defining attributes of a national image that affect domestic and
international perceptions of the brand. These elements may be internal in nature (i.e., from
the perspective of the local population) or external (i.e., from the perspective of the global
population). The elements include reputation, which speaks to the credibility of the nation’s
identity claims; image which speaks to what the nation projects to the rest of the world;
identity, which refers to cultural beliefs, commonalities and shared psychological bonds
among a group of people[4]; self-perception concerns how the people of a nation regard
themselves, for instance nationals from developed countries may perceive themselves as
economically superior, independent, or generally more powerful compared to nationals from
developing countries who may perceive themselves as players in the international political
economy. A range of self-perceptions claims may be made by the people of a nation and
concern a multitude of areas such as the economy, society and behaviour etc. The stereotype
element appears in this grouping since it refers to the imagery and the descriptions evoked
by a nation. The quality of a stereotype is that it is a label attributed to all members of the
defined group, in this case the nation. It can be a positive statement about the nation such as
“Chinese have superior maths skills” or a negative statement such as “Chinese produce
inferior goods”. But, as can be seen in these examples, the danger of a stereotype is that it
makes a general classification which may not always be true. Certain stereotypes can
therefore be damaging to a nation’s brand. Finally, symbols constitute the tangible and

intangible elements that define the nation; this category includes the national colours, the
national flag, national sub-brands and the nation’s motto etc.
To understand how these elements play into the strength of a nation brand, consider
the case of South Sudan – a ‘new’ country, with a provisional name, a flag and an anthem. A
simple territorial border will not ascribe it any particular identifying attribute, so the world
will continue to see South Sudan as “just another African country”[28], because it has lacks an
identity, and several of the aforementioned elements.
3.2.4 Cultural Export Outlets
Some countries have developed various forms of cultural export outlets, which are
entities that promote their national philosophy and ideology through their everyday course
of business. Examples of such outlets include the Chinese Confucius Institutes and the
German Goethe Institute. Denmark has pioneered the world’s first smartphone application
targeted at international media, which acts as a cultural export outlet. The app features
Danish cuisine, architecture and lifestyle in the hopes that foreigners will be inspired to
explore the country. From a policy perspective, these outlets are more than just export
outlets, they constitute an important avenue through which the policy managers can
communicate with their audience and also receive feedback. They facilitate sensitization,
exposure and enlightenment in a way that would be rather expensive and difficult to
coordinate through traditional methods.
3.2.5 Exploiting Mutual Image Transference
Due to the reciprocity between product and provenance[29], it is possible to use sub-
brands to promote the nation brand and vice versa[30]. This tactic is about exploiting the
country-of-origin (COO) effect, and is possible through the principle of mutual image
transference where a product or service is evaluated based on its origin, or where the
evaluation of a product can link back to the production characteristics (i.e., superior/inferior)
of the export nation. However it can have negative implications if the association made
between the mother-brand and the sub-brand is poor.
Japan readily comes to mind as a country with strong brand associations. The Asian
nation benefits from associations with international consumer brands Sony, Toshiba and
Honda and these has positioned Japan as a technological leader in the minds of many
overseas consumers, investors and tech enthusiasts. But there is a challenge: some
corporations have promoted their marks as international brands, a deliberate marketing
strategy to be unreferenced alongside any particular country and be seen as a ubiquitous
global brand. Telecommunications giant Nokia is one example. Mobile phone consumers
around the world are familiar with the brand name, but most are unaware that Nokia is
actually a Finnish company. If Finland was launching a nation branding initiative, close
collaboration with this brand could prove invaluable in building the image of the local talent,
research, economy, and technological achievements etc. Korea could benefit from a closer
relationship with its leading international corporate brands Samsung and LG[31].
Some countries have no high profile export brands with which to establish
associations[6]. However, these nations can still exploit the COO phenomenon. Take for
instance Poland, which lacks an internationally recognizable brand product[6]. Poland has
the opportunity to selectively promote particular brands and cultivate the proper
associations with its nation brand. This was successfully done by Fiji, where Fiji Water has

attracted a massive following across North America and other overseas markets. Although
many of its consumers are ignorant of the country’s geography, economy, and politics, the
product fetches a premium in some markets and has “done much to promote the brand of
Fiji globally”[29].
3.2.6 Audience Profiling (Message Receivers)
Mounting a message on an international platform follows an assumption that the
international audience is so homogenous that the message will be easily understand (and in
the same way) by everyone. This is a fallacy which can have negative implications for a
nation branding campaign if special care is not taken to understand the interpretive culture
of the target audience. Semiotics, the study of signs and communication, describes the
communications process as a series of activities from message encoding to decoding.
This background makes it clear the reason audience profiling is an important
consideration when devising a nation brand. Not only are different audiences informed in
different ways (i.e., through popular media, stories, folklore, books and periodicals, current
affairs etc.), but due to cultural differences, they also interpret the information they receive
differently too. Audience perspectives and opinions about world affairs and accordingly
about different countries, can vary significantly from one target group to another, so it is
important that brand strategists understand the interpretive culture of their target audience
to launch better campaigns that are better tailored to different target audiences.
To better understand what impact perceptions can play on the communications goals
of branding campaigns, it is important to understand the range of perception types[4]
between two countries as explained in the following statements below:
What Country A thinks of Country B
What Country B thinks of Country A
What A thinks B thinks of them, and
What B thinks A thinks of them
Due to the perception discrepancies, as highlighted in the example above, brand
strategists must make critical decisions on how to communicate to different audiences. One
consideration is whether an emotional or rational/factual message will have greater impact
and what elements of the nation brand warrant greater emphasis over the other. Rational
messages have a greater impact on FDI audiences while tourists and foreign workers are
more receptive to emotional messages[15]. In rational messages, facts and quantifiable data
such as statistics and rates are used while emotional messages place an emphasis on hedonic
elements such as exquisite cuisine and natural scenery. Market research can help brand
strategists develop the appropriate communication based on the characteristics of the target
audience[15].
3.2.7 Systemic Problems
Systemic and institutional problems are certain hindrances to effective nation
branding. Among the problems are lack of continuity in branding campaigns, organizational
power plays, internal politics and stakeholder conflicts (such as differences in ideals, goals
and professional opinions) and lack of technical and operational resources, among others.
Identifying potential difficulties, whether institutional, operational or systemic is
essential. For instance, during the design and implementation phase of the nation branding
program, there may be contention between government officials and branding consultants

on what is better for the nation[2], a disconnect that can lead to campaign failure and waste
of resources. Such areas of difference must be addressed before the program goes into effect.
3.2.8 Role of Stakeholders
Cornelissen (2004) explains that stakeholders are those parties or groups “that are
themselves affected by the operations of a program but can equally have an impact on it”[6].
By this definition, stakeholders must be both message drivers (i.e., play a part in the
performance and operations of the initiative) and also be impacted by the message or
program. Since stakeholders can be at either of these extremes or fall squarely in the middle,
brand strategists must come to a clear understanding of who are the stakeholders and what
will be their primarily role in the nation branding program. A critical component of this
consideration is the impact that various policy players can have on the success of the
program. A common problem in policy implementation is competition.
3.2.8.1 Stakeholder salience
Stakeholders can be found across a broad spectrum of the population, and can even
include nondomestic partners too. An important consideration when determining the rota of
stakeholders will be their hierarchy in the nation branding program. Stakeholders can: (1) be
considered as full equals, sharing equal responsibly and equal authority in the program; or
(2) adhere to a vertical hierarchy where some have greater influence and say in the program
than others. In response to an interview question, one respondent suggested that
stakeholder input be included in the consultation (exploratory stage) of the program, but
excluded from the actual development/formulation of the brand[6].
Stakeholder identification and grading of salience is identified as an important step in
establishing relationships and communications. Mitchell et al., (1997) put forward the
power, legitimacy and urgency framework[6] which reveals that power has the greatest
effect on salience, followed by urgency and finally legitimacy, but the Fully Inclusive
Stakeholder Approach, FIST, is an alternative whereby all stakeholders are fully recognized
and included in the project[6].
3.2.9 Role of the Public
The public is indeed part of the aforementioned stakeholder group but is addressed
separately in this research because of the overwhelming focus placed on the role of the local
population specifically. The literature pays attention to the importance of having the general
population on board with the branding exercise, for several reasons. Hasan (2009) notes
that the success of a nation branding program depends on the “active participation,
ownership and support”[32] of the population, who is expected to live the brand. But it is also
important to understand the current behaviour, interests and lifestyle of the population as a
nation branding strategy must be developed around the people rather than imposed on
themError! Bookmark not defined.. Since citizens of a country are socialized in a
particular way, they already project a natural image that must be met with a natural brand.
Dinnie (2007) argues that a people cannot “adapt their natural behaviour to fit an artificially
created brand”[15]. This was the situation in the 1990s when the British government sought
to implement “Cool Britannia”, a program with ultimately failed because the majority of the
population did not fit the characteristics described in the brand proposition of cutting edge
fashion, fashion, arts, design etc. (Gilmore 2002)[27]. This situation is likened to the

imposition of a new code-of-conduct on staff in an organization. Although change
management tools would certainly be necessary, participation and behavioural change is
much easier manipulated in the case of a corporation than a nation. Aronczyk (2013) adds
to the debate by highlighting that all places already have a brand, but that it only needs to be
owned and managed but that connections must always be made with pre-existing labels.
An important factor when developing a nation branding strategy is the involvement of
the people and public institutions. As in any policy process, success is “correlated with
coherent willingness of dominant groups”[33], meaning when the public is part of the nation
branding strategy, it will perform better. This is captured by one scholar who argues that
nation branding does better when “public speaks to publics; when a substantial proportion
of the population of the country – not just civil servants and paid figureheads – get behind
the strategy and live it out in their everyday dealings with the outside world”[2]. David Lightle,
country branding expert, acknowledges that it is “better to have a unified image” of the
nation, which means that there must be domestic buy-in before the brand can be promoted
(as cited by PRSJ 2010)[64]. This was the case in London and Toronto, due to a lack of
sensitization, residents rejected urban branding campaigns in their area[2].
However the literature clearly demonstrates the importance of public institutions.
Lightle points out for instance, that successful branding is in part due to infrastructure and
policy commitments by governments (PRSJ 2010). Improvements to any nation brand, and
further development of the field itself therefore requires critical focus on the role of
government institutions, government policies and general public systems. One argument
that is clearly placed throughout the literature is that branding requires coordination and
cooperation across all sectors and systems of government[13]. In the corporate world on the
other hand, marketing does not require the coordination of all the internal systems of the
producer (unless it is the producer itself, and not the product, that is being marketed).
Further, marketing an individual product does not require the participation of the staff in
that company. For instance, staff members at the Pepsi-Cola Company® do not need to
consume their own products for target consumers to buy into their marketing campaign
because they don’t affect the company’s brand image the way the local population of a
country can affect the nation brand. It is clear then how the population can play a role in
public branding and that the virtues of acknowledging the ‘people factor’ are incontestable.
Nation branding is also a highly politicized activity since “only the government has the
authority and legitimacy to establish the parameters of a nation branding strategy”[6] and
also since the development of a nation branding strategy can lead to changes in the public
and political agenda. In nation branding, an effective campaign requires that a number of
critical institutional and operational changes take place within the government system.
Specifically, ministries, agencies, departments and their staffs must adapt to the branding
program by undergoing restructuring exercises, skills training, technology upgrades and
hierarchical shifts among others. It may also be the case that new structures, guidelines and
policies are instituted to accommodate and enhance the branding exercise. This is unlike
marketing where a product can be branded and advertised with no alterative effects on a
corporate organization’s systems, procedures, internal operations, hierarchical structure etc
(as demonstrated by the Pepsi example above). In corporate branding, where an entire
institution is being branded or rebranded, the need for organizational and operational
changes is far less than those required in the government system, due particularly to the
bureaucratic nature of the latter. In this way, corporate and product branding can be seen as
an activity emanating outward from the executive members of a corporate entity, while

nation branding manifests as an activity emanating outward from the primary stakeholders,
which are public institutions. This also underscores the idea that branding policies should
primarily be the work of public managers, not marketing managers.
3.2.9.1 The Role of the Diaspora
Complementing the role of public institutions, the wider public can play a unique role
in nation branding campaigns. At home, the population can be mobilized to carry out
various activities that enhance the brand proposition. Overseas, the Diaspora can also be
mobilized to improve the nation brand if the necessary level of coordination and
communication is applied. A unique example comes from 2008 New York where over
Colombian-Americans living in the crowded metropolitan district, played a role in the
“Branding Colombia” campaign by handing out a combined total of over 100,000 Colombian
roses to passersby on Colombian Pride Day, November 17[32]. The event received
overwhelming international media attention but had an even greater impact to a very
important target audience of Columbia: US citizens. Colombia’s image suffers from
frequently being highlighted in the media as a drug haven, controlled by rebel and
paramilitary groups, and subject to guerrilla warfare and high levels of extortion. So, on the
part of each individual it was a simple gesture, but the combined efforts of the group had a
profound impact on offering a new image of Colombians.
The role of the Diaspora is often overlooked in the development goals of different
countries, perhaps due to the principle of proximity where, their distance from the
homeland renders their participation limited or nonexistent. However, if appropriate
policies are implemented then governments can not only mobilize the Diaspora in a
meaningful way but ensure that they make long-term economic and social contributions to
their home country. Members of the Diaspora are an important subset of Brand
Ambassadors and should be treated with the same value as brand ambassadors at home.
3.2.10 Public-Private Partnerships
Establishing public-private partnerships can be useful in a number of ways, such as
providing operational support (especially funding and technology) or offering testimonials
that compliment the nation’s business environment and regulatory systems, among others.
Such partnerships are important for validating identity claims since the nation can reference
successful companies as examples in its nation branding campaign. This was done during
the New France campaign, where the French government exploited partnerships with the
private sector. One aspect of this partnership saw company executives collaborate with the
government to promote the government’s policies and the corporate environment[30]. Public-
private partnerships are also invaluable, for enhancing national associations with corporate
sub-brands. This is explored further in section 3.1.1.2.
3.2.11 Message Alignment
A consistent message is more appealing to target audiences because it appears more
genuine. Take for instance, a proposal to promote Korea under the tag “Green Korea”. As
Chairman of the Korean Presidential Council on Nation Branding explains, promoting Korea
as a “green” country would not be convincing since Korea is “recognized as a fast-developing
economy, heavily dependent on heavy industries and electronics”[31]. Such a program would

probably be successful in New Zealand or Alaska, but the Chairman notes that “Green
Korea” would appear disingenuous.
The newly developed mother brand should therefore establish connections with
existing labels[2]. It should also exploit areas of synergy among sub-brands[34] so that all
brand messages are consistent. In the absence of such alignment, the scenario as verbalised
by Dinnie (2008b) may obtain where a nation has difficulty nation balancing messages of
bucolic rural scenery (which appeals to travellers) with an image of skyscrapers and
widespread technological development (which appeals to foreign investors).
The International Marketing Council of South Africa highlights message consistency
as an important consideration especially in a context where domestic brands or local
organizations may have “already developed their own brand platforms” and brand
messages[34].
3.2.12 Dealing with Opposition & Controversy
One of the most critical phases in launching a nation branding program will be
gaining support for the program. Nation branding can be a controversial issue in many
states, since it involves certain reallocation of scarce government resources. Opposition,
criticisms and controversy are discussed issues in the policy domain where governments
have to contend with widespread public pressure and dissent. Some approaches to restoring
confidence in a policy include sensitization drives whereas others involve public
participatory decision-making. In the latter, the public is invited to contribute to the policy
development through various ways. They may play a critical role in the formulation of the
policy or they may be invited to participate in the process in other meaning ways. This last
approach is about ensuring the public can claim some level of ownership over the program.
Public policy scholarship shows that publics will take a policy more seriously if they believe
they can affect it.
3.2.13 External Influences
External influences can have either a positive or negative impact on the branding
initiative and affect the success of the program. External influences, namely international
media and international personalities such as political figures (who by virtue of their
position, are considered credible sources of information) can help concretize disseminate
ideas about a nation, but this is only helpful if they bolster the intended national image.
Particularly troubling is the case where the public is misinformed due to the logical
fallacy of appeal to authority. The case of Jamaica is a fitting example. In 2012, Zimbabwean
leader, Robert Mugabe described Jamaican males as drug abusers who are always drunk[35].
The comments sparked outrage among the local population who deemed the
characterizations false and inappropriate. One commentator confesses that worldwide,
people believe old “stereotypes of the island nation as a tropical paradise where laid-back
people smoke [marijuana] in the sun all day”[36], but comments from a supposedly credible
authority can help detract from the realities and concretize old (often fallacious) perceptions.
The same is true for Germany, which is constantly pounced on by negative comments in the
Italian press and from Italian leaders about its people and their culture[37].
To protect their markets and their image, countries have become more creative in
their policies to the outside world. China, the largest film market outside of the US, has

Case: District 9
In 2012, a US movie-studio released District 9, a production about extraterrestrial beings stranded on
Earth who develop a relationship with a local population for survival. The population, Nigerians, were
depicted as corrupt, cannibalistic, prostitutes, and gangsters, which Nigerian officials believed promoted
stereotypes and damaged images of the Nigerian people. Some Nigerians believed these comments were
hypocritical since the Nigerian movie industry, called Nollywood, uses similar characterizations of the
population, sometimes worse (Karimi 2009). Nonetheless, the Nigerian Information Minister called for
movie houses not to screen the film for its degenerating representation of Nigerians (Castro 2009). The
Nigerian case highlights several issues. First, is that international media can be considered an external
influencer and influence worldwide perceptions about a country. Second, if local media depicts its own
country and population in certain ways then aligning international perceptions with the intended brand
position may be compromised. The impact of self-depictions on international audiences is great so
countries should be careful not to brand against themselves.
demanded that Hollywood produce movies that feature heavily on Chinese culture and
customs, in return local regulators have offered greater access to the Chinese market[38].
In terms of tracking other external actors and project influencers, public policy theory
advocates a priori force-field analysis in policy design. In this analysis, external forces that
can either support or destroy the program are identified and keen attention is paid to the
various groups.
3.2.14 Role of International Indices
International indices reflect both domestic and international perceptions (and
realities) about a country in key development areas. Indices that focus on conditions of
health, security, the economy, human rights, democracy, the environment etc, are among the
most recognized and frequently referenced indices. Some of the most widely known indices
include the Corruptions Perception Index (CPI), the Doing Business Report (DBR); and
various Human and Social Indices produced by Amnesty International and other agencies.
The Corruptions Perception Index measures how corrupt a country is perceived based
on survey responses by international partners. Some countries recurrently feature in the
“Highly Corrupt” brand of the index, an extreme end of the spectrum that suggests public
officials are corrupt or easily bribed etc. Amnesty International, explores matters related to
human rights and security such as police brutality, state violence etc., and the Doing
Business Report assesses how easy it is to navigate the local business environment or to
complete common transactions such as applying for and setting up utilities, obtaining
various licences and registrations etc. These indices provide critical insights which investors,
travellers and the general public use to form opinions about the economic, political, legal
and social realities of a nation; invariably impacting on the nation brand.
By reviewing these ranks, ratings or index placements, brand strategists can better
understand what impression the country has on the rest of the world and which perceptions
positively or negatively affect the nation brand.

3.2.15 Monitoring & Evaluation
There is a debate among scholars and practitioners regarding the most appropriate
and effective way to measure the strength of a nation brand. This is especially important for
the monitoring and evaluation stage of a branding campaign. The most recognized and
frequently referenced index is the Anholt-Gfk Roper Nation Brand Index (NBI), developed
in 2005. It scores countries based on a six-category checklist: people, tourism, exports,
governance, investment and immigration, and culture and heritage. These are represented
in the Anholt Nation Brand Hexagon.
The people aspect considers the hospitality, friendliness and general appeal of the
population; tourism looks at what level of interest there is to visit the country in question
and asks what is the tourism appeal of its various attractions; exports considers to what
extent the country-of-origin effect influences consumer behaviour; governance looks at
opinion regarding the competency of the government and its stance on issues such as human
rights, international peace and security and environmental protection; culture measures
perceptions of the country’s heritage and the essence of their creative products (music, film
and the arts), it also gauges the impact of sporting and cultural activities; and immigration
and investment reflects the nation’s economic and business situation as well as its ability to
attract financial and human resources, all of which speaks to the extent foreigners would
consider living, studying and working in that country[39].
Although the NBI is the most recognized index for brand evaluation, several scholars
and practitioners have criticized it as weak. Brand consultant, Thomas Cromwell argues that
the methodology requires “an enormous undertaking to comprehensively understand global
perceptions through polling data”[8]. Another critic argues that that the NBI methodology
suffers from a sampling problem where citizens from only 20 countries are used to represent
the world. Moreover, the perceptions of the sample population may be irrelevant in cases
when are nation is developing a regional brand. One writer points out too that while a brand
cannot change abruptly, audiences do make new associations with a country in shorter
timeframes but the metrics used in the NBI method
cannot detect or adequately measure these associations.
The writer goes further by arguing that asking only three
to five questions per index is inadequate and questions
such as “Do you want to have a person from this country
as a close friend?” are inapt[40]. Data triangulation is also
proposed as an alternative to global internet surveys. In
this method, views and opinions from social media
websites, blogs, newspaper columns and other platforms
are triangulated to give an understanding of the
perceptions held by different populations. Criticisms are
advanced in the literature that standardized
questionnaires, while allowing for meaningful comparisons, do not offer much insight, since
results may be skewed by the omission of important attributes when developing the survey
instrument[41].
Another important index, which positions itself as a more comprehensive and
competitive index of nation brands is produced by East-West Communications. Referred to
as the East-West Global Index 200, this measure assesses how a collection of 8 territories
and 192 UN members are perceived in the international media. This is done by tracking
Figure 3:3 Nation Brand
Hexagon

major international media outlets including The Economist, the New York Times, the
Washington Post, the China Morning (Hong Kong) and the Straits (Asia), as well as other
regional publications. The East-West group offers annual indices that reflect long-term
perceptions as well as quarterly indices that capture the dialogue on current issues or short-
term affairs such as government decisions or recent local events in the country[42].
Between these competing methodologies, i.e., the perception-based method of online
polling in the NBI and the data triangulation method used in media-analysis by the East-
West group, results vary:
Table 3-1 Comparison between the results of the NBI and GI200
Rank NBIa
East Westb
1 Germany Singapore
2 United Kingdom Hong Kong
3 Canada Malaysia
4 France Taiwan
5 Australia Australia
6 Italy United Arab Emirates
7 Switzerland Qatar
8 Japan Monaco
9 Sweden Canada
10 United States United Kingdom
a NBI Index (Q4, 2007). Source: Anholt Nation Brands Index™ © 2005-2008 Simon Anholt
b East West Index. Source: East West Global Index 200 © 2008 East West Communications
Nonetheless, considering the top-ranked countries, the East-West index reports the
US, UK, Australia, France and Japan as the most media-cited countries while the NBI index
reports a similar list of countries also having the highest rankings[42]. The discrepancy
between these measures signifies uncertainty and lack of consensus on how to measure the
potency of a nation brand.
The Samsung Economic Research Institute (SERI)[59] in Korea, collaborating with the
Presidential Council on Nation Branding (PCNB) has developed a newer model referred to
as the NBDO - the Nation Brand Dual Octagon. The model claims to bridge the gap between
indices that emphasize image such as the Nation Brands Index (NBI) and FutureBrands™
Country Brand Index (CBI) and those that emphasize substance, such as those developed by
the World Economic Forum (WEF) and the International Institute for Management
Development (IMD). The NBDO model, assess eight subcategories including economy,
science and technology, hard infrastructure, institutions, heritage, modern culture,
citizenry and celebrity. It assesses all substance elements using statistics from WEF, IMD
and UNESCO, and it assesses all image elements via surveys.

4 Case Studies
A number of countries have already launched nation branding initiatives. Some of the
most organized and well documented branding campaigns are those mounted by Korea,
Kenya and South Africa. Germany is also included to assess the impact of its unique history
on its nation brand. The approaches adopted by these countries encompass more than just
mere ad campaigns but manifest as holistic and comprehensive strategies that factor in all
aspects of the society, governance and the economy, the culture, land and natural resources,
and the strength and stability of its institutions and industries.
§4.1 South Africa
4.1.1 Development of Brand South Africa
The development of Brand South Africa is well documented. At the time of its
conception, “there were no strong country brands with major marketing drives behind
them”[34] so there was little in terms of global best practices or case studies to rely on. This
forced the brand strategists at the International Marketing Council of South Africa (IMC) to
be particularly innovative in their approach. The Brand South Africa initiative was a four-
phase initiative as identified below:
4.1.1.1 Developing the brand position (i.e., the mother brand)
Phase I was research intensive and involved interrogation of all relevant research on
the nation, This phase was research intensive, involving the interrogation of all relevant
research on the nation and consultations with domestic and international stakeholders. This
phase relied on interviews, specialist focus groups and workshops with target stakeholders
to understand what the essence of Brand South Africa was and how different groups related
to it. One step in this phase was testing various positioning statements amongst the brand
influencers, the local population and departing tourists.
4.1.1.2 Defining the relationships between mother brand and sub-brands
In Phase II, an important consideration of the IMC was for consistency across all
messages about the country. This involved understanding the depth of the mother-brand[34],
its elements and the mandate of its sub-brands. The Council would later exploit
complementarities and areas of synergy among mother-brand and sub-brands. This phase
calls for sub-brands to, in effect, modify their brands (some of which were already well
established) to be more in-line with the newly developed mother-brand.
4.1.1.3 Defining the campaigning strategy
During Phase III, the team identified two components to their Brand South Africa
operations. The first component was an international portfolio, incorporating niche media
advertising, e-marketing, documentaries, and outbound missions, among others. The second,
a domestic portfolio, was a campaign to improve national pride and demonstrate the brand
promise through their everyday interactions; this component involved mass media
advertising, and the help of brand ambassadors and thought and community leaders.

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Developing a Nation Branding Framework

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