A deep early look at how supercomputer security became a prime concern of the Reagan administration - with climate science in the mix.
More context in Andrew Revkin's prize-winning March 1985 Science Digest article on nuclear winter:
https://www.slideshare.net/Revkin/hard-facts-about-nuclear-winter-1985
And Revkin's investigative report on the vanishing of Vladimir Alexandrov, a high-profile Soviet atmospheric scientist who'd become a fan of American cars and cuisine while visiting NCAR, a mountainside supercomputer lab in Colorado:
http://j.mp/alexandrovmissing
Theoretically, quantum computing can complete in seconds tasks that would take classical computers thousands or even millions of years. Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and perform computations. Use cases stretch from improved weather forecasting to cracking the codes used to encrypt all internet messaging. The company (or government) that owns the first at-scale quantum computer will be powerful indeed.
Theoretically, quantum computing can complete in seconds tasks that would take classical computers thousands or even millions of years. Quantum computers are machines that use the properties of quantum physics to store data and perform computations. Use cases stretch from improved weather forecasting to cracking the codes used to encrypt all internet messaging. The company (or government) that owns the first at-scale quantum computer will be powerful indeed.
Medical study needs reform : Kapil Khandelwal, www.kapilkhandelwal.comKapil Khandelwal (KK)
My fortnightly column A Dose of IT that discusses about Medical education reform in India
Kapil Khandelwal
QuoteUnquote with KK
www.kapilkhandelwal.com
A Path Forward in Research
Making the Nation Safe from Fire
A Path Forward in Research Committee to Identify Innovative Research Needs to Foster Improved Fire Safety in the United States.
Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army ApplicationsIlya Klabukov
Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army Applications. Committee on Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army Applications, Board on Army Science and Technology, National Research Council. ISBN: 0-309-50302-7, 118 pages, 8 1/2 x 11, (2001). This PDF is available from the National Academies Press at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10142.html
EDITORS PICK2,374 views Mar 30, 2020,0937 am EDTForbesCoro.docxbudabrooks46239
EDITORS' PICK|2,374 views| Mar 30, 2020,09:37 am EDT
Forbes
Coronavirus Highlights U.S. Strategic Vulnerabilities Spawned By Over-Reliance On China
Loren ThompsonSenior Contributor
Aerospace & Defense
I write about national security, especially its business dimensions.
President Trump has been criticized for highlighting the Chinese origins of the current coronavirus crisis. Whether such comments are constructive or not, the crisis has provoked a broader debate about the role that China plays in the American economy.
In the two decades since Beijing was admitted to the World Trade Organization, it has gradually eclipsed America’s preeminence as a manufacturing nation. For instance, the U.S. had two dozen aluminum smelters within its borders when the new century began; by the time President Trump took office, only five remained of which two were functioning at full capacity.
Chinese smelters have no inherent pricing advantage, so critics have correctly concluded that China became the world’s largest producer (and exporter) of aluminum through the use of subsidies and other trade-distorting practices. A similar pattern prevails in steel, which explains why both industries became early targets of Trump tariffs.
More broadly, China has tended to dominate production of every new technology in recent years, from smart phones to wind turbines to solar panels to commercial drones. U.S. officials are unanimous in agreeing that at least part of the reason China has become the world’s biggest manufacturing center is traceable to the kind of mercantilist practices supposedly banned by WTO rules.
What brought coronavirus into this discussion was Washington’s realization early in the pandemic of how dependent the U.S. has become on Chinese sources of drugs. The South China Morning Post reported in December that almost all of the ibuprofen and hydrocortisone, and most of the acetaminophen, consumed in the U.S. originates in China. So do many generic prescription drugs; even when they are manufactured in India or other countries, they often require active ingredients made only in China.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration admits it lacks the capacity to track the supply chain of imported drugs. The value of those pharmaceutical imports, at $350 million per day, exceeds the value of cell phone imports. The U.S. thus may have developed vulnerabilities in the availability of drugs needed during wartime without knowing it.
This is not a xenophobic fantasy. The last penicillin producer in the U.S. closed over a decade ago after facing price competition from heavily subsidized Chinese companies. The South China Morning Post found 80% of antibiotics consumed in the U.S. are made in China.
There is no indication this occurred with a military purpose in mind, but that doesn’t mean Beijing wouldn’t leverage what one author calls its “global chokehold” on drugs and their constituent compounds in a conflict.
But drugs are just the beginning of the problem. The U.S. h.
The Citadel, Sputnik Moment – The Role of STEM, Humanities and Arts in US Com...Jim "Brodie" Brazell
The Citadel, Sputnik Moment – The Role of STEM, Humanities and Arts in US Competitiveness, How the future works today. February 2, 2011, Keynote for Citadel Faculty and Cadets, THE SOUTH CAROLINA SPEECHES, JIM BRAZELL more at ventureramp.com. Online slides: http://bit.ly/1JI8kuD
Rise of the Machines” Is Not a Likely FutureEvery new technolog.docxmalbert5
“Rise of the Machines” Is Not a Likely Future
Every new technology brings its own nightmare scenarios. Artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics are no exceptions. Indeed, the word “robot” was coined for a 1920 play that dramatized just such a doomsday for humanity.
Recently, an open letter about the future of AI, signed by a number of high-profile scientists and entrepreneurs, spurred a new round of harrowing headlines like “Top Scientists Have an Ominous Warning about Artificial Intelligence,” and “Artificial Intelligence Experts Sign Open Letter to Protect Mankind from Machines.” The implication is that the machines will one
day displace humanity.
Let’s get one thing straight: a world in which humans are enslaved or destroyed by superintelligent machines of our own creation is purely science fiction. Like every other technology, AI has risks and benefits, but we cannot let fear dominate the conversation or guide AI research. Nevertheless, the idea of dramatically changing the AI research agenda to focus on AI “safety” is the primary message of a group calling itself the Future of Life Institute (FLI). FLI includes a handful of deep thinkers and public figures such as Elon Musk and Stephen Hawking and worries about the day in which humanity is steamrolled by powerful programs run a muck.
As eloquently described in the book Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies by FLI advisory board member and Oxford-based philosopher Nick Bostrom, the plot unfolds in three parts. In the first part—roughly where we are now—computational power and intelligent software develops at an increasing pace through the toil of scientists and engineers. Next, a breakthrough is made: programs are created that possess intelligence on par with humans. These programs, running on increasingly fast computers, improve themselves extremely rapidly, resulting in a runaway “intelligence explosion.” In the third and final act, a singular super-intelligence takes hold—outsmarting, outmaneuvering, and ultimately outcompeting the entirety of humanity and perhaps life itself. End scene.
Let’s take a closer look at this apocalyptic storyline. Of the three parts, the first is indeed happening now and Bostrom provides cogent and illuminating glimpses into current and near-future technology. The third part is a philosophical romp exploring the consequences of supersmart machines. It’s that second part—the intelligence explosion—that demonstrably violates what we know of computer science and natural intelligence.
Runaway Intelligence?
The notion of the intelligence explosion arises from Moore’s Law, the observation that the speed of computers has been increasing exponentially since the 1950s. Project this trend forward and we’ll see computers with the computational power of the entire human race within the next few decades. It’s a leap to go from this idea to unchecked growth of machine intelligence, however.
First, ingenuity is not the sole bottleneck to developing faster com.
2010 NSBE-AE Space Policy Debate Government Private Space Funding Space Based...George Earle
The Future of Human Spaceflight
Who should fund it?
Why should the US participate?
What is the purpose of the government funding program?
What is NASA's purporse?
Andrew Revkin's 1994 profile of the masterful luthier Linda Manzer. Blending spruce, sweat and sawdust, Linda Manzer builds guitars that
dazzle.
Photos by Peter Sibbald https://petersibbald.visura.co
Linda Manzer:
https://manzer.com
Andy Revkin:
http://j.mp/revkinlinks
Medical study needs reform : Kapil Khandelwal, www.kapilkhandelwal.comKapil Khandelwal (KK)
My fortnightly column A Dose of IT that discusses about Medical education reform in India
Kapil Khandelwal
QuoteUnquote with KK
www.kapilkhandelwal.com
A Path Forward in Research
Making the Nation Safe from Fire
A Path Forward in Research Committee to Identify Innovative Research Needs to Foster Improved Fire Safety in the United States.
Board on Infrastructure and the Constructed Environment
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army ApplicationsIlya Klabukov
Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army Applications. Committee on Opportunities in Biotechnology for Future Army Applications, Board on Army Science and Technology, National Research Council. ISBN: 0-309-50302-7, 118 pages, 8 1/2 x 11, (2001). This PDF is available from the National Academies Press at: http://www.nap.edu/catalog/10142.html
EDITORS PICK2,374 views Mar 30, 2020,0937 am EDTForbesCoro.docxbudabrooks46239
EDITORS' PICK|2,374 views| Mar 30, 2020,09:37 am EDT
Forbes
Coronavirus Highlights U.S. Strategic Vulnerabilities Spawned By Over-Reliance On China
Loren ThompsonSenior Contributor
Aerospace & Defense
I write about national security, especially its business dimensions.
President Trump has been criticized for highlighting the Chinese origins of the current coronavirus crisis. Whether such comments are constructive or not, the crisis has provoked a broader debate about the role that China plays in the American economy.
In the two decades since Beijing was admitted to the World Trade Organization, it has gradually eclipsed America’s preeminence as a manufacturing nation. For instance, the U.S. had two dozen aluminum smelters within its borders when the new century began; by the time President Trump took office, only five remained of which two were functioning at full capacity.
Chinese smelters have no inherent pricing advantage, so critics have correctly concluded that China became the world’s largest producer (and exporter) of aluminum through the use of subsidies and other trade-distorting practices. A similar pattern prevails in steel, which explains why both industries became early targets of Trump tariffs.
More broadly, China has tended to dominate production of every new technology in recent years, from smart phones to wind turbines to solar panels to commercial drones. U.S. officials are unanimous in agreeing that at least part of the reason China has become the world’s biggest manufacturing center is traceable to the kind of mercantilist practices supposedly banned by WTO rules.
What brought coronavirus into this discussion was Washington’s realization early in the pandemic of how dependent the U.S. has become on Chinese sources of drugs. The South China Morning Post reported in December that almost all of the ibuprofen and hydrocortisone, and most of the acetaminophen, consumed in the U.S. originates in China. So do many generic prescription drugs; even when they are manufactured in India or other countries, they often require active ingredients made only in China.
The U.S. Food and Drug Administration admits it lacks the capacity to track the supply chain of imported drugs. The value of those pharmaceutical imports, at $350 million per day, exceeds the value of cell phone imports. The U.S. thus may have developed vulnerabilities in the availability of drugs needed during wartime without knowing it.
This is not a xenophobic fantasy. The last penicillin producer in the U.S. closed over a decade ago after facing price competition from heavily subsidized Chinese companies. The South China Morning Post found 80% of antibiotics consumed in the U.S. are made in China.
There is no indication this occurred with a military purpose in mind, but that doesn’t mean Beijing wouldn’t leverage what one author calls its “global chokehold” on drugs and their constituent compounds in a conflict.
But drugs are just the beginning of the problem. The U.S. h.
The Citadel, Sputnik Moment – The Role of STEM, Humanities and Arts in US Com...Jim "Brodie" Brazell
The Citadel, Sputnik Moment – The Role of STEM, Humanities and Arts in US Competitiveness, How the future works today. February 2, 2011, Keynote for Citadel Faculty and Cadets, THE SOUTH CAROLINA SPEECHES, JIM BRAZELL more at ventureramp.com. Online slides: http://bit.ly/1JI8kuD
Rise of the Machines” Is Not a Likely FutureEvery new technolog.docxmalbert5
“Rise of the Machines” Is Not a Likely Future
Every new technology brings its own nightmare scenarios. Artificial intelligence (AI) and robotics are no exceptions. Indeed, the word “robot” was coined for a 1920 play that dramatized just such a doomsday for humanity.
Recently, an open letter about the future of AI, signed by a number of high-profile scientists and entrepreneurs, spurred a new round of harrowing headlines like “Top Scientists Have an Ominous Warning about Artificial Intelligence,” and “Artificial Intelligence Experts Sign Open Letter to Protect Mankind from Machines.” The implication is that the machines will one
day displace humanity.
Let’s get one thing straight: a world in which humans are enslaved or destroyed by superintelligent machines of our own creation is purely science fiction. Like every other technology, AI has risks and benefits, but we cannot let fear dominate the conversation or guide AI research. Nevertheless, the idea of dramatically changing the AI research agenda to focus on AI “safety” is the primary message of a group calling itself the Future of Life Institute (FLI). FLI includes a handful of deep thinkers and public figures such as Elon Musk and Stephen Hawking and worries about the day in which humanity is steamrolled by powerful programs run a muck.
As eloquently described in the book Superintelligence: Paths, Dangers, Strategies by FLI advisory board member and Oxford-based philosopher Nick Bostrom, the plot unfolds in three parts. In the first part—roughly where we are now—computational power and intelligent software develops at an increasing pace through the toil of scientists and engineers. Next, a breakthrough is made: programs are created that possess intelligence on par with humans. These programs, running on increasingly fast computers, improve themselves extremely rapidly, resulting in a runaway “intelligence explosion.” In the third and final act, a singular super-intelligence takes hold—outsmarting, outmaneuvering, and ultimately outcompeting the entirety of humanity and perhaps life itself. End scene.
Let’s take a closer look at this apocalyptic storyline. Of the three parts, the first is indeed happening now and Bostrom provides cogent and illuminating glimpses into current and near-future technology. The third part is a philosophical romp exploring the consequences of supersmart machines. It’s that second part—the intelligence explosion—that demonstrably violates what we know of computer science and natural intelligence.
Runaway Intelligence?
The notion of the intelligence explosion arises from Moore’s Law, the observation that the speed of computers has been increasing exponentially since the 1950s. Project this trend forward and we’ll see computers with the computational power of the entire human race within the next few decades. It’s a leap to go from this idea to unchecked growth of machine intelligence, however.
First, ingenuity is not the sole bottleneck to developing faster com.
2010 NSBE-AE Space Policy Debate Government Private Space Funding Space Based...George Earle
The Future of Human Spaceflight
Who should fund it?
Why should the US participate?
What is the purpose of the government funding program?
What is NASA's purporse?
Andrew Revkin's 1994 profile of the masterful luthier Linda Manzer. Blending spruce, sweat and sawdust, Linda Manzer builds guitars that
dazzle.
Photos by Peter Sibbald https://petersibbald.visura.co
Linda Manzer:
https://manzer.com
Andy Revkin:
http://j.mp/revkinlinks
In 1985, my editor, Scott DeGarmo, asked me to write a cover story on the future of the automobile - when the future was the Ford Taurus. It's now kind of a museum artifact and I hope you enjoy it and offer feedback.
This is the core of a webinar Andy Revkin conducted with folks at Columbia Climate School to explore how scientists, scholars and others seeking to craft a better human journey can make the most of Twitter even as Elon Musk's purchase disrupts things. We also talked about alternatives, none of which Revkin sees as remotely competing with the capacities Twitter offers for a long time. (It took a decade of relentless programming, regulatory and other work to build the Twitter we know.)
Subscribe to Revkin's Sustain What newsletter and webcasts to engage and drive the conversation further:
https://revkin.substack.com/subscribe #socialmedia #sustainability #climate
This is a fantastic case study and overview showing how businesses can prepare for the hazards around them to cut the scope of impacts - preventing a natural hazard from becoming an unnatural disaster.
It centers on the experience and work of Parsons Manufacturing, a company that suffered a direct hit from an EF-4 tornado in 2004 but avoided any deaths.
Learn more at the company website:
https://www.parsonscompany.com/about/
A #COP26 presentation by Zainab Usman of Carnegie Endowment for International Peace and Katie Auth of Energy for Development, building on this paper: September 28, 2021
REFRAMING CLIMATE JUSTICE FOR DEVELOPMENT: SIX PRINCIPLES FOR SUPPORTING INCLUSIVE AND EQUITABLE ENERGY TRANSITIONS IN LOW-EMITTING ENERGY-POOR AFRICAN COUNTRIES
By Mimi Alemayehou, Katie Auth, Murefu Barasa, Morgan Bazilian, Brad Handler, Uzo Iweala, Todd Moss, Rose Mutiso, Zainab Usman
Advancing inclusive and equitable energy transitions is one of this century’s most vital global challenges, and one in which development finance will play a crucial role. References to justice and equity are widespread in international climate policy, and are increasingly being used by development organizations to guide their own work, including support for energy transitions.
But prevailing definitions of climate justice rarely fully capture the priorities, challenges and perspectives of low-emitting energy-poor countries, the vast majority of which are in sub-Saharan Africa. When applied to development policy, this gap risks prioritizing near-term emissions reductions over broader support for economic development and energy transformation, with comparatively little climate benefit. This could severely hinder poverty alleviation, development, and climate resilience — the very opposite of justice. We need energy transitions that are truly ‘just and inclusive.’ What does this mean for development funders and financiers, and how should it drive their approach to supporting energy transitions in the lowest-income countries?
Rene Dubos was a masterful biologist, Pulitzer-winning essayist and humanist. Read the story behind this essay in Andy Revkin's homage to Dubos here: http://j.mp/despairingoptimist
This is a summary of the three-week international survey of the vaquita refuge in heavily fished waters of the northern Gulf of California of the coast of Mexico's Baja California state. It shows what can be accomplished with a fresh effort in the fall of 2021.
The expedition included scientists and conservationists from Mexico, the United States and Canada.
This chapter on climate change as news, by Andrew Revkin is from "Climate Change: What It Means for Us, Our Children, and Our Grandchildren" - edited by Joseph F. C. DiMento and Pamela Doughman
MIT Press 2007, updated edition, 2014
https://scholar.google.com/citations?view_op=view_citation&hl=en&user=xsxkAlEAAAAJ&citation_for_view=xsxkAlEAAAAJ:edDO8Oi4QzsC
Alice Bell's new book on the history of climate change knowledge and inaction is fantastic. Some have missed what is NOT in the CIA's 1974 assessment of climate change and security risk. There's no mention of global warming from carbon dioxide. Here's a Guardian excerpt from Alice's book: https://www.theguardian.com/science/2021/jul/05/sixty-years-of-climate-change-warnings-the-signs-that-were-missed-and-ignored
Here's the original CIA document without text recognition: https://www.hsdl.org/?abstract&did=725433
Here are emails showing exchanges between Dr. Will Happer, a senior Trump Administration science and security adviser, and the Heartland Institute -- which has long sought to cast doubt on the enormous body of science pointing to rising dangers from human emissions of climate-warming gases.
The emails were released under a Freedom of Information Act request by the Environmental Defense Fund: http://blogs.edf.org/climate411/files/2019/03/Climate-Review-FOIA-CEQ.pdf
Here's an Associated Press story:
https://www.apnews.com/4ec9affd55a345d582a4cc810686137e
EDF provided this copy to Andrew Revkin.
Here's an excerpt from a 2017 interview Revkin did with Happer for ProPublica: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MSpL5dziylo
A Physicist and Possible Adviser to Trump Describes His Love of Science, and CO2
https://www.propublica.org/article/a-physicist-and-possible-adviser-to-trump-describes-his-love-of-science-co2
More on Happer in National Geographic:
Does the U.S. need a ‘presidential climate security committee’?
A Trump adviser who sees rising CO2 as a good thing wants a panel to review government findings that climate change is a security threat.... https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/2019/02/trump-presidential-climate-security-committee/
This was the document leaked to the press this week ahead of a White House meeting assessing whether President Trump should create a committee to assess conclusions about links between global warming and national security.
Some Globo coverage in 1990 from the trial of the Alves family members and associates charged with the assassination of Chico Mendes in December 1988, including an interview with Andrew Revkin, who'd just published The Burning Season, a book chronicling Mendes's life, death and legacy. More: http://bit.ly/revkinmendes
An Island Magazine feature by Andy Revkin provided an intimate look at changes in a Polynesian family and village as modern life intruded in the 1980s.
This cover story on climate change by Andrew Revkin was published in Discover Magazine in October, 1988. For more on the article visit this Dot Earth post: 1988-2008: Climate Then and Now http://nyti.ms/WIvLbH via @dotearth
Make sure to click to the last page, which was the back-cover advertisement that month - for cigarettes.
Shows things can change, sometimes slowly.
And read Andy's reflection on lessons learned in 30 years of climate coverage:
http://j.mp/revkin30yearsclimate
Enhancing LPG Use During Pregnancya collaboration between KEM Health Research Center, Sri Ramachanda University, and University of California, Berkeley
An explanatory presentation provided to ProPublica.org
Lewis Reznik, who spent his adult life as a dentist in Westchester County, New York, had a very different adolescence - on the run between Nazis and Russian troops in Poland as the Holocaust unfolded. This is is remarkable memoir. Lew died in 2013.
I edited the manuscript and helped Lew publish the book.
Please purchase a copy at j.mp/boysholocaust
Share and discuss the book on Facebook: j.mp/boysholocaustFB
Context:
"Royal Dutch Shell in Nigeria: Where Do Responsibilities End?" Journal of Business Ethics, 2015
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10551-014-2142-7
Shell's plans for Nigeria (SPDC subsidiary), 2013: http://www.shell.com/media/news-and-media-releases/2013/spdc-sets-out-its-future-intent-for-nigeria.html
Business & Human Rights Resource Center on two landmark lawsuits:
https://business-humanrights.org/en/shell-lawsuit-re-nigeria-kiobel-wiwa
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
DERIVATION OF MODIFIED BERNOULLI EQUATION WITH VISCOUS EFFECTS AND TERMINAL V...Wasswaderrick3
In this book, we use conservation of energy techniques on a fluid element to derive the Modified Bernoulli equation of flow with viscous or friction effects. We derive the general equation of flow/ velocity and then from this we derive the Pouiselle flow equation, the transition flow equation and the turbulent flow equation. In the situations where there are no viscous effects , the equation reduces to the Bernoulli equation. From experimental results, we are able to include other terms in the Bernoulli equation. We also look at cases where pressure gradients exist. We use the Modified Bernoulli equation to derive equations of flow rate for pipes of different cross sectional areas connected together. We also extend our techniques of energy conservation to a sphere falling in a viscous medium under the effect of gravity. We demonstrate Stokes equation of terminal velocity and turbulent flow equation. We look at a way of calculating the time taken for a body to fall in a viscous medium. We also look at the general equation of terminal velocity.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
Deep Behavioral Phenotyping in Systems Neuroscience for Functional Atlasing a...Ana Luísa Pinho
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) provides means to characterize brain activations in response to behavior. However, cognitive neuroscience has been limited to group-level effects referring to the performance of specific tasks. To obtain the functional profile of elementary cognitive mechanisms, the combination of brain responses to many tasks is required. Yet, to date, both structural atlases and parcellation-based activations do not fully account for cognitive function and still present several limitations. Further, they do not adapt overall to individual characteristics. In this talk, I will give an account of deep-behavioral phenotyping strategies, namely data-driven methods in large task-fMRI datasets, to optimize functional brain-data collection and improve inference of effects-of-interest related to mental processes. Key to this approach is the employment of fast multi-functional paradigms rich on features that can be well parametrized and, consequently, facilitate the creation of psycho-physiological constructs to be modelled with imaging data. Particular emphasis will be given to music stimuli when studying high-order cognitive mechanisms, due to their ecological nature and quality to enable complex behavior compounded by discrete entities. I will also discuss how deep-behavioral phenotyping and individualized models applied to neuroimaging data can better account for the subject-specific organization of domain-general cognitive systems in the human brain. Finally, the accumulation of functional brain signatures brings the possibility to clarify relationships among tasks and create a univocal link between brain systems and mental functions through: (1) the development of ontologies proposing an organization of cognitive processes; and (2) brain-network taxonomies describing functional specialization. To this end, tools to improve commensurability in cognitive science are necessary, such as public repositories, ontology-based platforms and automated meta-analysis tools. I will thus discuss some brain-atlasing resources currently under development, and their applicability in cognitive as well as clinical neuroscience.
Toxic effects of heavy metals : Lead and Arsenicsanjana502982
Heavy metals are naturally occuring metallic chemical elements that have relatively high density, and are toxic at even low concentrations. All toxic metals are termed as heavy metals irrespective of their atomic mass and density, eg. arsenic, lead, mercury, cadmium, thallium, chromium, etc.
PRESENTATION ABOUT PRINCIPLE OF COSMATIC EVALUATION
Supercomputers, Science and Spies - A. Revkin in Tech Review 8/86
1. DiePentagonwantsto
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tonationalsecurityissmalland
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U.S.science.
Supercomputers
and the Soviets
BY ANDREW C. REVKIN
THERE is a new contestant in the arms race:
the supercomputer. These potent machines,
are rated not in megatons but in "mega-
flops"-a megaflop being 1 million calculations pet
second. The strategic value of supercomputers lies
in their ability to simulate, to analyze, to crunch
numbers. Among other things, supercomputers are
being used by the U.S. military to break codes, con-
figure nuclear weapons, and model new aircraft
shapes. They are also an integral part of U.S. plans
for a ballistic-missile defense.
This race is no contest. The United States has su-
percomputers and the Soviets don't. The Pentagon
would like to keep it that way. "We think [the So-
viets] have a genuine crisis in their military-industrial
complex because they don't have the computing
power," says Stephen Bryen, deputy assistant sec-
retary of defense for economic, trade, and security
policy. The Pentagon has convinced the Coordinat-
ing Committee for Export Controls (COCOM), the
West's international organization for technology
transfer, to prohibit the sale of supercomputers to
the Communist bloc. The Pentagon also wants to
keep anyone from the Soviet bloc from using super-
computers located in the West. The Defense De-
partment is therefore threatening to ban Soviet
access to supercomputers on U.S. campuses, and is
asking our allies to restrict the Soviets' use ot their
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machines as well. yet
many scientists maintain
that the risk that Soviet sci-
entists will do clandestine
research on academic su-
percomputers is small. A
more pressing threat,
many say, comes from the
growing number of com-
mercial supercomputing
centers, which guarantee
their customers complete
anonymity.
Restrictions Threaten
U.S. Science
Supercomputers at the
Lawrence Livermore Na-
tional Laboratory, the Na-
tional .Security Agency,
and other government installations are carefully
guarded. But a growing number of these machines-
there are around 160 worldwide-are installed in
the basements of corporate and university labora-
tories in the United States, Canada, and the Middle
East, Western Europe, and Japan. The largest single
spurt in civilian computing power began last year
when the National Science Foundation (NSF)
awarded funding to five U.S. universities to establish
their own supercomputing centers. Most of these
machines. are the products of Cray Research and
Control Data Corp., both American firms. However,
three Japanese companies have entered the market
with their own supercomputers, and other firms will
soon join in with a variety of Crayettes, or "super-
minis" -somewhat smallet machines that deliver
more speed per unit of cost. Ultimately, there will
be another generation of supercomputers. .
Enlisting the help of the Departments of Com-
merce and State, the Pentagon has acted quickly to
add clauses to export licenses prohibiting Soviet use
of U.S.-made supercomputers. An agreement was
also worked out with Japan stipulating that it would
sell its supercomputers only to buyers that would
keep them off limits to the Soviets. Our allies com-
plained, says Bryen, but that was nothing compared
ANDREW C. REVKIN is a staff writer at the Los Angeles Times and
the 1986 winner of the AAAS-Westinghouse ScienceJournalism Award.
70 AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1986
with the howl that went up
when the government de-
cided to try to plug what it
said was the next potential
leak-access to supercom-
puters at U.S. universities.
A sprinkling of Soviet-
bloc scientists and students
have used supercomputers
while visiting American
universities over the past
eight years. Government
officials say there is a se-
rious danger that such vis-
itors will secretly us.e
computer time for research
with military value. The
problem will only get
worse, they say, as super-
computers spread to more
university campuses.
Last year, the government inserted a clause in the
contracts for the first four NSF-funded supercom-
puting centers requirirtg each to follow "whatever
national policy is approved by the president" on
Soviet-bloc access to the new machines. With a single
voice, the university community cried foul, arguing
that the risk of Soviet misuse was far less than the
damage to academic freedom that such restrictions
would inflict. The clause was removed from the con-
tracts, but after reviewing the policy the Defense
Department has decided to push for an airtight rule
that no non-resident alien from an Eastern-bloc
country may use a supercomputer. The universities,
backed into a corner because the government funds
most campus supercomputers, have conceded that
restrictions are necessary. However, they are still
fighting for the right to make exceptions for "bona
fide" Soviet-bloc scientists and students who would
use tiny amounts of supercomputer time. Still, many
observers predict that the Pentagon will_hold firm
on a policy of "no exceptions." The Defense De-
partment is banking on the fact that a sympathetic
White House will cooperate by issuing a presidential
order invoking the policy, or by convincing the State
Department to help enforce it.
Some officials admit that the crackdown is de-
signed to assure our allies that they are not being
forced to impose restrictions that we have not im-
posed on ourselves. "Can you imagine what it'll be
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rminternatianaldiawguewillalsospread.
like in the Western European countries," Bryen asks,
"which are closer to the Soviet Union, which have
more of their people running around all the time,
and which have Communists in their parliaments?
It could cause a lot of trouble. The second largest
party in Italy is the Communist party, and yet we
have a Cray in [Italy] with these controls. Now if
we don't keep faith, if we don't have these controls
here, it'll be the Russian Cray."
"That may be a strategy, but it's not justice,"
counters Thomas Everhart, chancellor of the Uni-
versity of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, home of
one of the new NSF-funded supercomputing centers.
He and other university representatives say that a
blanket prohibition on Eastern-bloc access will un-
dermine open academic research by making unclas-
sified facilities off-limits to some students. These
representatives also say the policy will hurt American
science in areas where the United States benefits
greatly from East-West dialogue.
·Progress in many scientific disciplines-from me-
teorology to high-energy physics-has always been
linked to international cooperation that has included
the Eastern bloc. Weather forecasting and climate
studies rely on data gathered around the world and
processed on supercomputers. Right now, in fact, a
European scientific consortium actually has more-
advanced computers-and a better track record on
medium-range weather forecasting-than the United
States.
Perhaps the best example of a field that needs both
advanced computers and input from the Soviets is
thermonuclear fusion. Florida State University has a
supercomputing effort that is partially funded by the
Department of Energy and is frequently used for
fusion research. Joseph Lannutti, who directs the
supercomputing center there, says, "In fusion, the
Russians are ahead of us. If we refuse them, it's like
cutting off your nose to spite your face."
"It is critical to maintain openness,'' says Kenneth
Wilson, a Nobel laureate in physics who directs the
NSF-funded supercomputing center at Cornell.
"You only have to go to Russia to seethe devastating
effects of a closed research environment." If blanket
restrictions go into effect, he says, "there will cer-
tainly be a very strong reaction because of the im-
portance of maintaining access to Soviet scientists-
especially in areas like high-energy physics and
plasma physics." Many scientists are also concerned
that as supercomputing spreads through a growing
range of scientific disciplines, restrictions on inter-
national dialogue will spread as well. The technology
is finding new uses every year. Florida State's Lan-
nutti also fears that the new policy will prevent
universities with supercomputers from hosting any
leading Eastern-bloc scientists.
Few Abuses Uncovered
Academics and government officials agree that the
Eastern bloc has nothing even close to the power of
the supercomputers that are already approaching old
age in the West-the venerable Cray 1 series and
Control Data's Cyber 205. These models are fre-
quently called "Cray-class" computers because they
will soon no longer be supercomputers. That title is
reserved for the next generation that is always
around the corner. American and Japanese manu-
facturers are already refining supercomputers that
will move well into the "gigaflop" range, performing
billions of operations per second. Meanwhile, sci-
entists attending an international conference in Flor-
ida last December jokingly referred to the Soviets'
only publicly known effort to produce a supercom-
puter as "one of everything joined together."
No one doubts that the Soviet-bloc effort to ac-
quire advanced Western technology is well orga-
nized, well budgeted, and well manned. According
to U.S. government reports, technology acquisition
is a $1.4 billion Soviet industry. A 1980 Congres-
sional Research.Service study estimated that the East
German intelligence service alone had placed 500
agents throughout West German industry-includ-
ing German officesof IBM, Intel, and Control Data.
According to a 1985 report published by the CIA,
the Military Industrial Commission, or VPK, coor-
dinates the Soviet effort, assigning tasks to the KGB
and other government agencies, including the Soviet
Academy of Sciences. The targets include more than
60 American universities, including all those with
supercomputers. The Soviet "collection agencies,"
as the report calls them, reportedly bring in an an-
nual haul of 100,000 documents and up to 10,000
pieces of hardware.
But American intelligence has turned up few con-
crete examples of abuses by Soviet scientists and
exchange students. In fact, the CIA report concludes
that the Soviet Academy of Sciences is "involved
principally in overt collection of information for
nondefense industries." In 1982 Bobby Inman, then
TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 71
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A powerfulcomputer
in an acaaemicsettingisalways
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deputy director of the CIA, testified at a Senate hear-
ing that intelligence services gather 70 percent of the
Western technology acquired by the Soviet bloc. An-
other 20 to 30 percent comes from legal purchases
and open publications, and "only a small percentage
. . . comes from the direct technical exchanges con-
ducted by scientists and students."
Many members of the American scientific com-
munity say they are well aware that Soviet scientists
often have a "hidden agenda" or a "shopping list."
But no one among a wide range of scientists inter-
viewed expressed knowledge of a Soviet scientist
who had done anything criminal while on exchange.
Harry Rositzke, a CIA specialist on the KGB for 25
years and author of KGB: The Eyes of Russia, says,
"The last thing the Soviets would do, with all their
other means of doing these things, would be to use
an accredited scientist for espionage."
This record may partly result from the careful
screening process that the U.S. government applies
to prospective visitors from the far side of the Iron
Curtain. The screening mechanism is COMEX, the
Committee on Exchanges, made up of representa-
tives from intelligence agencies and the Departments
of State and Defense. COMEX now also confers
several times a year with a civilian advisory board
that includes representatives from academia and
business. This interagency panel has screened every
Soviet scientist who has wanted to visit the United
States since scholarly exchanges between the two
countries began in 1958. COMEX gives its opin-
ion-recommending that a visa be approved or de-
nied, or that the itinerary of a prospective visitor be
modified-to the State Department, which has the
final say.
The Pentagon has unearthed only one specific ex-
ample of suspicious activity by a Soviet scientist
working with U.S. supercomputers: the case of Vla-
dimir Alexandrov. For more than 100 hours over
seven months in 1978, this Soviet physicist-turned-
climate-modeler ran a Cray lA supercomputer at the
National Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR)
in Boulder, Colo. He also worked on an NCAR Cray
in 1980 through a remote link from Oregon State
University.
Larry Gates, an atmospheric scientist at Oregon
State who worked closely with Alexandrov, says that
the level of access afforded Alexandrov was "an ab-
erration": he was using the NCAR computers when
the system was underutilized. The incident "prob-
72 AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1986
ably opened our eyes that we should be a little care-
ful," Gates says. "But he made no improper,
unscientific, or non-mainline use." Not one out of a
score of scientists who worked closely with Alex-
androv says he ever did anything suspicious .
Despite these assurances, American intelligence
agencies started to worry about Alexandrov. In Jan-
uary 1985, on his last visit to the United States,
officials marked his visa with the restriction that he
should have no "direct or indirect access to super-
computers." This type of visa restriction is the mech-
anism the U.S. government probably will use to
enforce its policy prohibiting Eastern-bloc access to
supercomputers. (Alexandrov, who had become a
prominent Soviet authority on nuclear winter, dis-
appeared last year after attending an anti-nuclear
conference in Cordoba, Spain. It is unclear whether
he defected, was kidnapped, or was murdered.)
Many of Alexandrov's former American col-
leagues maintain that visa restrictions, often called
"the Alexandrov solution," are unenforceable. Star-
ley Thompson, at NCAR, says, "Once a guy's on
our property, he's like anyone else, with free access
to plunk around and do whatever he wants to do.
You can't just look over his shoulder and see what
he's doing at all times. Suppose Alexandrov came
here last January [1985], as he did, and he sat down
at the terminal and started doing things," Thompson
says. "What am I supposed to do, make a flying
tackle, call 911, and say I've got a spy in the hall?"
Misuse Would Be Difficult
Many observers also doubt that the Soviet Union
would be willing to risk doing military research on
foreign soil in the first place. Harry Rositzke main-
tains that no amount of tempting hardware would
convince the Soviets to do their most sensitive com-
puting "behind enemy lines." John Connolly, direc-
tor of NSF's Office of Advanced Scientific
Computing, says, "If you were an American bomb
designer and the Russians had a good machine,
would you go over and design your bomb there? No
way. You don't know who's tapping into the files."
Another reason for the Soviets to avoid such risks
is that their own computers-although orders of
magnitude slower than American machines-are still
fine for most projects. Doyle Knight, a professor of
mechanical and aerospace engineering at Rutgers
and one of the directors of the NSF-funded Con-
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sortium for Scientific Com-
puting, explains: "Let's
say one was concerned
about an unauthorized
user sneaking an hour of
supercomputer time in six
months," he speculates.
"Whoever this person is, if
he's trying to sneak onto a
supercomputer, he un-
doubtedly already has a
minicomputer." A Cyber
205 supercomputer is only
100 to 200 times faster
than, for example, a VAX
minicomputer, he says.
"This would be one of the
most stupid risks to take
when he could have done
it in a hundred hours on a
VAX back in his own country."
Even if Eastern-bloc scientists could get large
blocks of time on academic supercomputers, it is
highly unlikely that they would be able to use the
time for clandestine research. Dan Anderson, a com-
puter programmer who has helped manage NCAR's
Crays since they were installed, says that a powerful
computer in an academic setting is always being
watched. "When you start using large amounts of
computer time, everyone becomes immediately
aware of it, particularly the other scientists," he says.
"Scientists are a lovely bunch of people, a gentle lot.
The moment one of these guys sees anybody else on
the computer, he's bitching and moaning, saying,
'That guy shouldn't be on there, he's doing dumb
science.' " Furthermore, computer time at the fed-
erally funded supercomputing centers, as well as at
other academic centers such as NCAR, is allotted
after a peer-review process: projects are judged on
their scientific value both before and after they are
run. Cornell's Kenneth Wilson says, "If you get
through the review process and are awarded time,
you have to use it effectively. If you don't, you'll
find that you're not getting more time."
Sidney Fernbach, who spent 27 years designing
and using the computing facilities at Lawrence Liv-
ermore Laboratory and is now chair of the Institute
of Electrical and Electronic Engineering committee
on supercomputing, says that it would be virtually
impossible to write a program that would yield re-
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suits without many adjust-
ments. "With something
like planning a bomb, you
don't know quite what you
want it to do until you ex-
periment," he says. "You
put in all kinds of param-
eters and get results. Many
of these codes are used for
a year or so before you
really learn how to put in
the optimum types of ma-
terials and proper radii to
get a result that you're
looking for." A Soviet sci-
entist would hardly be able
to do this amount of
"tweaking" without being
spotted.
"I was involved with
these things for years and I know how difficult it is,"
Fernbach says. "As a matter of fact, some' people
never get any good answers at all-even with a su-
percomputer." And of course there are the bugs-
the inevitable unanticipated glitches in the program
that must be fixed one by one. "If a code is of decent
size and is of any importance and really requires a
supercomputer, it could take half a year to a year
just to debug the thing," Fernbach says. "And what
have [the Soviets] debugged it on, a PC? It just can't
be done."
Moreover, before a program can run on a super-
computer, it has to be translated from the language
it was written in-usually a human-readable pro-
gramming language such as Fortran-to machine
language, a numerical code tailored to the capabil-
ities of a particular machine. This is done by another
piece of software called a compiler. The compiled
program is then fed into the computer and executed.
"Since the Soviets don't have Crays, they can't just
bring over the executable program [in machine lan-
guage] and)mmediately load it onto the Cray and
run it," says Starley Thompson, at NCAR. "You've
got to have it in a form that a human could look at
and say 'Ah, this looks interesting. This looks like a
bomb code; it doesn't look like aerosol dispersion
to me.' "
"I think the whole thing is ridiculous," Fernbach
says. "We claim here in this country that we need
half a dozen supercomputers to do nuclear weapons
TECHNOLOGY REVIEW 73
U!)IM~ ·:::, MaJpu'v
6. 'I
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research, and then we're
denying a Soviet five min-
utes. If they can do it in five
minutes, more power to
them."
Commercial Centers Pose
a Greater Threat
were merely a front for So-
vi et-bloc intelligence:
Many computer experts
say there is a much greater
risk of Soviet intrusion at
commercial centers than at
academic supercomputer
centers. Almost anyone
can set up an account at
the commercial centers,
"dial in" or send in a tape,
and run codes in guaran-
teed secrecy.
One example is the In-
stitute for Computational
Studies, a nonprofit com-
pany set up to manage the
Cyber 205 that Colorado
Many observersdoubt
thattheSovietswouklriskdoing
militaryresearchonforeign
soilanyway.
"Any person with a stan-
dard amount of corporate
credit established with any
firm around can open an
account," Gardner says. "I
don't know what each
company does. If I knew
that, we could be busting
some security." Since the
Pentagon has recently es-
timated that the Soviet
bloc has set up some 300
dummy corporations just
to funnel technology east-
ward, this situation seems
ripe for abuse. The De-
fense Department's Ste-
phen Bryen admits that
potential misuse of the
commercial centers is a
concern. He claims that
"we have ways to work
that problem" but refuses
State University (CSU) bought in 1982. According
to Daniel Pryor, senior staff scientist, CSU plans to
pay for the machine, which was acquired without
NSF funding, by selling time to commercial clients
ranging from large oil companies to an engineering
consulting firm in Fort Collins with 10 employees.
Pryor says there is little ICS could do if Soviet
agents were to create a dummy corporation, set up
an account, and run codes for whatever they wanted.
"It would be very easy once you have time on the
machine designated for one purpose to do something
else," Pryor says. "What you see is a job sitting in
the machine, crunching away. You have no idea
what it's doing." The system is specifically designed
to ensure customers' anonymity and privacy.
The situation is the same at Scientific Information
Systems (SIS),an offshoot of Control Data that sells
time on both a Cyber 2{)5 and a Cray 1. Stan Gard-
ner, manager of supercomputing marketing for SIS,
says that his firm does bl!sines.sonl¥ with "countries
that are on the government's approved list," includ-
ing Canada, Mexic(i), B~itain, franc" Spain, West
Germany, Italy, Austraha,,and New Zealand. Yet
he readily concedes that thete would be no way for
SIS to know if a company in, say, West Germany
74 AUGUST/SEPTEMBER 1986
to give details.
Donald Goldstein has seen the issue of supercom-
puter security from both the Pentagon and the pri-
vate sector. Formerly principal director of the
Pentagon's Office of Trade Security Policy, he is now
president of System Planning Corp. International, a
firm that helps lead American and foreign companies
through the maze of licenses, clearances, and con-
ditions that surround the export of technology. "It's
obviously a difficult matter to strike a balance be-
tween two principles that are antagonistic," Gold-
stein says. "But it's also equally clear that there's a . ,
need to come up with a policy that accommodates ·
both."
The supercomputer issue "will probably settle
down, but others will open up in other places," he
says. "A few years ago, we were very concerned with
the proliferation of small microprocessor-based per-
sonal computers. Now the Soviet Union can buy
20,000 small Japanese PCs in one fell swoop. That
never could have happened just a few years ago. But
the technology has moved on. The names change,
the issues change, but the basic underlying tension
between restriction of technology and prolifera~ion
of technology will remain." D ·
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