CRJU 485; paper one

Running Head: Slavery, Then and Now 1
Slavery, Then and Now
Paul Seymour
University of Baltimore

Slavery, Then and Now 2
Introduction
Slavery has a long history from the ancient Egyptians and Romans to the period of
slavery at the dawn of the United States. Ngwe and Elechi (2012) point out that slavery in
ancient times, including slavery in the Americas until approximately 1880, was very different
from what slavery or human trafficking is today. The writers state that one difference between
modern and ancient slavery is the status of ownership. In ancient times the slave was accepted as
property of the owner (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). Conversely, slavery is illegal in most
industrialized countries and therefore slave ownership is evaded. In economic terms, it was much
more costly to purchase a slave in ancient times as a result they were preserved (Ngwe & Elechi,
2012). Today, slaves are many, cheap, and expendable costing as little as $10. Ancient slavery
was often a permanent condition whereas today slaves may be rented for relatively short periods
of time (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012).
Adverse Consequences
Modern day slavery or human trafficking is of grave concern. This can be defined as the
forcible abduction or abduction by deception for economic, labor, and/or sexual exploitation
(Oram, Stöckl, Busza, Howard, & Zimmermann, 2012). According to Oram et al. (2012), there is
a global consensus that victims of human trafficking experience severe sexual, physical, and
psychological torture. In addition to sexual slavery, Oram et al. (2012) identifies a global market
for forced labor in industries such as construction and agriculture.
The group most harmed by human trafficking is the victims. Larsen, Andrevski, and
Lyneham (2013) studied a sample of just over 3700 trafficked Indonesians. Of this group about
ten percent were males and more than half were under the age of 24. Though most were sexually
assaulted, most were not classified as sex workers at their final destination (Larsen et al., 2013).
Larsen et al., (2013) reports that the Indonesian Organization of Migration (IOM) says that one

out of six were sex workers. The physical, sexual, and emotional health consequences of those
who are subjected to sexual exploitation are severe (Oram et al., 2012). Adult women in a
Cambodian survey reported two to one that they experienced nine concurrent physical symptoms
post-trafficking (Oram et al., 2012). Symptoms included dizziness, back pain, fatigue, and
memory loss. In a European study of 192 women trafficked analyzed by Oram et al., (2012),
almost 95% of trafficked experience physical violence, sexual abuse, or both. Nearly nine out of
ten were sexually abused and more than three-quarters were subjected to physical violence. The
sexual health of women were also compromised as a study out of India showed at least 28%
were HIV positive (Oram et al., 2012).
The United States also has an issue, within its own borders, with human trafficking
(Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). The State of Texas is a hot bed for international trafficking with almost
a quarter of a million children exploited in the US every year (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). One
frightening statistic is that within two days one-third of all teenage runaways will be in the sex
industry. The implications of this statistic are that if 9,000 teenagers runaway on a Friday, 3,000
will be in the sex industry by the next Monday (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). This could be a child
who had an argument with her parents and decided to find some other place to live. With the
dawn of the internet, human traffickers have access to a potential slave in the target’s bedroom
and can deceive him or her that he or she could find a better life.
Wheaton, Schauer, and Galli (2010), discusses the impact of human trafficking also has
on those in free societies. They warn that human smugglers create an illicit market of migration
when governments restrict legal movement between countries. In countries where there are weak
laws and enforcement, the traffickers provide transportation and forged documents for people
smuggled and/or trafficked (Wheaton et al., 2012). These conditions are the beginning of an

illegal labor market between unsuspecting victims, the traffickers, and employers in the
destination country. The traffickers are well paid and the employers have a cheap sources of
labor from the deceived slaves. Slaves are often powerless, they may have few or no legal
protections. This also has an impact on the local economy since those of legal status who would
work at a fair or at least legal wage, are unemployed by the low cost and maintenance of the
exploited workers (Wheaton et al., 2010).
Estimates of the extent of the problem
According to Ngwe and Elechi (2012), human trafficking is a lucrative enterprise
estimated between $9 billion to $32 billion each year globally. The incidence and prevalence is
estimated to surpass that of drugs trafficking and weapons trafficking in the next decade unless
there is significant intervention (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). Each year the number of trafficked
people across international borders can reach 4 million. The International Labor Organization
(ILO) reports that almost 21 million people are enslaved on any given day (Nicola & Rijken,
2011). The authors report that over half of those trafficked for labor are female and almost all of
those trafficked for sex are female. Additionally, Ngwe and Elechi (2012) report that almost
three-quarters of the females are compelled into sexual slavery.
Oram et al., (2012) reviewed 19 studies on trafficking and violence associated with
trafficking. The authors compared the incidence of various forms of violence and health of those
trafficked with a control group of non-trafficked people. There was a significant increase in
violence among trafficked people in each of the studies (Oram et al., 2012). One self-report
study comprised of 26 Cambodian non-governmental organizations (NGOs) showed nearly ten
percent of females reported physical violence and over 30 percent of females reported sexual
violence after they escaped trafficking.
Limitations and weaknesses of the estimates of the problem

Larsen et al. (2013) discusses a lack of reliable information relating to human trafficking
because of an inability to collect accurate data and a lack of method standards. The one out of six
final destination statistic of sex slaves may be low since almost all of the victims in the sample
are females. Official statistics from the IOM show that more than half are classified as domestic
workers (Larsen et al., 2013). These low sex slave statistics may be because the slaves are placed
in more than one category or each slave was listed in one category when in fact they were
exploited in more than one category.
Ngwe and Elechi (2012) cite that no accurate statistics exist in part because of the illicit
status of holding slaves in the developed countries. Human trafficking thrives in underdeveloped
countries where there is a weak or corrupt government and there is no reliable data from these
areas. Victims do not seek the authorities for help because many are not aware that they are
protected under the law (Ngwe & Elechi, 2012). Though Ngwe and Elechi (2012) estimate that
as many as 4 million slaves cross international boundaries each year, much human trafficking
occurs within a country’s borders making it difficult to understand the scope of the problem. It is
also possible that the same slaves cross international boundaries more than once, which would
make the 4 million estimate too high.
Oram et al., (2012) has several potential flaws. First they recognize that some of the
evaluators in the Cambodian survey of the post-trafficked females were minimally trained. It is
unknown how much time elapsed between rescue and the survey and files were not well-kept.
Despite these difficulties in obtaining accurate data, it is clear from Oram et al, (2012) and the
other sources that the human slave market is on the rise. There must be more research and
programs to curb the human market as it is an attack on human dignity. In each of these reports it
is likely that some of the respondents were fearful of retaliation when conducting the survey.

Works Cited
Jägers, M., & Rijken C. (2014). Prevention of human trafficking for labour exploitation: The role
of corporations. Journal of International Human Rights. 12(1). 47-93.
http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/eds/detail/detail?vid=1&sid=4a59e9e9-c77f-412c-9d44-
62529675523c%40sessionmgr113&hid=121&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWRzLWxpdmU%3d#
db=aph&AN=94923073
Larsen, J. J., Andrevski, H., & Lyneham, S. (2013). Experiences of trafficked persons: An
Indonesian sample. Trends and Issues in Crime and Criminal Justice. 449. 1-7.
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Ngwe, J. E., & Elechi, O. O. (2012). Human trafficking: The modern day slavery of the 21st
century. African Journal of Criminology and Justice Studies. 6(1 & 2). 103-119.
db=sih&AN=91093817
Oram, S., Stöckl, H., Busza, J., Howard, L. M., & Zimmermann, C. (2012). Prevalence and risk
of violence and the physical, mental, and sexual health problems associated with human
trafficking: systematic review. PLoS Medicine. 9(5). 1-13.
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Wheaton, E. M., Schauer, E. J., & Galli, T. V. (2010). Economics of human trafficking

International Migration. 48(4). 114-141.
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CRJU 485; paper one

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