Chapter 6 Learning - descriptive presentation. Covers Classical and Operant conditioning.

1. Chapter 6
Learning

2. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioni
ng
 Ivan Pavlov
 1849-1936
 Russian physician/ neur
ophysiologist
 Nobel Prize, 1904
 studied digestive secreti
ons

3. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioni
ng
 Pavlov’s device
for recording s
alivation

4. Pavlov’s Apparatus for Studying Classi
cal Conditioning in Dogs

5. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning:
Respondent Behavior
 Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
 stimulus that unconditionally- naturally and
automatically - triggers a response
 Unconditioned Response (UCR)
 unlearned, naturally occurring response to th
e unconditioned stimulus
 salivation when food is in the mouth

6. Classical Conditioning: Respondent Beh
avior
 learning in which a neutral stimulus acquires the c
apacity to elicit a response after being paired with
another stimulus that naturally elicits that respons
e
 Unconditioned response (UCR): automatic res
ponse to a stimulus
 Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): naturally and
automatically elicits a response
 Conditioned response (CR): learned response
to a previously neutral stimulus
 Conditioned stimulus (CS): after repeated pai
rings with UCS, elicits the same response

7. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning:
Respondent Behavior
 Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
 originally neutral stimulus that, after associa
tion with an unconditioned stimulus, comes t
o trigger a conditioned response
 Conditioned Response (CR)
 learned response to a previously neutral con
ditioned stimulus

8. Pavlov’s Classic Experiment
Before Conditioning
During Conditioning After Conditioning
UCS (food
in mouth)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
No
salivation
UCR
(salivation)
Neutral
stimulus
(tone)
UCS (food
in mouth)
UCR
(salivation)
CS
(tone)
CR (salivation)

9. Classical or Pavlovian Conditio
ning
UCS
(passionate
kiss) UCR
(sexual
arousal)
CS
(onion
breath)
CS
(onion
breath) CR
(sexual
arousal)
UCS
(passionate
Kiss) UCR
(sexual
arousal)

10. Classical Conditioning

11. Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to
Learn to Predict Events
 Learning theorists once believed that the learni
ng in classical conditioning is unintentional and
automatic (classic behaviorism).
 Most contemporary learning theorists now belie
ve classical conditioning involves quite a bit of “
mindfulness” because, (through the conditionin
g process) humans and other animals are learni
ng to reliably predict upcoming events.

12. Classic Conditioning Allows Animals to L
earn to Predict Events
 Psychologists once believed that the key to
acquiring a conditioned response was the s
heer number of CS-UCS pairings.
 However, the order and timing of CS-UCS p
airings is also very important because it pro
vides valuable information about the upcom
ing occurrence of the unconditioned stimulu
s.

13. Utility of classical responding: Avoiding a Pre
dator’s Attack through Classical Conditionin
g—Step 1

14. Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Cla
ssical Conditioning—Step 2

15. Avoiding a Predator’s Attack through Cl
assical Conditioning—Step 3

16. Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Con
ditioning
 Acquisition
 the initial stage of learning, during which a re
sponse is established and gradually strengthe
ned
 the phase associating a neutral stimulus with
an unconditioned stimulus

17. Stages in Classical (Pavlovian) Condi
tioning
 Extinction: gradual weakening and
disappearance of the conditioned re
sponse
 Spontaneous recovery: reappearan
ce of an extinguished response afte
r a period of nonexposure to the co
nditioned stimulus

18. After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Pr
oduce the Conditioned Response
 Stimulus generalization: tendency for a c
onditioned response to be elicited by sti
muli similar to the conditioned stimulus

19. Generalization
Drops of saliva
in 30 seconds
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Hind
paw
Pelvis Shoulder Front
paw
Thigh Trunk Foreleg
Part of body stimulated

20. After Acquisition, Other Stimuli Can Prod
uce the Conditioned Response
 Higher-order conditioning: neutral stimu
lus becomes a conditioned stimulus afte
r being paired with an existing condition
ed stimulus

21. Animals Differ in What Responses Can Be
Classically Conditioned
 Early learning theorists assumed that the prin
ciples of conditioning were similar across all s
pecies, but subsequent research indicates that
this assumption is incorrect.
 Animals often differ in what responses can
be conditioned.
 In some animals, some responses can be co
nditioned much more readily to certain stim
uli than to others.
 An animal’s biology steers it toward certai
n kinds of conditioning.

22. Taste aversion study by Garcia and Koelling
Rats learned to avoid a light-noise combination when
it was paired with electric shock, but not when it
was followed by X rays that made them nauseous.
In contrast, rats quickly learned to avoid flavored wa
ter when it was followed by X rays, but they did n
ot readily acquire an aversion to this same water
when it was followed by shock.
It is also adaptive that in taste aversion, strong condi
tioning develops despite the long delay between t
he CS (the taste) and the UCS (the nausea).

23. Biological Constraints on Taste Avers
ion in Rats

24. Animals Differ in What Responses Ca
n Be Classically Conditioned
Phobias: exaggerated and irrational fears of objects
or situations
Such intense fear reactions often develop through c
lassical conditioning.
We can develop a phobia toward anything, but som
e objects (snakes) or situations elicit phobic rea
ctions more easily than others.

25. Nausea Conditioning among Can
cer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)
CS
(waiting
room)
CS
(waiting
room) CR
(nausea)
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea)

26. Little Albert’s Fear Conditionin
g
UCS
(loud noise)
UCR
(fear)
CS
(rat)
CS
(rat)
CR
(fear)
UCS
(loud noise)
UCR
(fear)
Stimulus similar
to rat (such as
rabbit)
Conditioned fear
(generalization)

27. Operant Conditioning
 B.F. Skinner (1904-
1990)
 elaborated Thorndik
e’s Law of Effect
 developed behaviora
l technology

28. Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed
by Consequences
 Edward Thorndike ‘s Law of Effect:
 the relationship between behavior and its co
nsequences
 So named because behavior becomes more o
r less likely based on the effect it has in prod
ucing desirable or undesirable consequences.

29. Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Rewarded behavior is li
kely to recur
E. L. Thorndike

30. Operant Behavior Is Voluntary & Directed
by Consequences
 B. F. Skinner made the law of effect the corn
erstone for his influential theory of learning,
called operant conditioning.
 According to Skinner, the organism’s behavior is “oper
ating” on the environment to achieve some desired goa
l.
 Operant conditioning: learning in which beha
vior is strengthened if followed by reinforcem
ent and weakened if followed by punishment

31. Operant Conditioning
 Operant Chamber (
“Skinner Box”)
 soundproof chamber
with a bar or key th
at an animal can ma
nipulate to obtain a f
ood or water reinfor
cer
 contains a device to
record responses

32. Skinner Box

33. Shaping Reinforces Closer Approxim
ations to Desired Behavior
 Shaping (or the method of successive app
roximations): teaching a new behavior by
reinforcing closer and closer approximatio
ns to the desired behavior

34. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
 The fundamental principle of behavioris
m is that rewarded behavior is likely to
be repeated.
 This is known as reinforcement in oper
ant conditioning.
 It also states the positive side of Thorndi
ke’s Law of Effect.

35. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
 Primary versus secondary reinforcers
 Primary reinforcers: innately reinforcing
—satisfy biological needs.
 Secondary reinforcers: learned and beco
me reinforcing when associated with a p
rimary reinforcer

36. A Reinforcer Increases the Probability
of the Behavior It Follows
Positive and negative reinforcers
Positive reinforcers: strengthen a response by
presenting a positive stimulus after a respo
nse
Negative reinforcer: strengthens a response by
removing an aversive stimulus after a respo
nse

37. Positive and Negative Reinforcement, Positi
ve and Negative Punishment

38. Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different
Learning and Performance Rates
 Continuous reinforcement leads to the fas
test learning.
 The biggest problem with continuous reinf
orcement is that when it ends, extinction
occurs rapidly.

39. Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Different
Learning and Performance Rates
 Partial reinforcement has an important
effect on your continued performance b
ecause being reinforced only once in a
while keeps you responding vigorously f
or longer periods of time than does con
tinuous reinforcement.

40. Fixed-interval schedules: reinforce the first respon
se after a fixed-time interval has elapsed
 Fixed-ratio schedules: reinforce a response after
a specified number of nonreinforced responses
 Variable-interval schedules: reinforce the first re
sponse after a variable-time interval has elapsed
 Variable-ratio schedules: reinforce a response af
ter a variable number of nonreinforced response
s
Different Reinforcement Schedules Lead to Differ
ent Learning and Performance Rates

41. Schedules of Reinforcement

42. Accidental Reinforcement Can Cause
Superstitious Behavior
 Superstitious behavior: learned because it happened to be
followed by a reinforcer, even though this behavior was not
the cause of the reinforcer.
 Skinner trained superstitious behavior in hungry
pigeons.
He reasoned that when reinforcement occurred, it woul
d be paired with whatever response the pigeons had ju
st performed.
Instances of accidental reinforcement triggering supers
titious behavior is common among people.

43. Punishment Should Be Used Only un
der Certain Circumstances
 Punishment: The process by which a cons
equence decreases the probability of the
behavior that it follows.

44. Punishment Should Be Used Only un
der Certain Circumstances
 To be effective in reducing unwanted behavio
rs:
 The punishment must be prompt,
 It must be relatively strong, and
 It must be consistently applied.
 Alternative to punishment of undesirable beh
avior:
 Allow undesirable actions to continue without eit
her positive or negative consequences until they
are extinguished

45. Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it
Overlooks Genetic Predispositions
 Biological constraints on learning
 As with classical conditioning, an animal’s bi
ology can restrict its capacity for operant con
ditioning.
 Species-specific behavior patterns can interf
ere with operant conditioning, a genetic cons
traint called instinctive drift.

46. Criticism of Operant Conditioning Theory is that it
Overlooks Cognitive Processes
 Latent learning: learning that occurs without a
pparent reinforcement and is not demonstrated
until sufficient reinforcement is provided
 Learning can occur without any reinforcement,
something that the theory of operant conditioni
ng assumed was not possible.

47. Latent Learning

48. Operant Conditioning Theory Overlooks Cognitive
Processes
 Learned helplessness: the passive resignation
produced by repeated exposure to aversive eve
nts that cannot be avoided
 Here again, in contradiction to behaviorist the
ory, research demonstrated that mental proce
sses play a significant role in learning.

49. Applications of Operant Conditioning
 Structure and feedback in learning
– immediate reinforcement
 Defined performance goals and imm
ediate reinforcement at work
 Parenting – reward good behavior, i
gnore whining, time-out

50. Observational Learning
 learning by observing and imitating th
e behavior of others
 The others whom we observe and imitate
are called models.
 Observational learning helps children lear
n how to behave in their families and in t
heir cultures.Yet, what about the learnin
g that occurs without direct experience?

51. Social Learning Theory-Albert Bandura
 Social learning theory says that people lear
n social behaviors mainly through observati
on and cognitive processing of information,
rather than through direct experience.
 Learning the consequences of an action b
y observing its consequences for someon
e else is known as vicarious conditioning.

52. Children Can Learn Aggressive Behavi
or through Observation
 Bobo doll studies: the first set of exper
iments demonstrating the power of obs
ervational learning in eliciting aggressi
on.
 Research demonstrates that children a
re less likely to imitate the actions of p
unished aggressors.

53. Children Can Learn Aggressive Beha
vior through Observation
 Bandura believes children observe and learn a
ggression through many avenues, but the thre
e principal ones are:
 Families: where adults use violence
 Communities: where aggression is considered to b
e a sign of manhood, especially among males
 Media: principally television and the movies

54. Children Can Learn Aggressive Beha
vior through Observation
Research indicates that aggressiv
e behavior in children is significa
ntly reduced when they spend les
s time watching violent television
shows and playing violent video g
ames.