LANGUAGE ACROSS CURRICULUM

1. CHAPTER - 4
CREATING LANGUAGE FOR CLASSROOM INTERACTION
LANGUAGE OF INSTRUCTION
Education is a development process that often includes a particular
understanding of the nature of knowledge. This understanding is given expression
in a particular social or ideological context with its particular policy and
implementation agendas. It is an expression of how human learning and
development occurs and how they can be encouraged. Education is seen as a
developmental process of change for the better in the interest of the society that
designs it and the individual that receives it.
Quality education is the kind of education that gives learners the ability to
learn and discuss abstract ideas, liberates learners’ minds from ignorance, opens up
new perspectives and extends their horizons by widening frontiers of knowledge.
Quality education requires that learners take an active part in knowledge creation
through critical thinking, discussion, dialogue, asking questions and solving
problems. However, learners can only actively participate in knowledge creation if
they are allowed to use the language they understand very well, which, in most cases,
is the language they usually speak in their day-to-day life.
Quality of education cannot be divorced from goals of education, it is equally
important not to divorce the question of language of instruction from quality of
education. This is due to the role that the language of instruction plays in determining
the quality of education. Language of instruction is a vehicle through which
education is delivered. The role of language of instruction can be likened to that of
pipes in carrying water from one destination to another or that of copper wires in
transmitting electricity from one station to another. Just as a pipe is an important
medium in carrying water, and a copper wire an important medium for transmitting
electricity, the language of instruction is an indispensable medium for carrying, or

2. transmitting education from teachers to learners and among learners. As a matter of
efficiency and efficacy, only the language which teachers and students understand
can effectively function as the language of instruction. Only when teachers and
students understand the language of instruction are they able to discuss, debate, ask
and answer questions, ask for clarification and therefore construct and generate
knowledge,. These are activities that are a pre-requisite to learning and whose level
determines the quality of education. Thus, the language of instruction is an important
factor in determining the quality of education.
AURAL ORAL SKILLS IN ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Much of our language-teaching energy is devoted to instruction in mastering
English conversation. However, numerous other forms of spoken language are also
important to incorporate into a language course, especially in teaching listening
comprehension. It is so important to develop Aural and oral skills in our
learners because one way or the other their proficiency in the target language
is to be judged by how well they conduct themselves in such a language.
From a communicative, pragmatic view of the language classroom, listening
and speaking skills are closely intertwined. More often than not, ESL curricula
that treat oral communication skills will simply be labeled as
“Listening/Speaking” courses . People will be able to tell whether they
understand the language or not by how well their listening and speaking skills
are utilized/ commanded.
Depending on the level, a student might claim to perfectly understand when
others talk to him/her(listening); however, that is not likely to be believed unless
he/she provides a suitable answer in words (speaking/oral production)
.Therefore, teachers are not to neglect such skills in the target language. Every
skill is important when acquiring a language and; none is to be neglected.
AURAL SKILLS

3. Such skills are important because in order to properly interact one needs
to understand what is said. Otherwise, interaction will be limited. Listening is not
a one-way street. It is not merely the process of a unidirectional receiving of audible
symbols. But , that is just the beginning of what is a number of different
cognitive and affective mechanisms . The importance of listening in language
learning can hardly be overestimated. Through reception, we internalize linguistic
information without which we could not produce language. Listening competence is
universally “larger’ than speaking competence .
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING LISTENING TECNIQUES
1. In an interactive, four-skill curriculum, make sure that you don’t overlook
the importance of techniques that specifically develop listening comprehension
competence.
2. Use techniques that are intrinsically motivating.
3. Utilize authentic language and contexts.
4. Carefully consider the form of listeners’ responses.
5. Encourage the development of listening strategies.
6. Include both bottom-up and top –down listening techniques.
ORAL- SKILLS
Much of our language-teaching energy is devoted to instruction in mastering
English conversation. The benchmark of successful language acquisition is
almost always the demonstration of an ability to accomplish pragmatic goals
through interactive discourse with other speakers of the language . The
conversation class is something of an enigma in language teaching. The goals and
the techniques for teaching conversation are extremely diverse, depending on
the student, teacher, and overall context of the class.
TEACHING PRONUNCIATION

4. Current approaches to pronunciation contrast starkly with the early approaches.
Rather than attempting only to build a learner’s articulatory competence from the
bottom up, and simply as the mastery of a list of phonemes and allophones, a
top-down approach is taken in which the most relevant features of pronunciation-
stress, rhythm, and intonation- are given high priority. Instead of teaching only
the role of articulation within words, or at best, phrases, we teach its role in a
whole of discourse. The contemporary views [of language] hold that the sounds
of a language are less crucial for understanding than the way they are organized.
The rhythm and intonation of English are two major organizing structures that
native speakers rely on to process speech…..Because of their major roles in
communication, rhythm and intonation merit greater priority in the teaching
program that attention to individual sounds.
PRINCIPLES FOR DESIGNING SPEAKING TECNIQUES
1. Use techniques that cover the spectrum of learner needs, from language
based focus on accuracy to message-based focus on interaction, meaning, and
fluency.
2. Provide intrinsically- motivating skills.
3. Encourage the use of authentic language in meaningful contexts.
4. Provide appropriate feedback and correction.
5. Capitalize on the natural link between speaking and listening.
6. Give students opportunities to initiate oral communication.
7. Encourage the development of speaking strategies.
SEMINAR
The word ‘seminar’ is derived from the Latin word ‘seminariam’ which
means “seed plots”. Seminar is a form of academic instruction at an institution.
Nowadays it is used in other universities as well as for commercial events in various
fields apart from higher education. It brings together small groups for focusing on

5. one particular topic or subject. Every one present is supposed to take active part in
the following discussions. It familiarizes the students with the selected topic more
extensively. It is an informal method of teaching. Seminars are conducted in the
classroom of undergraduate classes.
Objectives of Conducting Seminar
1] Encouragement for Self-study
2] Encouragement for reading reference books
3] Use of computer and internet facilities for updating the knowledge.
4] Presentation skills are developed along with self confidence
5] Teaching and learning becomes a happy experience for both teacher and student.
6] Helps to overcome the problem of stage fear.
The Procedure of Conducting Seminar
1] A topic is allotted to the student from the syllabus as per his/her choice or interest.
At least fifteen days are given for preparation of the topic. The date of seminar is
fixed on the same day of allotment.
2] Necessary books and articles, list of reference books is provided to the students
as per their requirement from the library. Students go to the library and search the
required material, data and prepare their own notes. They also use the internet
facility.
3] The collected information, data is checked and rearranged by the teacher. Now it
is ready for the final seminar.
4] The student delivers the seminar in the class. Use of maps, diagrams, charts along
with the blackboard is allowed for explaining the topic. If a student wishes to use
power point, it is also allowed.
5] After presentation, the topic is open for discussion. Questions are asked by the
students and they are answered by the seminary. If necessary, the teacher interferes
and takes part in the discussion.

6. 6] The details of the topic and other related information which is not included in the
seminar is further given by the teacher. On an average, twenty minutes are available
for one student. The duration of time may change.
7] The notes prepared by the student are further circulated in the class.
Advantages of Conducting Seminar
 Helps the learner to develop analytical and critical thinking.
 The presenter can be evaluated with respect to his skill in organizing and
presenting given subject matter in a systematic way.
 Develop in learners self reliance and self confidence.
 Develops the ability to comprehend major ideas by listening.
 Develops the ability to raise relevant and pin-pointed questions.
Disadvantages of Conducting Seminar
 Lack of preparation on the part of the paper presenter may make the seminar a
mere waste.
 The formal structure of seminar restricts the participants from asking questions
as and when needed.
 The success of the seminar fully depends on the ability of the person who is
presenting the topic . His inability will create so many problems.
DISCUSSION
Discussion is an exchange of ideas with all the members of the group
participating in it accompanied by active learning. It is a free interchange of facts ,
concepts, information, viewpoints, data ,etc. regarding a topic by a group.
Discussions can play a valuable role in lecture courses, seminars, quiz sections, labs,
studios and a variety of other settings. A well-planned discussion can encourage and
stimulate student learning and add variety to your class. While “good” discussions

7. can be a powerful tool for encouraging student learning, successful discussions
rarely happen spontaneously. Preparing ahead of time will help you define a clear
focus by establishing goals and student expectations for the discussion.
Objectives Of Discussion
 To stimulate reflective thinking
 To enrich previous knowledge.
 To encourage creative expression.
 To develop desirable social attitudes by participating in groups.
 To practice the technique of co-operative thinking.
 To develop the habit of group work.
Principles of Discussion
Following are the different principles to be followed while conducting
discussion ;
 Every discussion should have some purpose.
 Topic of discussion should be related to the common needs and interests of the
participants.
 Students should have sufficient information and knowledge about the topic of
discussion.
 Adequate responsibilities have to be assigned to all individual members.
 The group leader should take initiative to report the progress of the progress of
the discussion to the outside world.
 A fixed time schedule should be drawn up for the discussion .
 The teacher should ensure active participation of the members.
Steps to Facilitate Effective Classroom Discussions
1. Prepare students to participate in discussions by:

8.  Explaining why you think class discussions are important, how you plan to use
them during your course and (if you plan to do so) how you will grade students
on participation in class discussions
 Discussing the various methods and ground rules you will use to encourage
participation (e.g., voluntary hand-raising, random calling on students by the
lecturer, by seating order, permitting students to say, “I pass; please call on me
later,” etc.)
 Creating an environment that encourages students to feel comfortable about
speaking during class discussions (e.g., if possible, arranging chairs so that
students can see each other; reassuring students that all questions and different
viewpoints are valued; getting to know your students and helping them get to
know each other; breaking large classes down into manageable smaller groups
for discussions)
 Alerting students if a class discussion will be based on a reading assignment …
Asking students to take notes on the reading and/or write down some thoughts on
questions that you intend to pose during the discussion … Asking students to
write down questions to pose during the discussion
 Listing out and posting the key questions that you want to cover during the
discussion
2. Ask meaningful, well-constructed questions that have multiple valid answers
and will provoke discussion, while helping students explore the key concepts you
want to cover. Types of questions include:

9.  Application questions that help students apply concepts, principles or
generalizations in different contexts – e.g., “How can you apply what you have
learned about adult learning theory to your own teaching practices?
 Analytical questions that encourage students to pull apart different elements of
the material they have been learning about to draw comparisons and contrasts,
identify causes and effects; reason through explanations or arguments; etc.
 Synthesis questions that require students to integrate the elements of the material
in new and different ways .
 Evaluation questions that require students to make informed judgments, using
some combination of knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis and/or
synthesis .
 Problem-solving questions that challenge students to use their creativity, as well
as the knowledge they have gained .
3. Facilitate and manage student discussion by:
 Providing a common experience to get the discussion started – e.g., a reading,
film, tape, exercise
 Asking stimulating questions
 Giving students time to reflect on your question rather than rushing to “fill the
silence”
 Monitoring participation so that you don’t call on the same few eager students
too frequently .
 Encouraging non-participating students to join the discussion by requesting that
they read something out loud or posing a question that you know they will be
able to answer directly to them .
 Demonstrating your valuing of all student contributions in appropriate ways –
e.g., praising correct answers, letting students know when they have brought up

10. a perspective that is interesting/different/new/etc. for you, asking students to
expand on their answers when they are incomplete, helping students understand
the implications of an answer that seems wrong to you, asking students to explain
their answers when they are unclear to you, asking other students to comment on
a student’s answer that is incomplete, unclear or incorrect rather than correcting
the student directly, asking students to help each other with their answers .
 Asking students for help when the room remains
 Leaving time to summarize key points before moving on to another topic.
 Asking students to summarize the main points rather than always doing this
yourself .
 Having students write down the 3 most important things they learned from the
discussion, as well as any questions they still have and pass these in anonymously
… Reviewing these comments and questions and addressing misconceptions and
questions during the next class.
Benefits of Getting Students to Participate in Classroom Discussions
Participation is one of those workhorse instructional strategies easy to use,
straightforward, expected, and often quite successful at accomplishing a number of
learning goals. It’s good to remind ourselves of its many different uses, especially
on those days when getting students to participate feels like pulling hens’ teeth.
 Participation adds interest : It’s hard to maintain students’ focus and attention
when all they hear is the professor talking. It helps to hear another voice as well
as an answer or another point of view.
 Participation engages students : A good question can pique their interest, make
them wonder why, get them to think, and motivate them to make connections
with the content. This benefit is magnified when teachers play a bit with the

11. question, when they repeat it, write it on the board, and don’t call on the first
hand they see.
 Participation provides the teacher feedback : When students answer or try to
explain, teachers can see the extent of their understanding. They can correct (or
help the students correct) what the students haven’t got right or don’t see quite
clearly.
 Participation provides the students feedback : When teachers ask questions or
otherwise seek student input over a topic, they are letting students know
something about the importance of certain ideas and information.
 Participation can be used to promote preparation : If an instructor regularly
calls on students and asks questions about assigned reading or what’s in their
notes from the previous class session, that can get students (at least some of them)
coming to class prepared.
 Participation can be used to control what’s happening in class : If a student
is dozing off, texting, quietly chatting, or otherwise not attending to what’s
happening, that student can be called on or the student next to the offender can
be asked to respond.
 Participation can be used to balance who’s contributing in class and how
much : In the vast majority of cases, it is the teacher who selects the participant.
If teachers will wait patiently and not always select the same student, if they look
expectantly to others and confirm verbally and nonverbally the value of hearing
from different people, they can influence who speaks and how much.
Participation even helps teachers control how much they talk.
 Participation encourages dialogue among and between students : Students
can be asked to comment on what another student has said. A question can be

12. asked and students can be invited to discuss possible answers with each other
before the public discussion.
 Participation can be used to develop important speaking skills : In many
professional contexts, people need to be able to speak up in a group. They may
need to offer information, ask questions, or argue for a different solution. People
don’t learn to speak up in a group by reading about how to do it. It’s one of those
skills best developed with practice. And it’s one of those skills that develops
better with feedback. If participation is being used to teach students this public
communication skill, they will need feedback.
 Participation gives students the opportunity to practice using the language
of the discipline : Most faculty have spoken astronomy, accounting, psychology,
gerontology, political science, whatever the field for years, and they’ve forgotten
how much of the language is new, different, and difficult for students.
Participation gives students the chance to practice using a different vocabulary.
DEBATE
Debate is contention in argument; strife, dissension, quarrelling, controversy;
especially a formal discussion of subjects before a public assembly or legislature, in
Parliament or in any deliberative assembly. Debate is a method of formally
presenting an argument in a disciplined manner. Through logical consistency, factual
accuracy and some degree of emotional appeal to the audience are elements in
debating, where one side often prevails over the other party by presenting a superior
"context" and/or framework of the issue. The outcome of a debate may depend upon
consensus or some formal way of reaching a resolution, rather than the objective
facts. In a formal debating contest, there are rules for participants to discuss and
decide on differences, within a framework defining how they will interact. Debating
teams are often helpful to students in teaching the writing process, as well as in
teaching rhetoric.

13. Debates are a great tool for engaging students and livening up classroom
curriculum. Using debates in the classroom can help students grasp essential critical
thinking and presentation skills. Among the skills classroom debates can foster are
abstract thinking, citizenship and etiquette, clarity, organization, persuasion, public
speaking, research, and teamwork and cooperation. Using students’ natural talent of
arguing and challenging authority, we can channel student energy into a positive
learning assignment. Debates offer that natural avenue for teachers to facilitate
analytical thinking.
Classroom debates enable students to work cooperatively, brainstorm ideas,
develop vocabulary and read to support an opinion. Questioning allows students to
explain and to explore additional facts for clarification purposes. These
comprehension skills are essential for students to become competent readers and
writers linking debates directly to the entire curriculum.
Debates allow students to become more proficient in speaking, researching,
reading, and writing skills, and they promote reasoning as well as communication
skills. Fact-filled and passionate debates provide the incentive for students of all
academic and socioeconomic levels to become engaged and to participate in the
debate process. In addition, debates, both formal and informal, are a vehicle for
students to express their opinions assertively in a respectful manner on a relevant
issue or topic.
While conducting a debate in the class room the following points should be
kept in mind ;
 Topic and date must be informed in advance so that the participants get sufficient
time for preparation.
 Topic should be clear, simple an interesting and must be one involving
controversies.

14.  Speakers are to be selected from the class and then divided into two groups to
argue for or against the motion.
 The chairman is to be nominated in advance.
 When preparing for a debate , the arguments for either group must be arranged
in logical sequence.
PEDAGOGIC COMMUNICATION
Pedagogic communication as a specific form of communication is
characterised by three basic elements: a message, consisting mainly of teaching
contents and pertaining to a given topic, or field of study; a social relation brought
about by the act of communication (teaching) between the message originator
(teacher) and the recipient (student): in other words, we are dealing here with a
pedagogic relation which may take any possible shape within the frame of teacher-
student interactions and which general pedagogy has taught us to consider. This field
includes teaching, contents delivery, tutoring and moderation, positive and negative
reinforcement, curriculum design, training schemes, managing the learning process,
etc.
When observing teachers in their classrooms, one concludes that pedagogic
communication corresponds to a particular use of language and of communication
systems, well recognised and studied in other contexts (illustrations, sketches,
graphics, fixed images, movies, videos, and so on). Thinking for a while about how
you teach, one could perhaps agree upon a first classification of the ways we
communicate:
1. Oral linguistic communication
Teacher speak and use written documents. Oral verbal language is the basic
teaching and training vehicle, in fact. And we well know that this remains the most
important means of communication in education.
2. Non-verbal communication

15. A teacher moves, has his particular mimics and looks, uses body language and
posture to convey his message. As he moves he, in some way, occupies the
classroom: he solicits his students attention, prompts one of them to give an answer,
etc. In pedagogic face-to-face communication, the teacher uses for expressive and
communicative purposes an impressive number of non-verbal indications that the
recipients have no trouble interpreting. In this same category are also classified the
teacher's changes of tone, vocal modulations and inflections, in brief, any intuitive
element contributing to manifest the 'presence' of an interlocutor. This may look like
a kind of paradox since these elements are well related to linguistic expression and
are still not analysed in linguistics studies, in the strict meaning of the term. They
are rather compounded with other non-verbal communication forms. As a
conclusion, we may say that the emotive and affective aspects of pedagogic
communication are mainly carried out by non-verbal communication forms.
3. Audio-scripto-visual communication
If oral language remains the main vehicle of teaching , other kinds discourse
and of knowledge representation modes with educational objectives are evolving
and are becoming gradually more widespread. Teachers primarily use written texts
but also sound and/or visual documents. Educational software, electronic books and
multimedia packages progressively become part of pedagogic routine. Likewise,
books and textbooks come up with an increasing number of illustrations, and, if
books are essentially made of verbal language cues (of linguistic communication),
let's also remember that they force them into visual and graphic constraints,
especially through page layout and typesetting. This is why we call this kind of
communication scripto-visual communication. As is the case for verbal language,
the audio-scripto-visual mode takes into account both informative and cognitive
aspects of pedagogic communication.

16. EXPLANATION
An explanation is a set of statements constructed to describe a set of facts
which clarifies the causes, context, and consequences of those facts. This description
may establish rules or laws, and may clarify the existing ones in relation to any
objects, or phenomena examined. The components of an explanation can be implicit,
and be interwoven with one another. An explanation is often underpinned by an
understanding that is represented by different media such as music, text, and
graphics. Thus, an explanation is subjected to interpretation, and discussion.
Explanation is a way to uncover new knowledge, and to report relationships among
different aspects of studied phenomena. Explanation attempts to answer the "why"
question. Explanations have varied explanatory power.
An explanation is written to explain how and why something in the world
happens. It is about actions rather than about things. Explanations play a valuable
role in building and storing our knowledge. Technical and scientific writing are often
expressed in this form. When writing explanations we establish that the phenomenon
exists and then explain why or how this came about. The writer should acquire a
great deal of content knowledge before beginning the explanation.
STRUCTURE OF EXPLANATION
Explanations have the following structure:
• Title
• General Statement Introducing Or Identifying The Phenomenon
• Series Of Sequenced Paragraphs
• Concluding Paragraph
• Labelled diagrams and flow charts.
Title

17. Explanations have a title that prepares and leads the reader to the text. This
can appear in a variety of forms from a heading that names the action to a how and
why question or a problem that is to be answered by the explanation.
General statement
The first paragraph has a general statement that introduces or identifies the
scientific or technical phenomenon. It gives the audience a brief introduction to the
event or thing and an understanding of the type of text that is to follow.
Sequenced statements
At this stage students’ explanations are developing causal relationships as
well as sequential ones. The logically sequenced paragraphs explain why or how
something happens rather than focusing on an object. The explanation sequence
should consist of a series of happenings, actions, causes or processes that are the
focus of the text type. This chain of actions, causes or events results in the
phenomenon about which the explanation is written. Events may be related
according to time or cause or through both and should be detailed and accurate,
ensuring that all elements have been included. Sequences often develop by
explaining how the events happen over a period of time: first this happens and then
this is followed by the next event. It is important that in addition to researching the
facts, students understand the reasons behind them. Attention should be focused on
writing these reasons in their explanations. It is important that students realise that
they will need to make thoughtful decisions about what to write and the order in
which the information should be presented. Generally there is no human involved in
the process of events.
Concluding statement
An optional concluding statement can tie up the explanation. The statement
must show the overall attribute of the phenomena explained.
Labelled diagrams

18. Labelled diagrams and flow charts can be used to clarify information or to add
additional information not included in the explanation. Particularly in scientific texts
accurate diagrams and illustrations are important as they support the text. Students
will need to research the topic, making notes, drawing diagrams and making
drawings. They can make use of the scaffolds and outlines to assist with the
development of these skills.
LANGUAGE FEATURES OF EXPLANATION
• Use of present tense.
• Use of complex noun groups to build detailed descriptions.
• Use of abstract nouns, e.g. heat, earthquakes.
• Use of pronouns for words already introduced in the text.
• Usually the subject is not human .
• Use of sentences that have a clear subject and verb agreement.
• Use of action verbs to explain cause .
• Use of adverbial phrases of time and place to tell where and when actions occurred,
• Use of connectives to link time sequences in a cause and effect sequence.
• Use of passive voice and nominalisation to link the events through cause and effect.
• Use of time conjunctions .
• Use of technical terms or word chains about a subject .
QUESTIONING
Questioning is a common technique used in English language teaching. The
goal is to check if the students understand what they have been taught, and to
enhance students’ involvement and to promote students’ creative thinking in
classroom interaction. Questioning has been considered as one of the most essential
and important techniques during instructional processes since Socrates times.
Questioning takes up most of teacher talk and it has been improved to have a great
influence on classroom interaction. Questioning has always been the most

19. ubiquitous phenomenon observed in classroom, as well as one of the most
frequently-adopted devices favored by most of the teachers.
Questioning is one kind of teaching active procedure. It is one teaching
behavior way through teachers and students’ interaction, checking learning,
promoting thought, consolidating knowledge, using knowledge, achieving teaching
goals. Questioning is usually used as one kind of mutual exchange teaching skills
between the teacher and students. It has been used widely in teaching till now.
Classroom questioning is the main part of classroom teaching, and is one of the
teaching methods to get the aim of classroom teaching. Teachers want to get
students’ responses and the first step is to answer questions. Through consistent
dialog and communication again, the teacher can get the answers they want and
evaluate the students.
Questioning, as a general way used by teachers in class, plays an important
role in classroom teaching. Questions are used to evaluate students’ knowledge and
understanding of subject matter. Questions can help to review essential content in a
subject. Questions can be used to control the social behavior of students. Questioning
is a major form of human thought and interpersonal communication. The thinker
employs a series of questions to explore an issue, an idea or something intriguing.
Questioning is the process of forming and wielding that series to develop answers
and insight. There are mainly two types of questions Lower cognitive questions and
higher cognitive questions. Lower cognitive questions (fact, closed, direct, recall,
and knowledge questions) involve the recall of information. Higher cognitive
questions (open-ended, interpretive, evaluative, inquiry, inferential, and synthesis
questions) involve the mental manipulation of information to produce or support an
answer.
Purpose of Questioning

20. A teacher may vary his or her purpose in asking questions during a single lesson,
or a single question may have more than one purpose. Teachers ask questions for a
variety of purposes, including:
 To actively involve students in the lesson
 To increase motivation or interest
 To evaluate students’ preparation
 To check on completion of work
 To develop critical thinking skills
 To review previous lessons
 To nurture insights
 To assess achievement or mastery of goals and objectives
 To stimulate independent learning
REINFORCING
Reinforcements are stimuli that can strengthen or weaken specific
behaviors. Reinforcing is the process of strengthening or weakening particular
behavior through positive and negative reinforcers. Reinforcement is used to help
increase the probability that a specific behavior will occur in the future by delivering
a stimulus immediately after a response/behavior is exhibited. In a classroom a
teacher faces a variety of pupil behaviors, some of them are desirable for learning
but some others are undesirable. There are a number of factors involved in
reinforcing an individual's behaviors, and by applying reinforcements, we can
increase and/or decrease behaviors as well. For bringing the right behavior teacher
has to use positive and negative reinforcers.
The two most common forms are known as positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement. It is important to note that, in this case, the words positive
and negative do not mean good or bad. Instead, they mean you are adding (positive)
or removing (negative) something in order to strengthen the desired behavior.

21. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment; however, they are not
the same.
Positive reinforcement occurs when a reward is given to strengthen a desired
behavior. The reward will serve to strengthen the behavior because the child will be
more likely to continue with this desired behavior in order to receive the reward.
Likewise, negative reinforcement also strengthens a behavior, but it does so by
removing something that is unwanted. Negative reinforcement should not be thought
of as a punishment procedure. With negative reinforcement, you are increasing a
behavior, whereas with punishment, you are decreasing a behavior.
ILLUSTRATION
According to Bodmer (1992), illustrations serve to "expand, explain, interpret,
or decorate a written text". An illustration is a visualization or a depiction of a subject
made by an artist, such as a drawing, sketch, painting, photograph, cinema or other
kind of image of things seen, remembered or imagined, using a graphical
representation. The word comes from the Latin word illustra'tio, illu'stro meaning
enlighten, irradiate. Illustrations can be artistic images illustrating for example a text,
poem, fashion, magazines, stamps or a book and very often illustrations were made
for children's books. The aim of an illustration is to elucidate or decorate a story,
poem or piece of textual information by providing a visual representation of
something described in the text. Illustrations can also represent scientific images of
flora, medicine or different processes, a biological or chemical processes or technical
illustrations to give information on how to use something.