1. DISABILITY SERVICES: AN ASSESSMENT
OF ACCOMMODATIONS BY FACULTY
A Dissertation
Submitted to the
Faculty of Argosy University Campus
in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Education
Nina S. Padolf
Argosy University
April 2011
Dissertation Committee Approval:
Dissertation Chair: Susan Adragna, PhD Date
Committee Member: Cynthia Glenn, PhD Date
Committee Member: Earl Williams, PhD Date
Program Chair: Rita Jensen, PhD Date

2. ii
Table of Contents
Page
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS COMPONENTS....................................... 1
The Problem........................................................................................................................ 2
Problem Background........................................................................................................... 4
Purpose of the Study........................................................................................................... 7
Research Questions............................................................................................................. 7
Limitations and Delimitations............................................................................................. 7
Definition of Terms............................................................................................................. 8
Importance of the Study.................................................................................................... 10
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE .................................................... 11
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY ......................................................................... 42
Research Design................................................................................................................ 42
The Selection of Subjects.................................................................................................. 44
Instrumentation ................................................................................................................. 45
Assumptions...................................................................................................................... 45
Procedures......................................................................................................................... 46
Data Processing and Analysis........................................................................................... 50
CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS................................................................................................. 52
The Pilot Study Results..................................................................................................... 52
The Survey Findings ......................................................................................................... 53
Question Number 1 ........................................................................................................... 54
Question Number 2 ........................................................................................................... 55
Question Number 3 ........................................................................................................... 57
Question Number 4 ........................................................................................................... 58
Themes.............................................................................................................................. 59
CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS......... 61
Recommendations............................................................................................................. 63
Suggestions For Future Research...................................................................................... 64
REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 66
APPENDIXES .................................................................................................................. 76
APPENDIX A: Electronic Survey Questions For The Study........................................... 77
APPENDIX B: Adult Consent Letter ............................................................................... 80
APPENDIX C: Permission from Previous Survey Questions/Study................................ 83

3. 1
CHAPTER ONE: THE PROBLEM AND ITS COMPONENTS
In an era that is promoting post-secondary online courses, adults are enrolling in
these classes to advance their careers and job opportunities. Many students benefit from
attending online education, yet there are possible barriers that may make it difficult for
some students to complete their academic goals. These potential barriers should be
identified. According to Johnson (2006), it is critical personnel become familiar with the
educational experiences students with disabilities often encounter. The support and
accommodations students with disabilities receive may allow students to achieve their
highest potential. In order to analyze the benefits and barriers students with disabilities
may encounter when taking online courses, more research should be conducted.
While research has been completed on the various support services offered to
students with disabilities in traditional colleges and universities, a growing number of
students are enrolling in online courses. This learning environment may offer more
opportunities for adults who want to attend courses without having to go to the ground
school campus. Yet, because many of these programs are still new, it is relevant that
there is a need to evaluate how well the services that are being provided to students with
disabilities are addressing the needs of students by faculty.
This study will identify the strengths and weaknesses of online programs and
services as related to the perceptions that faculty may have when dealing with students
with disabilities. The results will enhance the potential to increase learning opportunities
and success rates for individuals with disabilities attending online postsecondary
institutions. Online programs are growing rapidly, and the results may be used to
enhance previously collected research to further evaluate potential opportunities to

4. 2
provide accommodations and services to students attending Argosy University Online
and enhanced learning opportunities based on the feedback given from faculty. Argosy
University’s roots can be traced to The American School of Professional Psychology, and
The Medical Institute of Minnesota, and the University of Sarasota. It has served the
needs of its adult students in four academic program areas: education, business, health
sciences, and psychology (Argosy University, 2010).
This study is organized and presented in five chapters. Chapter One introduces
the problem and gives background information on the assessment made by faculty of
disability services provided for students with disabilities attending postsecondary
education, and the assessment of accommodations for students with disabilities as it
relates to student success rates; the research problem; limitations, delimitations, and
assumptions; definition of terms; and significance of the study. Chapter Two contains the
literature review. Chapter Three explains the methods and procedures used to obtain and
process the data. Chapter Four provides the results of the data collected and analysis.
Chapter Five discusses the findings, overall conclusions, implications for professional
practice, and recommendations for implementing best practices for addressing students
with disabilities attending Argosy University Online.
The Problem
Post-secondary education is prevalent today because people are recognizing the
importance of furthering their studies in order to remain competitive in today’s global
market. Many working adults are taking advantage of enrolling in online courses. As a
result, universities are offering more online courses. As enrollment increases, the need to
assess services for students with disabilities is essential due to increased enrollment.

5. 3
Students with disabilities may benefit from having accommodations to assist them with
their academic goals. Student success rates are often linked to the services that they
received for disabilities. Many instructors at Argosy University do not know the
specified disabilities of the students attending their courses; it is hard to assess if the
accommodation is improving academic achievement. In addition, there is limited
research on accommodations at postsecondary online institutions. Therefore, student
services might benefit from faculty assessing accommodations for students with
disabilities and their success rates. An accommodation is identified as a type of
“academic adjustment” (Madaus & Shaw, 2004) in the presentation of the curriculum.
What determines if a student is eligible to receive an accommodation is based on
submitted documentation. Madaus and Shaw (2004) found the following:
Section 504 and the Americans with Disabilities Act, encouraged postsecondary
institutions to provide supports and accommodations for students with disabilities
and common accommodation procedures require that a student self-identify as
having a disability within the first weeks of class, provide documentation to
campus disability professionals that verifies eligibility for accommodations,
request specific accommodations based on the disability, and wait for adjustments
to be implemented through coordination between faculty and the disability
services office (Madaus & Shaw,2004, p. 3)
An example of an accommodation may be some type of waiver, in that it
addresses the need of the student with the disability by making an adaptation in the
course or extended time to take an exam (Madaus & Shaw, 2004). To improve student
success rates, disability services should be evaluated. Logsdon (2009) defined a learning
disability as a neurological condition that inhibits learning or severely impairs the
learning process. “This may occur in one or more academic areas despite having average
or high intelligence” (Logsdon, 2009, para. 3). Tinto (2004) studied student retention

6. 4
and graduation and noted that “ even with adequate academic preparation, many students
who begin in four-year institutions fail to complete their degree ” (p. 6).
The academic consensus in the field of special education recognized that
individuals with learning disabilities experience challenges not just while attending
elementary or secondary schools, but also while attending postsecondary institutions, and
that the ramifications of not receiving long-term specialized services in colleges, make it
more challenging for students with disabilities to successfully complete their
postsecondary educations (Price & Shaw, 2000). The areas of service needed should be
identified in order to decide what type of accommodation may be provided. The lack of
accommodations may affect students’ success rates. Therefore, the purpose of this study
is to assess the accommodations provided by Disability Services by faculty as it relates to
students enrolled in online classes at Argosy University. The accommodation may
partially affect student success rates. Success is measured by the completion and
graduation from the online program.
Problem Background
At the close of the 1990s, a new period of technology was launched, making
online education popular at colleges (Aranda, 2006). The need to provide support
services for students who are ”qualified under the American with Disabilities Act (ADA)
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ” (p. 1) is necessary. If a student needs
disability services, the required processes may take time to assess and approve. These
acts are in place to protect persons who have disabilities. If a student provides the
required documentation, the school will assess the necessary disability services, and the
accommodations that it may provide to the student. The process of accommodation

7. 5
should be examined not just by the student identified as needing the accommodations, but
the faculty members who will be working with students with disabilities. According to
Luna (2002), “Educators can learn from the school experiences of nonmainstream
learners at an Ivy League university” (para. 4). Luna recognized that school experiences
and student and faculty perceptions may influence students with disabilities ability to be
successful college students. When students become involved in deciding what
accommodations will help them succeed, they may work directly with the school and
faculty, to meet their individual needs. Just as a person that has vision impairment may
need a Seeing Eye dog, accommodations may further help students with disabilities
taking online courses. Adaptive software may assist a student with a visual impairment.
Extended time may also be offered to students that may require additional time to
complete a test.
Students with disabilities may not have the necessary skills needed to perform
well with the online platform. Faculty may not have the training or information needed
to provide students with their specific needs in the online environment. Although some
students may have received adequate support while attending secondary schools, they
may have difficulty adapting to the challenges that are encountered taking online courses.
Most self-directed learning requires the student to have the ability to learn independently.
Deshler (2006) concluded even when students have quality interventions in their youth;
the need for intervention may be required into adulthood.
In 2009, Educational Management Corporation (EDMC) announced that it
currently has 25,000 students enrolled in one of its online institutions (EDMC, 2009).
With plans to continue to increase enrollment, it is imperative that the potential barriers

8. 6
that online learners may experience is analyzed. According to the National Center of
Education Statistics, (NCES) distance-education may allow students to overcome the
barriers, which distance learners may experience when balancing school and work
schedules. Among these students that participated in distance education, “60 percent
participated via the internet” (NCES, 2002, para. 3). The convenience that online
education offers makes online education attractive to a variety of adult learners, including
those students with disabilities.
Self-directed learning necessitates a certain amount of motivation and inner-
discipline. If a student is not capable of engaging in this type of learning environment,
the student’s success may be affected. While enrollment for many online postsecondary
institutions is increasing, student success rates continue to be a major concern for
educational leaders. Postsecondary education has an obligation to provide services to
students with disabilities, since student success rates are often dependent on students
receiving specific accommodations. It is important leaders work with faculty and staff to
evaluate the processes in place, since the American with Disabilities Act (ADA) Section
504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 requires support services for disabled students.
The qualitative method will allow the researcher to explore student responses to the
various aspects of their needs, to further evaluate if accommodations and other support
systems, increase student success with online courses. The electronic survey method will
allow participating faculty to remain anonymous with their responses.
The aspects of andragogy, as it relates to the best practices for adult learning, will
be included in this study. The social, emotional, and developmental variables that affect
students with disabilities will be evaluated to identify potential areas of concern.

9. 7
Online education is increasing in popularity. Thus it is imperative that services to
students with disabilities are made available and that the assessment of accommodations
for students with disabilities is explored. Identifying any variables that may influence
their ability to complete successfully postsecondary education is required.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of this study is to assess the accommodations for provided by
Disability Services by faculty as it relates to students enrolled in online classes at Argosy
University. The data gathered from this study will aid in the evaluation of the types of
disabilities students have reported, the accommodations provided, and recommendations
made based on the responses from faculty.
Research Questions
The following questions will identify contributing factors that may enhance or
hinder a student with disabilities success with taking online courses at Argosy University.
1. What are the instructors’perceptions of accommodations needed by students with
disabilities who attend online programs?
2. How does the accommodation received by the student with disabilities affect his
or her academic achievement?
3. What faculty training opportunities do faculty perceive as essential to the success
of students with disabilities?
Limitations and Delimitations
The participants of this study will be limited to those individuals who have taught
or are teaching online courses at Argosy University online, and have agreed to participate
in this study. The scope of the study will be limited to the staff members who may have

10. 8
worked directly with students with disabilities during the time that they attended Argosy
University Online. The site is not randomly selected, and thus the responses and opinions
may not be generalized to the university population. Much of the framework of this
study depends on the participants’ willingness to cooperate, and answer the questions
honestly. Therefore, the data may be used to further interpret the various factors that may
contribute to the success rates of students with disabilities enrolled in Argosy University
and taking online courses. The researcher will conduct a study that will collect and
analyze the data, and establish professional guidelines to avoid bias viewpoints.
Definition of Terms
Following is a list of definitions of terms used in this study that might not be
commonly known or understood.
Andragogy – The term, first introduced by Malcolm Knowles, describes adult learners as
being self-directed, as having a reservoir of experience that becomes a resource for
learning, as being motivated to learn in response to the task of their socials roles, as being
concerned about the immediate application of knowledge, and as preferring to participate
in problem-centered learning activities (Mackeracher, 2004).
Assessment- The assessment of students or academic programs involves a range of
activities from the students’ academic skills, to the monitoring of students progress tied to
the systems that may lead to the initiation of institutional actions, to the assessment of
student learning activities in the classroom. It is used to evaluate various aspects of the
learning standards that are in place, as a means to make conclusions about its
effectiveness (Tinto, 2004).

11. 9
At-risk Student- This is a student who is learning disabled, underprepared, or someone
who lacks skills in meeting the academic demands of post-secondary institutions
(DeRoma, Bell, Zaremba, & Abee, 2005).
Online Learning Platform- Also known as e-learning, is online learning covering a
variety of different products which deliver learning, training, or education by electronic
means (Stockley, 2003).
Post-Secondary Education- Study beyond the level of secondary education which
occurs following graduation from high school. Institutions of higher education include
not only colleges and universities but also professional schools in such fields as law,
theology, medicine, business, music, and art. Adult education consists of formal
activities including basic skills training, apprenticeships, work-related courses, personal
interest courses and more (National Center for Education Statistics, 2007).
Students with Disabilities-An impairment that may hinder a person’s ability to learn,
such as being learning disabled, which is defined by researchers as a neurological,
condition that often hinders a person’s learning capacity in one or more academic areas,
in spite of this condition, this person often has an average or higher than average
intelligence. A student may be diagnosed with a learning disability when his
achievement in an academic area is considered lower than expected given his ability to
learn (Logston, 2009).
Student Services- The office of student services defines student services as those
services provided by an educational institution to facilitate learning and successful
transition from school to work (Bernstein, & Cunanan, 2009, p. 1).

12. 10
Student Success Rates- “A metric measurement is often used to determine graduation
rates which is designed to measure how many students are graduating” (American
Association of State Colleges and Universities, 2006, p.1).
Importance of the Study
The importance of improving retention rates, by reviewing practices and policies,
was noted by Trammel (2003) and Tinto (2000). It is in the best interest of colleges and
universities to review and maintain or improve retention rates (Tinto; Trammel, 2000;
2003). Online education is increasing in popularity. Thus it is imperative that services to
students with disabilities are made available and that the assessment of accommodations
for students with disabilities is explored by faculty. Identifying any variables that may
influence their ability to complete successfully postsecondary education is required.
According to Field et al. (2004), the transition from high school, where the student and
his or her teachers develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP) providing various
learning strategies, may assist the student with disabilities changes significantly once they
enter postsecondary institutions. The challenges that are often encountered combined
with the students’ perspectives are often impacted. To further expand on existing
research, the importance of this study is to evaluate if disability services that are currently
provided by Argosy University are partially allowing students with disabilities to
complete their online courses successfully, and to assess if there are recommendations
that may help postsecondary online institutions enhance students with disabilities success
rates.

13. 11
CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
Introduction
Price and Shaw (2000) recognized that learning disabilities do not disappear with
adulthood, and that because of the ramifications of learning disabilities are permanent;
individuals with disabilities require specialized support and services throughout their
education and lives (Price & Shaw, 2000). Malcom Knowles was the pioneer of adult
learning in the United States. He established the foundation for adult educators that are
now used as the instructional model in many settings. He concluded adults students have
“traditionally been taught within a pedagogical paradigm (teacher-centered), was the
foundation for all learning in elementary and secondary school systems throughout the
United States” (as cited in Price & Shaw, 2000, p.16). While this may have been
advantageous for children, this does not work for adults. Malcolm Knowles’ terms
“andragogy” as an educational model used to address the needs and strengths of adult
students, concluded that adult learners had distinctive learning characteristics. Adults
tend to be self-directed learners; they bring a rich base of experience should be addressed;
adults have a “problem-centered” learning orientation; adult learning readiness is
motivated by what they need to know to be responsible citizens, and this is internal or
intrinsically based, in comparison to the motivation of children which is due to external
or extrinsic factors (Knowles, 1970). Two additional concepts were relevant to Knowles’
developmental model, and included the concepts of control and discovery. He
recognized most college classes were being taught with a pedagogical, teacher-centered
approach but adults required a more flexible, participative experience (Knowles, 1970).
Lastly, if andragogy is to be meaningful it must be “practical and beneficial to the lives of

14. 12
adults with learning disabilities in real ways” (Price & Shaw, 2000, p. 17). Educational
Management Corporation (EDMC) runs several online programs that cater to the needs of
adult learners.
Valentino (2006) explored the importance of “The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act” as it related to “appropriate education” (p. 1). In the
landmark decision of Brown v. Board of Education, the United States Supreme Court
determined all children must be afforded an equal educational opportunity (p. 2). The
Individuals with Disabilities Education Act sought to ensure all students with disabilities
would be legally entitled to an education. As a result, a personalized education program
based on the needs of the child was implemented. The Individuals with Disabilities
Education Improvement Act (IDEA) of 2004 upon its Reauthorization, effective July 1,
2005 (Valentino, 2006, p.7) aligned to evaluate its achievement standards with a
description of benchmarks. Requiring personnel to be “highly qualified” abide by the
Commission on Excellence in Special Education to improve special education services
was included (Valentino, 2006). Bricout (2001) concluded that the Rehabilitation Act
requires appropriate academic accommodations that are “adaptations to the style or mode
of instruction, course content, or assignment deadlines will permit a student with a
disability the same access to educational activities” (p. 2). He suggested that the online
medium may not be “conducive to building trust” (p. 2), and in some instances could
hamper the development of building a trusting learning environment. It is therefore
recommended that some type of face-to-face student and faculty exchange and students’
requests for online accommodations be made in person, and that social work educators
become familiar with some of the assistive technologies (Bricout, 2001).

15. 13
DeRoma, Bell, Zaremba and Abee (2005) recognized the growing need to provide
better services for students that are documented with disabilities and are at-risk. In 2003-
2004 The National Center of Education Statistics reported 11% of undergraduates as
having a disability (NCES, 2006). As enrollment in postsecondary education increases,
the need to provide services to students that have academic difficulties should also
continue. Ferguson (2000) and Ferez (1998) defined the at-risk student as someone who
is learning disabled or underprepared, or someone who lacks skills in meeting the
academic demands of post-secondary institutions (DeRoma, et al, 2005). Parry (2009)
stated, “More than 25 percent of all students may have taken at least one online course
this year” (para.1). In order to identify fully any barriers that students with disabilities
may experience taking online courses, it is important to review previous studies.
Banerjee (2002) recognized the popularity of distance education, which started in the
“proliferation of personal computers into homes and schools in the 1970s” (p. 1). Many
institutions indicated that distance education courses allowed access to education to
individuals in remote areas. How to determine how to provide accommodation for
students with disabilities for distance education was explored in this study.
Cook and Gladhart (2002) suggested that students with learning disabilities would
benefit from the following accommodations and strategies: (a) The ability of course
content is made available on a CD, diskette, videotape or audiotape; (b) Allowing
adjustments to various modes of communication such as email or chat rooms should be
done; (c) Available assistance with on-site technical support for trouble shooting should
be accessible; (d) Communicate with faculty via the telephone rather than through
synchronous electronic office hours is suggested; (e) Offering pre-course training on how

16. 14
to use the training medium and equipment is recommended; (f) Reducing stress by not
having a camera too close to the face or having to operate difficult equipment is helpful
(Cook & Gladhart, 2002).
The need to assess accommodations with postsecondary online education is in
conjunction with the percentage of disabled students that will need accommodations to
increase their ability to graduate. Horn and Chen (1998) concluded that the demands of
the global economy establish the necessity for adults to continue their educations.
Logston (2009) established a learning disability as having impairment that hinders a
person’s ability to learn. This is defined by a “neurological, condition that prevents a
person from learning or severely impairs the learning process in one or more academic
areas despite having average or higher than average intelligence” (p. 1). The need to
accommodate students attending online post-secondary institutions is supported in the
American with Disabilities Act (ADA) Section 504 of the Rehabilitations Act of 1973
and is posted along with a contact person for disability services on their e-college website
(Argosy, 2009). Bernstein and Cunanan (2009) defined student services as those
“services provided by an educational institution to facilitate learning and successful
transition from school to work” (p. 1). Deshler (2006) concluded that even when students
have quality interventions in their youth, the need for intervention for students with
learning disabilities is great into adulthood.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), (NCES) there
are certain characteristics that designate a nontraditional student. Typically, they delay
enrollment to postsecondary education for at least a year after graduating from high
school. They often attend part-time for at least part of the academic year while working

17. 15
full time once enrolled. They are financially independent and are often a single parent.
They do not have a high school diploma (NCES, 2002).
Heiman and Prescel (2003) reported that students attending higher education have
more difficulties in humanities, social sciences, and foreign language. They often
experienced higher levels of stress and felt helpless during examinations.
Madaus and Shaw (2004) indicated that secondary schools and postsecondary
institutions differ in their obligations to students with disabilities under the regulations of
Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973. When a student is preparing to transition
to college, and the student and his or her family have asked if his or her 504 plan will
carry over to the college level, issues may surface. Even though colleges and universities
are covered under Section 504, the answer is that ”the student may not be eligible” to
receive specific disability services because the 504 plan regulations change in college
settings. The key component to the 504 plan is civil rights law, which prohibits
discrimination based on any type of disability (Madaus & Shaw, 2004).
Regulations indicate that services should afford handicapped individuals the equal
opportunity to gain and reach the same level of achievement as non handicapped persons
(Madaus & Shaw, 2004 [section]104.31). Meeting eligibility requirements is often a
difficult process, and even if students are admitted, they may be dismissed by the
institution if they do not meet the grade point average set by the institution. Section 504
and the Americans with Disabilities Act (2004) encouraged postsecondary institutions to
provide support and accommodations for students with disabilities. Civil rights laws
require that students identify having a disability to faculty within the first week of class,
provide documentation to campus disability professionals that verify eligibility for

18. 16
accommodations, request specific accommodations based on the disability, and wait for
adjustments to be implemented through the faculty and disability services (Madaus &
Shaw, 2004).
Palmer and Roessler (2000) claimed, “Institutional resistance is a critical
environmental condition making it difficult for students with disabilities to request
accommodations” (p. 1). Many higher institutions continue to struggle with
implementing policies for providing “reasonable accommodations” (p. 1). Few training
programs are available making it difficult for students to dispute or for the administration
itself to follow clear procedures. Their research explored the intervention for self-
advocacy and negotiation to build skills that students need to implement their rights to
accommodation. Fifty students completed this training. The students were qualified for
academic accommodations. The results from this study indicated students with
disabilities improved their knowledge of accommodation rights and responsibilities
because of the intervention training (Palmer & Roesller, 2000).
A study conducted in Canada distinguished a correlation between the amounts of
Disability Services provided and course completion. According to Moisey (2004),
distance education has distinct advantages that may not be present at conventional
universities. Only 3% of students with disabilities attending distance education were
receiving services for their disabilities (Moisey, 2004).
According to Moisey’s (2004) findings, services received by students with
disabilities at Athabasca University from 1998-2001, showed a correlation to students
“who received more services had more success in terms of course completions” (Moisey,
2004, p. 62). Assistive technology is effective for students with learning disabilities, as

19. 17
does assistance provided by a study strategist or tutor- while extended course contract
time alone does not appear to be more helpful (Moisey, 2004). The results indicated that
offering a variety of support services was related to student success. The group which
had the lowest completions rates were students with psychological disabilities who also
received the fewest services (Moisey, 2004). The highest completions rates were those
students with learning disabilities, hearing loss or visual disabilities received more types
of assistance. Moisey (2004) concluded that further study is required to examine the
relationship between the type of disabilities and support services that were provided in
order to determine the optimal support services for students with disabilities (Moisey,
2004).
Heiman and Precel (2003) described “academic barriers that face college students
with disabilities” (p. 248). Studies of college students with learning disabilities (LD)
revealed that they had trouble handling academic demands, adjusting to change, and
adapting to college life. In spite of some of the academic and adaptive challenges some
of the students with disabilities encountered, no notable differences were observed in
grade point average (GPA) between students with and without learning disabilities
(Heiman & Precel, 2003). It is concluded there is a connection between the students
effort to overcome any of their learning deficits combined with the support that students
received to eliminate any gaps (Heiman & Precel, 2003).
Similar to Heimam and Precel’s study, Reed, Lewis and Lund-Lucas (2006)
focused on services provided to students with learning disabilities attending two Ontario
Universities. According to The Ontario Human Rights Commission (2005), the largest
group of students with disabilities accessing higher education is those students with

20. 18
learning disabilities (Reed, et al, 2006). Full access to post-secondary education requires
that institutions adequately provide access to accommodations for students with
disabilities in order to reduce barriers to access by educating faculty and staff (Reed et
al., 2006). The objective of the study was to examine access issues for student with
learning disabilities who were entering post-secondary education. Data was divided into
three access areas: admissions, accommodations and post-secondary experiences.
“Eighty-five percent of parents surveyed had helped their child find services for their
learning disabilities at their post-secondary institution” (Reed, et al., 2006, p. 3). Parent
feedback indicated that communications from the university programs could be
improved. Information describing available accommodations could be made available to
families. While the majority of students felt prepared for their education, some students
commented on the issues experienced during their first term; they were unprepared for
the workload, and had difficulties adapting to the post-secondary life-style (Reed et al.,
2006).
Reed et al. (2006) noted difficulty in accessing appropriate accommodations,
since half of the students in this study arrived at the postsecondary institution without an
up-to-date assessment. Students complained that the assessment “was slow” due to the
time that it took to get the necessary accommodations needed (p. 6). Students reported
that adaptive technologies were beneficial “yet at times difficult to learn” (p. 6). Reed et
al. (2006), concluded that students must become their own advocates, and that parents
may assist them with this process. In order to address systemic and communication
barriers, practices of institutional outreach where stakeholders, parents, students,

21. 19
secondary teachers, and guidance counselors are given information about postsecondary
education should be utilized (Reed et al., 2006).
The majority of the studies identify the need to provide access to services to
students with disabilities, the key components to a student’s success often relies on the
attitudes that the student and the faculty may possess regarding the specific needs of the
student. The services provided in secondary schools are often easier to access; and are in
compliance with the laws that protect students with disabilities. In contrast, students
attending postsecondary institutions may have a harder time adapting and finding the
services that they require. Field, Sarver, and Shaw (2004) concluded that the significance
of self-determination for students with disabilities should play a critical role in helping
them manage their postsecondary educations. The relationship between self-
determination and being engaged in goal-directed, self-regulated behavior benefits
students by taking ownership of their educational goals. When actively engaged in this
process, adults may effectively adapt to their strengths and weaknesses to find ways to
adjust his or her attitudes and needs to become successful in our society (Field, et al.,
2004).
According to Field et al. (2004), the transition from high school, where the
student and his or her teachers develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP)
providing various learning strategies, may assist the student with disabilities changes
significantly once they enter postsecondary institutions. The challenges that are often
encountered combined with the students’ perspectives are often impacted. An
environmental factor where disability awareness is part of the infrastructure is needed.
The contribution of social support systems external to the institution is important. Field

22. 20
et al. (2004) concluded that markers for academic success included personality indicators
which focused on autonomy, goal awareness, and self-determination. Also relevant to
the findings were environmental factors, which included access to information, social
support systems and access to faculty (Field et, al., 2004).
Authors of another study examined the climate for students with disabilities in
higher education. According to Beilke and Yssel (2002), an increasing number of
students with disabilities are pursuing higher education. Although postsecondary
institutions may be willing to make physical accommodations for students, this may not
mean that faculty will have positive attitudes about students with disabilities. Beilke and
Yssel (as cited in Greenbaum, Graham & Scales, 1995) concluded that one of the
implications revealed was that colleges and universities are reasonably accommodating
when it comes to ensuring the physical accessibility of buildings. “However evidence
was that faculty are uninformed about the nature of the disability, oblivious to the needs
of students with disabilities, or generally is lacking in terms of understanding what it
means to have a disability” (p. 1).
Johnson (2006) recognized the importance of the attitude that the student with
disabilities may have, in relations to various barriers that they experience in
postsecondary education. She noted the impact that negative attitudes may increase
frustration levels for those students that have undetectable disabilities, such as learning
disabilities, certain mobility disabilities, auditory disabilities, and psychiatric disabilities.
Student-Teacher Relations
Similar to Beilke and Yssel’s findings, Johnson (2006) recognized the importance
of the role of faculty. The questions of what is a reasonable accommodation, how faculty

23. 21
may effectively teach students with disabilities, or if the student really needs the
accommodation at all can create negativity towards these students (Johnson, 2006.)
Rosenthal, et al., (2000) examined the characteristics of positive and negative
one-to-one student-faculty interactions in a sample of college students with disabilities
and without. The study concluded that there were similar responses to the questions
asked with one significant difference, that students with disabilities found interactions
with faculty more positive than those students that did not have disabilities. Themes that
characterized positive interactions were similar; however, students with disabilities
reported more themes where faculty were “unaccommodating or sarcastic in their one-to-
one interactions” (p. 1). The authors of the study reinforced the concept that instructors
might benefit from improving their caring and listening skills with all students no matter
what initiates the interaction. According to Murray, Wren and Keys (2008), the
exploration of faculty perceptions of their attitudes, knowledge, beliefs, and practices
related to educating students with learning disabilities in a large private urban university
were reviewed. The findings indicated that the faculty in this sample had positive
perceptions in terms of knowledge of Learning Disabilities, (LD), their performance
expectations for students with LD, their willingness to personally invest in supporting
students with LD, and their willingness to provide accommodations. Faculty was also
more willing to provide minor, rather than major accommodations, since major
accommodations could potentially alter academic requirements. Faculty agreed that
when it came to having sufficient knowledge to make appropriate teaching and exam
accommodations, they would benefit from having additional information (Murray et al.,
2008).

24. 22
Faculty Training and Disability Friendly
Edwards, Carr, and Siegel (2006), conducted a study to examine the approaches
needed to meet academic needs of diverse learners. The study evaluated instructional
practices, attitudes, and their preparation to use differentiated practices in the classroom.
Teacher candidates were used in a pilot study enrolled at Southeastern Louisiana
University. A workshop was conducted, and questionnaires were used to address specific
training by the university in diversity instruction and accommodations. Results indicated
the need to offer professional workshops to improve teacher training in approaches to
meet the needs of diverse learners was indicated (Edwards et al., 2006).
Ross’ ranking schools that were “disability friendly”, published in New Mobility
Magazine” (1998), concluded that 34 schools responded, and 10 were found to stand out
from the rest based on a combination of their unique opportunities to make their school
disability friendly. These schools offered a wide selection of support services, such as
accessible classrooms, adaptive equipments, adaptive programs, liaison with faulty and
vocational rehabilitation offices and more. In order to address the climate for students
with disabilities attending Virginia Commonwealth University, a study was completed in
an effort to evaluate the Office for Services for Students with Disabilities (OSSD). The
focus on the administrators concern was based on the adequacy of the scope of services
provided; the effectiveness with which services are delivered, having the appropriate
budgets and staffing and the disability services that were provided (Wilson, et al., 2000).
The results of the student survey concluded that students strongly believe that the
instructional faculty can impact their academic success. Many students perceived the
faculty as generally lacking sensitivity. Too much emphasis is placed on the removal of

25. 23
architectural barriers without adequate consideration of the “service-oriented” barriers,
which are most critical to student success. Coordination of services, on-and off-campus
is crucial to students as they attempt to manage their disabilities. Students are eager to
participate in all phases of service planning and policy making in an effort to improve
services for students with disabilities (Wilson, et al., 2000). In addition, the survey
results showed that students perceived that there was a lack of qualified staff dedicated to
the provision of services, the facilities that the services were provided were inadequate
and very few, if any long-term support programs were in place that address the needs of
students with disabilities. In contrast, faculty felt in most cases, the university was
addressing students’ needs, and putting forth maximal effort to create a supportive
campus. The concern with lack of staff, able to assist in the services, has impacted the
efficiency and effectiveness with which services were delivered. The lack of
administrative staff identified specifically to manage and direct a coordinated, university-
wide effort resulted in a “haphazard system”. Administrators and faculty felt somewhat
unsupported in terms of the provision of relevant training, information, and resources
necessary to facilitate successful interaction with students with disabilities. Students
were dissatisfied with the degree to which faculty and administrators were
knowledgeable and aware of their disability-specific needs. Students were generally
satisfied with the willingness of the office of support services to provide support but that
the services provided was inadequate and uncoordinated. The lack of consideration of
special needs by Student Activities personnel directly impacted the capability of student
with disabilities to adequately participate in campus life (Wilson et al., 2000). With

26. 24
caseloads increasing, it is imperative that more training and evaluation is completed, to
provide quality services to students with disabilities.
Online Learning
Tamashiro (2003) examined the pros and cons of online learning, and conflicting
perceptions among teacher education students at Webster’s University School of
Education (Tamashiro, 2003). Flexibility of time was an advantage to online learning
and “lack of face-to-face, personal, or social contact with instructor or students” was the
most frequently nominated disadvantage (p. 2).
Yukselturk and Bulut (2007) analyzed factors that affect student success in an
online computer programming course. The study examined relationships among selected
variables such as age, gender, learning styles, motivational beliefs, and self-regulated
learning components. It also examined course instructors’ views about the factors that
contribute to students’ success in the online course. According to their research, it is
important online education continue to strive for quality when designing, developing, and
delivering online education. One of the most conclusive findings in this study involved
issues of motivation. The interview results indicated that unsuccessful students were
often faced with adaptation and motivational problems. Similar to Yukselturk and Bulut
(2007), Mandernach, Donnelli and Dailey-Hebert, (2006) examined student retention
variables in the online class environment. Research on the topic of student success in the
online learning environment typically reviews measurable student characteristics,
abilities, or strategies that predict the completion of an online course. Many studies rely
on internal attributes such as personality characteristics, learning styles, (and more) as it
correlates with students ability to succeed. The purpose of the study was to examine

27. 25
factors identified by experienced instructors teaching online courses that show factors
that lead to success, for students enrolled in online courses. The results suggested that
timely active involvements, and effective time management, are contributing factors to
student success. Another contributing factor is personal motivation, in that the student
should be committed to a degree program, and possesses a personal interest in the class.
Technology is a key factor for success. The student should be comfortable with basic
technological skills. Areas of competence were also explored. Reading comprehension,
writing and communication skills, awareness of online expectations, environment, and
workload, and organizational skills were reported as necessary.
Askov and Simpson (2001) evaluated the program-based initiative that introduced
a group of adult students to masters-level study in a computer-mediated online evaluative
comments, and time tracking charts. By using surveys, evaluative comments and time
tracking charts, the results indicated a collaborative learning environment was created.
The findings support appropriate online learning environments could be developed for
distance adult students. Much of the research supports that adults can do well with online
courses if they have the tools and motivation to complete successfully a course; more
studies may probe some of the challenges that online education has.
Assistive Technology
Day and Edwards (1996) noted that assistive technology for postsecondary
students with disabilities often enhances learning. Some of the noted difficulties
experienced by postsecondary students with learning disabilities include “reading,
organization, memory, listening, math and written language” (p. 2). Technologies, such
as word processors with spell checking, proofreading, abbreviation expanders, speech-

28. 26
control tape recorders, optical character recognitions systems, listening aids, speech-
synthesis systems, speech-recognition systems, data managers, and talking calculators are
just some examples. Assistive technology is clearly a tool that makes the learning
environment more accessible, and enables individuals with disabilities to compensate for
deficits. Students who were identified as having a specific disability at the secondary
level, should come into the postsecondary setting aware of the strategies and
accommodations. Transition plans should also be done in the secondary level to assist
students. Postsecondary service providers should be familiar with the issues that students
with disabilities may have. It is acknowledged by those that specialize in the field of
disabilities that often disabilities continue throughout the lifespan, and that assistive
technology is often still needed to increase student success rates. Trammell (2003)
concluded that making better use of accommodations contributed to students with
disabilities success.
Cook and Glahart (2002) indicated that many of the same software and hardware
solutions used by other individuals with disabilities can be useful for students with
disabilities. Some of the software that is used for speech output, which was designed to
read text on the computer screen include: eReader, JAWS, Easy Access, and Write
Outloud. Voice recognition software that translates voice into text include: Dragon
Dictate, Simply Speaking, and Via Voice. Graphic organizing software, used to show
concepts graphically include: Inspiration and SmartDraw. There are also screen
magnifiers, self-voicing devices, compact disks with electronic text for screen readers in
this category. In the hardware division are: Portable note-takers for video conferencing,
reading assignments, or research: VoiceNote, AlphaSmart portable computer companion,

29. 27
HandSpring with Portable keyboard or Total Recall voice recorder as well as
Microphones for voice input and scanner for text in- put. Universities and colleges are
working to make library resources and database available to online students as well.
Cook and Glahart (2002) also include some common accommodations made by
software developers: (1) No blinking or flashing items that might distract students
with learning disabilities; (2) Forms that screen reading software can read; (3)
Little or no use of special plug-ins applications that require users to leave the Web
page and obtain software before reviewing or listening to media; (4) Consistent
and easy to use navigation links; (5) Warning of timed responses so that students
are warned if they are going to be disconnected on an exam; (6) Alternative labels
for graphic elements for speech output programs (p. 7)
Most online instructors or course builders have limited understanding of how to
accommodate online material for students with learning disabilities. Poorly designed
sites may require a great deal of persistence, and physical and mental effort to navigate.
Cook and Glahart (2002) identified some problems and solutions that may help. A noted
problem is using color to emphasize points and to add motivation. As a solution, it is
suggested that colors and fonts are kept simple to avoid distracting users. Dark
backgrounds and low contrast font color also cause problems. A solution would be to use
only high contrast background and text to keep background graphics simple. Using
frames to organize Web pages cause problems. A solution would be to use tables instead
so screen readers can read them from left to right. Avoiding long text documents in small
print is advised. Using graphic organizers to guide users through the text is
recommended. Dividing long documents into hyperlinked pages, and providing a table of
contents or site map to show how information is organized is advised. Avoid using
complex tables and graphs, and textual description is indicated. Avoid crowded
hyperlinks, and instead use graphic links to Web sites where software can be
downloaded. Do not use animation and flashing graphics. Do not have changing

30. 28
navigations bars or buttons from page to page. Avoid graphic dense pages and provide a
link to text versions is recommended (Cook & Glahart, 2002).
McGuire, Scott, and Shaw (2003) concurred that traditionally, the primary means
to ensure “equal access to instruction for college students with disabilities has been to
provide modifications and accommodation mandated by federal law” (Americans with
Disabilities Act, 1990; Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act, 1973) (p. 1). While these
are often necessary, Silver, Bourker, and Sterhorn (1998) introduced the notion of
Universal Design (UD) as a frontier for allowing instruction to be available. Originally
founded in the fields of architecture, interior, landscape and product design, UD in the
context of instruction makes accessibility issues a proactive and main focus of instruction
planning (Silver et al., 1998). McGuire et al. (2003) were involved in implementing a
plan that The University of Connecticut’s Demonstration Project was developed. It
assured equal access for students with learning disabilities by implementing a universal
design. Observations emerging from this project regarding the challenges and
opportunities for faculty development, and instruction for college students with
disabilities, and the use of universal design, were shared. Identifying barriers and bridges
to student success, from a student perspective, were reviewed. Listening to experts in
college teaching was also explored. Creating the framework for Universal Design
Instruction was drafted. The proposed principles were reviewed and refined. Nine
principles of universal design resulted. Results from the perceptions of students
regarding positive factors were all centered upon elements incorporated in the classroom
environments by individual instructors. Students affirmed that a good college course was
characterized by instructors were “approachable and available, clear in content and

31. 29
delivery, and course expectations, and engaging and challenging” (Madaus, et al. 2002).
The attributes of effective instruction as perceived by outstanding college faculty
concluded similar findings to those of the students responses and included: “(a) setting
clear expectations and demands; (b) being approachable and available to students; (c)
actively engaging students; and (d) setting high expectations” (p. 6).
A recent breakthrough in virtual worlds research has explored the benefits that
technology has to offer to individuals with disabilities. A composite learning model for
virtual world residents with disabilities was designed to address the barriers that many
adults with disabilities may experience when they try to participate in virtual learning
environments. The major challenge addressed centered their design largely on Malcolm
Knowles’ concepts of adult learning. The “Virtual Ability Island” focused their virtual
design for those individuals that have sensory, communicative, cognitive, or motor
issues, so that they may enter and participate in virtual worlds and learn new skills
(Zielke, Roome and Krueger, 2009). This highly innovative 3-D virtual world has
opened many doors for people with disabilities. Virtual Ability Island is managed by
Virtual Ability, Inc., a non-profit corporation based in Colorado. It was designed to
enable people with a variety of disabilities to enter into virtual worlds. Its supportive
environment is based on Malcom Knowles’ learning theory and offers strategies for
adults with disabilities to learn a variety of technical and social skills in this virtual world
(Zielke, Roome & Krueger, 2009).

32. 30
Internet-Based Accommodations
Bricout (2002) recognized that Internet-based accommodations are improving due
in part because of public and private initiatives announced by the Clinton administration.
To assist with these initiatives the National Institute of Disability and Rehabilitation
“Research has allocated 2.5 million dollars” (p. 4). While efforts are being done to assist
Internet-based accommodations for students with disabilities, efforts are not being fully
implemented. The challenges vary based on the student’s need. Computer-mediated
education involves both pitfalls and benefits for students with disabilities. The key areas
that could potentially cause concern involve student privacy; clearly a student that has
messaged an instructor about his or her disability does not want this information to be
shared. While the Internet has the potential for threatening the privacy rights of students
with disabilities, it may also have the potential for protecting student privacy. Online
etiquette must take into account the unique challenges facing individuals with disabilities.
If the student with a disability prefers to disclose their or her disability, or to discuss
some aspect of his or her experience without using the cloak of anonymity, that
preference should be honored. The reverse also holds true. The educator has the
responsibility to uphold the rights of students with disabilities. Fairness is a paramount
value. It is essential that the faculty member consider the unique needs of his or her
students with disabilities.
Factors that Determine Accommodations
Schmitz (2007) concluded that while courts allow academic institutions to what
policies they may make to their programs and what could alter the key components
required, the courts do expect schools to deliberate and consider alternative methods to

33. 31
the program requirements when considering students with disabilities. This is why it is
essential faculty clearly articulate the goals and objectives of each of their courses.
According to the findings, while a student with a learning disability may attend law
school, they may experience some discrepancy between his or her intellectual ability and
actual performance in various aspects of their learning. This may include oral
expression, listening comprehension, written expression, basic reading skill, reading
comprehension, mathematics comprehension, as just some potential areas. An example
of how this may work is to examine a student who has dyslexia. He or she may have
high overall intelligence, but may be considerably limited to his ability to input
information. While this may present some difficulties for the student, a lawyer who
learned he was dyslexic after failing the bar examination, once accommodated, passed the
bar and earned a master’s in law degree. Schmitz (2007) concluded that law schools
must meet the challenges of today in addressing the issues related to students with
disabilities. They will benefit from reflection on their goals, objectives, teaching, and
assessment methods. Trammel (2003), concluded that it is in the best interest of colleges
and universities to review how to maintain or improve retention rates. Studies indicated
students with disabilities reported their disability often negatively affects them. Making
better use of accommodations contributed to higher success rates; few institutions closely
track the effectiveness of accommodations. Previous studies were focused on
interventions in elementary and secondary schools and not postsecondary institutions
(Trammel, 2006).
Acosta (n.d.) noted effective practices for accommodating students with
disabilities in post-secondary education programs as having a common theme of the

34. 32
importance of self-advocacy and self-determinations skills for students with disabilities.
The research recognized the interrelationship between the individual with disabilities’
and supports, services, funding and policy. Research indicated that the support services
take a holistic view of individuals with disabilities (Acosta, n.d.)
Learning Theories
Yetter, Gutkin, Saunders, and Galloway(2006), The cognitive elaboration view,
which involved explaining material to a peer is important for helping student remember
new information. This is often facilitated through activities that involve think aloud,
correcting peers’ errors, providing details explanations, or using alternative forms, such
as diagrams or drawings.
Malcom Knowles and disability-oriented educators, have emphasized the value of
specialized education support, and that adults with learning disabilities require assistance
that is designed to build on their strengths and compensate for their weaker areas (Price
& Shaw, 2000). Literature has stressed the importance of teaching various survival skills,
coping techniques, and learning strategies. Problem-centered learning, which was
advocated by Knowles, allows a deeper recognition of one’s strengths and weaknesses.
Having established set goals, will further assist students with disabilities that want to
pursuit and complete college. Knowles emphasized that “adults learned best when they
first focused their attention on solving genuine, personal problems that they encountered”
on a daily basis (Price & Shaw, 2000, p. 18).
In contrast, the constructionist theory, which was first introduced by Dewey,
established that peer interaction among individuals with similar developmental levels is
critical for establishing concept acquisition and complex reasoning(Yetter et al.,2006) A

35. 33
third theory, which is explained by Bandura’s social interaction perspective, recognized
the advantage of peer collaboration on academic achievement as a function of social
interactions. While studies on collaborative learning with postsecondary students have
demonstrated its effectiveness for increasing academic skills, peer support has not
“consistently been shown to be more effective than individual study” (Yetter et al., 2006).
This study indicated the ability to solve well-structured, complex problems is necessary
for college students. While collaborative teaching interventions are reported to be at least
equal in effectiveness to individual approaches, this investigation suggested that the
opposite is often true.
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence Theory
Howard Gardner has had a profound impact in education with his multiple
intelligences theory in the United States. While previous studies often concluded that
intelligence was inherited, his theory has the concept that there exists a “multitude of
intelligences” which are “independent of each other” and that each of these intelligences
has its own strengths and weaknesses (Gardner, 1993). Gardner’s seven intelligences are
often used in curriculums all of the states to further adapt lessons to meet the needs of the
categories noted. Gardner’s seven intelligences are: linguistic, logical-mathematical,
musical, bodily-kinesthetic, spatial, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. Gardner’s
suggestions on how to educate our children suggested that in order for one to live well
teachers should address all seven intelligences (Gardner, n.d.). Having the correct
learning environment that supports students to thrive continues to be explored. In
alignment with Gardner’s philosophy, offering disability services to enhance learning

36. 34
opportunities in post-secondary institutions to students with disabilities promotes
academic success.
Graham-Smith and Lafayette (2004) recognized the importance of quality support
for promoting academic success. Their 2002 survey at Baylor University, which was sent
out to students that requested accommodations, focused on what was most beneficial for
students. The results were in favor of a caring staff and a safe environment where the
struggles of college life were addressed.
Estrada, Dupoux, and Wolman (2006) examined the social adjustment and
personal-emotional adjustment that students with and without disabilities have when
related to adjustment to college life. Findings of this investigation concluded that most
factors predictive of college adjustment are established long before the student enters
college, which is why preparing and Individual Transitional Plan (ITP) that provides
students with learning disabilities with a strong preparation for college is recommended.
The most conclusive aspect of this study is that students with disabilities are adjusting as
well as their peers without disabilities (Estrada et al. 2006).
Student Retention and Graduation
Tinto (2004) identified factors that determine if a student graduates from college
or not. In addition to the noted income level variances, are differences in preparation,
social and cultural barriers, and unmet need. His research concluded that “65 percent
earned some type of college degree within six years” from high income
backgrounds(dependent family incomes of $70,000 or greater), in comparison to “50
percent of youth with dependent family incomes of less than $25, 000 earned some type
of college degree within six years” (Tinto, 2004, p. 6). The findings suggested that youth

37. 35
from low-income backgrounds are not as well-prepared academically, and that, even with
sufficient preparation, many students who began in a four-year institution failed to
complete their degree, which may reflect social and cultural barriers for low-income
students (Tinto, 2004). According to Tinto (2004), an extensive span of collective
research over 25 years, suggested that there are specific actions that may enhance
retention and graduation. Providing students with clear guidelines, effective advising
which addresses the needs of many students, and the large numbers of first-generation
students, who typically do not have the same knowledge of how to successfully “navigate
postsecondary education,” is needed (Tinto, 2004, p. 8). Providing academic, social, and
personal support that empowers students with everyday learning needs is critical.
Involving students with other students, faculty and staff, noting attention to those
activities that are directed toward student learning, will increase graduation rates (Tinto,
2004). Similar to Tinto’s findings, addressing low-income students and retention rates is
evidence that not providing adequate support for students with disabilities increases the
likelihood that they may not be able to handle the stresses that they may encounter while
attending college. High dropout rates for students with learning disabilities require
solutions that recognize personal and other barriers have the potential to enhance learning
and cognitive skills. This combined with knowing the expectations, combining personal
experiences, reflection which fosters knowledge, and having personal goals, may assist
students with their learning needs (Price & Shaw, 2000).

38. 36
Neurological Factors and Rehabilitation
According to Rubin, (2002) there are two areas of rehabilitation; those that
address independent living skills and vocational training (Rubin, 2002). A rehabilitation
issue as it relates to students with disabilities often plays a significant role. Essentially
the purpose of rehabilitation is to address the needs of the individual to allow them to live
a productive life. The human brain is complex. In order to address the needs of
individuals with disabilities, it is essential to understand the significance of how the brain
functions, its neurological controls, its relationship to learning and rehabilitation.
Diamond, Scheibel and Elson (1985) concluded that “The human brain is the most
complex mass of protoplasm on earth-perhaps even in our galaxy” (p.1). The brain has a
right and left cerebral hemisphere. This hemisphere’s are subdivided into lobes which
has its own unique functional capacity. The frontal lobes may be identified with the
planning of the future. The temporal lobes are often appreciated by musical masters.
The occipital lobes are responsible for visual capacities necessary to construct
architectural monuments. The parietal lobes control logic. The frontal lobe is about one
third of the hemispheric surface. It is concerned the planning ahead, prediction, and
programming for individual’s needs. The lower portion of the frontal lobe, which is
primarily on the left side, is specialized for articulation of speech. A thin strip of the
frontal lobe just in front of the central sulcus (morot area) controls discreet movements of
the body. Injury to this may cause paralysis of the opposite side of the body. Below the
lateral fissure is the temporal lobe. This controls ones sense of hearing. Damage to this
part of the brain results in impaired hearing or deafness. The inner surface of the
temporal lobe plays a role in memory processing. The remaining temporal lobe may be

39. 37
involved with multiple sensory functions such as auditory, visual, and touch. The part of
the hemisphere behind the central slucus is the parietal lobe. This area controls nerve
impulses related to the sensations of pain. Investigators have demonstrated that structural
abnormalities in the lower regions of the parietal lobe are associated with reading
disabilities. The occipital lobe is behind the parietal and temporal lobes. Visual
information is processed in these lobes. Damage to this area results in partial or complete
blindness. The lowest part of the hindbrain, the medulla oblongata is continuous with the
spinal cord. It controls respiration and heart rate. The pons serves a party of a relay
between the cerebral hemispheres and cerebellum. This deals with muscle coordination
and balance such as writing and walking. The cerebral hemispheres consist of five lobes.
The limbic lobe controls sexual and emotional aspects of behavior. It also processes
memory. Beneath the hemispheres are great masses of fibers which conduct impulses.
Large groups of cells known as basal ganglia are in charge of programming movement.
The uppermost part of the brain stem consists of the thalamus, hypothalamus and pineal
glad. The thalamus is the sensory gateway to the cerebral hemispheres. The
hypothalamus controls the visceral nervous system, which stimulates contractions of
muscle fibers and glandular secretions to the integral organs. It also controls thirst,
appetite, and endocrine glands. The small pineal gland regulates the body rhythms and
sexual activity. The middle portion of the brain stems is the midbrain which control
automatic reflex patterns with is associated with visual and auditory systems. The lower
brain stem is a part of the hindbrain. The spinal cord is a continuous with the medulla at
the base of the skull. It receives sensory information from all parts of the body (less the
face) and sends commands for the motor activity (Diamond, Scheibel and Elson, 1985).

40. 38
While the brain works in conjunction with other organs in the body, its role in
how a person processes information, continues to add important research to how to serve
the needs of those that have disabilities. The correlation between how the brain
functions, or in some cases is impaired, and how it impacts the capacity to do basic
things, like learning to tie shoes, or learning how to read, have been researched for years.
Dyslexia is just one example of a reading impairment. It is defined as
impairments in reading abilities and is often more frequent in males (Habib, 2000). As
noted in Habib’s findings, research has investigated how the dyslexia brain functions o
malfunctions (Habib, 2000)
Various factors may create or add to potential brain development and its function.
Schettler (2003) concluded that learning disabilities, attention deficit hyperactivity
disorder, and other delays is an increasing concern. In the United States nearly 12
million children suffer from deafness, blindness, epilepsy, speech deficits, cerebral palsy,
delays in growth and more (Schetter, 2003). Some of the causes are genetic,
environmental and social factors. Heredity accounts for about 50% of the causes which
means that environmental and social factors make up the remaining 50% variability of
these traits (Schetter, 2003). Brain development begins early. During development the
brain cells divide into a sequence of events controlled by many different brain chemicals.
Neurotransmitters play important roles in conducting brain development. Disruptions
may have long-term effects later in life. By reducing exposure to harmful toxins, such as
mercury, lead, and alcohol, we may help to reduce harmful effects on the brain and its
development (Schetter, 2003). Besides exposure to toxins, brain injury can create many
complications in various parts of the body. Dronkers (1996) examined brain injury which

41. 39
can impair speech. Stroke, head trauma or other neurological diseases can disrupt
speech.
Although there are a wide variety of complications that may result from head
trauma or other brain injuries, scientists are exploring how the brain can adapt.
Neurobiologist, Miguel Nicolelis of Duke’s Center for Neuroengineering,
published some conclusive findings in May 2005. He performed a detailed analysis of
the mass of neural data that emerged from experiments reported in 2003. Researchers
discovered that monkeys were able to control robot arms with only their brain signals
using their brain and visual feedback. The conclusion from this study suggested the brain
has extraordinary abilities to adapt (Duke University Medical Center, 2005). Although it
still debated and unclear if the brain can adapt to compensate for various learning
deficits, students with disabilities still need support services.
Research indicated one of the reasons that students with disabilities often do not
participate in postsecondary education, is the lack of adequate preparation to enroll in
colleges. The Education Commission of States Policy Brief, 2000 noted that even more
relevant is that students with disabilities are taking more remedial courses than any other
student group (Dutta, Kunu & Schiro-Geist, 2009). Literature on practices of services
regarding disability-related support services by postsecondary institutions is limited. The
compounded issue of where to find services once enrolled only contributes to students
with disabilities capacity to be successful students. Making the transition from high
school into college must be further evaluated to meet students with disabilities challenges
(Dutta et al., 2009). There are many agencies that offer various free rehabilitative

42. 40
services to people with disabilities. If postsecondary education offered more assistance
with providing more services to students, this would also be helpful.
Summary
Much of the literature concurred that providing disability services for students
attending postsecondary institutions contributes to student success. The laws support
providing accommodations if the proper paper work is submitted to the school, but the
school may determine what allowances they may accept, and may require students to
maintain a certain academic standard while attending. There is, however, some gap in
the literature as to if postsecondary schools are monitoring the services that they provide
to students, or training faculty sufficiently to meet the various needs of students with
disabilities attending postsecondary institutions. The value of quality support was a
continued theme in the majority of the research findings. Students strongly believe that
faculty can impact student success. Coordination of services is crucial to students as they
attempt to manage their disabilities (Wilson, et. al.2000).
Tamashiro (2003) examined online learning and conflicting perceptions. While
flexibility of time was an advantage of online learning, lack of face-to-face social contact
was a disadvantage. Day and Edwards (1996) recognized assistive technology often
benefits postsecondary students with learning disabilities. Cook and Glahart (2002)
recommended specific guidelines to enhance accommodations made by software
developers. Things to avoid included blinking or flashing items, and alternative labels
for graphic elements for output.
The importance of improving retention rates, by reviewing practices and policies,
was noted by Trammel (2003) and Tinto (2000). It is in the best interest of colleges and

43. 41
universities to review and maintain or improve retention rates (Tinto; Trammel, 2000;
2003).
One of the noted learning tools mentioned in postsecondary online education is
the need to have a collaborative learning environment. However, there is also the need to
offer students the opportunity to solve well-structured complex problems (Yetter, et. al.,
2006).
In addition to a collaborative learning environment, is the ability to provide
quality support that promotes academic success. Graham-Smith and Layfayette (2004)
recognized the importance of offering students with disabilities quality support for
promoting academic success. More research is exploring how the brain may compensate
and adapt to various situations. A study at Duke University supported this finding (Duke
University Medical Center, 2005). Regardless if the brain compensates or not
providing rehabilitative and transitional services to students with disabilities is beneficial
to students (Dutta, Kunu,& Schiro-Geist, 2009).

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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The qualitative method will allow the researcher to explore faculty responses to
the various aspects of students’ needs as a result of their disabilities, to evaluate if
accommodations affect students academic achievement. The electronic survey will
consist of measurable open-ended questions, which will allow the researcher to evaluate
the responses from the participants to establish themes to emerge related to disability
services provided. The specific questions used for the survey were previously used in a
study conducted at Baylor University. Because much of the research has been conducted
at the ground institution, as noted in Beilke and Yssel (2002), Johnson (2006), Field,
Sarver and Shaw (2004), online programs and services are different for students with
disabilities attending online classes, since they do not have the immediate face-to-face
interaction with the online administration and its faculty. Baylor University is a private,
Baptist-affiliated research university located in Waco, Texas. Founded in 1845, Baylor is
the oldest university operating under its original name. The universities established
Christian values are part of its tradition. In the fall of 2006, Baylor had 11,832
undergraduate and 2,209 graduate and professional students in 145 baccalaureate
programs, 76 masters, and 22 doctoral programs (Baylor University, 2010). Hence, the
need to modify some of the questions used from the Baylor University Study was
implemented to address the online environment versus the ground school environment.
Permissions were granted to adapt the questions in the Baylor study by the researchers
(See Appendix C).

45. 43
The survey will be pilot tested to validate it further. According to Radhakrishna,
(2007) questionnaires are widely used in education and evaluation research
(Radhakrishna, 2007). In order to establish validity a panel of experts, will use the
following criteria:
1. Are the survey questions and the initial responses measuring what is intended?
2. Is the survey appropriate for the sample population?
3. Does the modified survey retain the structure of the original questionnaire? The
questions will be reviewed to verify if they are open-ended, and similar to the
ones initially used in the Baylor University study.
4. Was the questionnaire completed and answered sufficiently (Radhakrishna,
2007)?
As noted by Creswell (2009), open-ended survey questions are used in qualitative
research to establish views and opinions from the participants (Creswell, 2009). The
collected coded responses will examine potential challenges that faculty may have
experienced when dealing with students with disabilities while attending Argosy
University. The Disability Services used will be specified. Perceptions that faculty may
have regarding students with disabilities, and how accommodations can partially affect
academic, success, will also be evaluated. The instructor’s experiences and views on
accommodations will be explored to analyze the issue of accommodations, as it relates to
students with disabilities. Collected results will be evaluated to provide
recommendations for the online services. The aspects of andragogy, as it relates to
learning, will be included in this study to determine the best practices when teaching
adult learners. The possible social, emotional, and developmental variables that affect

46. 44
students with disabilities will be evaluated by faculty to identify potential areas of
concern.
The Selection of Subjects
The selection of subjects will be limited to faculty at Argosy University that have
taught or are currently teaching online courses. Once all of the permissions are received,
the instructors that agree to participate in this study will have access the online survey.
The Demographics
Argosy earned its distinction of supporting one of the largest graduate student
communities in the nation. It is regionally accredited by the Higher Learning
Commission, and is a member of the North Central Association (NCA), (Argosy
University, 2010). It launched its online programs in the fall of 2006, and currently has
around 8,000 adult students enrolled. Growing significantly since its start, there are
currently 1,046 sections of classes running for the Spring of 2010. There are 641
instructors; 75.53% of students are female (6585); 21.72% (1894) are male and 2.74%
(239) do not have a gender specified. Only a small percentage of ethnic backgrounds
have been recorded. Out of 8,718 possible students, only 1,596 provided information.
The largest category is White at 740 or 47.37 %; Black or African American, 494, 30.95
% and with unknown listed at the third highest category at: 241, 15.10 %; Hispanic at 79;
4.95 %; Asian at 35 or 2.19 %; and American Indian or Alaska Native 5; .31 % (Collins,
2010). The average age of students enrolled is 38.39 with 4,233 students attending a
Bachelors programs, and 7,942 enrolled in a Masters or Doctoral program (Collins,
2010).

47. 45
Instrumentation
This allows the researcher to explore a wider framework to explore the various
contributing factors that students with disabilities may experience taking postsecondary
online classes (Bryant, 2004). Nudist Software is designed to find similarities and
differences within the text by coding the responses. This allows the research to identify
various themes. These themes make connections to shape potential theories (Creswell,
2009). The research questions that will be used are as follows:
1. What are the instructors’ perceptions of accommodation needed by students with
disabilities who attend an online program?
2. How does the accommodation received by the student with disabilities affect
academic achievement?
3. What faculty training opportunities do faculty perceive as essential to the success
of students with disabilities?
A formal letter (see Appendix B) requesting the signatures for the permissions to
participate in the study will be sent to potential participants.
Assumptions
It is assumed that based on previous researched methodologies used to measure
the effectiveness of providing accommodations and services for students with disabilities,
that students who receive adequate support services tend to do better in postsecondary
institutions. Also, it is assumed that the role of the researcher is to conduct the research
using the qualitative methodology to allow a broader scope of responses from the
participants in the study. Finally, it assumed that the researcher must remain neutral, and

48. 46
avoid any preconceived assumptions, in order not to alter the reliability or impact of the
results of the study.
Procedures
The procedures set by The Institutional Review Board (IRB) to maintain ethical
practices that protect the participants’ rights will be followed. The first step will be to
receive the permissions from the Institutional Review Board and the participants before
the study will be administered. Letters will be electronically mailed to the participants
requesting their permission to take the electronic survey. The participants may withdraw
from the study at any time and their personal information will be protected by a secure
server, their names will be coded by a number or letter, and any information that comes
in will be on a computer that is password protected. Any data in a hard copy format will
be stored in a locked file cabinet for the protection of the participants. The researcher or
will be the only person that has access to hard copies for five years. To further protect
students that may be mentioned by faculty, a coding system will be used to identify the
various reported disabilities:
1: Autism------Coded letter A
2: Deaf-Blindness----Coded letter B
3: Deafness-----Coded letter C
4: Developmental Delay---Coded letter D
5: Emotional Disturbance---Coded letter E
6: Hearing Impairment----Coded letter F
7: Mental Retardation----Coded letter G
8: Multiple Disabilities---Coded letter H

49. 47
9: Orthopedic Impairment----Coded letter I
10: Other Health Impairment----Coded letter J
11: Specific Learning Disability---Coded letter K
12: Speech or Language Impairment----Coded letter L
13: Traumatic Brain Injury----Coded letter M
14: Visual Impairments Including Blindness---N
A small group of participants will take part in the pilot test. The pilot test will
include 5 randomly selected instructors that are currently or have recently taught online
classes at Argosy University. To assess the validity and reliability of the survey
questions administered, the professional panel members will examine the questions and
the responses to determine if the pilot test is sufficient. Once it is established that the
questionnaire is acceptable, the permission letters will be sent out.
There will be a waiting response period of 3 days from the time that the letter is
electronically mailed to receive the participants’ permission. If the potential participant
does not respond within the allotted time, a second letter will be sent. The total amount
of time allotted from the first electronic notification to the second possible notification
will be 5 days. Once the permissions are received and stored, the survey questions will
be made available to the participants for a period of 1 week. The participants will receive
an electronic link provided by Survey Monkey to log in to the secure server to complete
the survey questions. A reminder will be sent after 3 days to those participants that have
not completed the survey. It is estimated that 50% of the participants will complete the
survey. Fincham’s (2008) overview of survey response rates concluded that email
response rates vary from about 25% but may be as high as 70% with multiple contacts.

50. 48
The responses to the survey will use coded responses from the Nudist Software to
allow themes to emerge. Based on the data collected, recommendations will be made on
improving, expanding, and reaching out to students with disabilities that have claimed or
may not be claiming disabilities and potential training opportunities of faculty to enhance
learning opportunities.
Reliability and Validity
The questions used in this survey were originally tested in a study conducted by
Sheila Graham-Smith and Sserta Lafayette at Baylor University. They used an electronic
survey and personal interviews to gather information on accommodations by asking
students with disabilities what was the most beneficial for them (Graham-Smith, &
Layfayette, 2004). Responses were collected and analyzed to show that caring and safe
environment where the difficulties of college life may impact students with disabilities
were evaluated. Three hundred and eighteen students were contacted and 71 responses
were received (Graham-Smith & Layfayette, 2004). In order to evaluate further the use
of accommodation and online learning, the questions used in this study have been
modified to address the aspects of the online learning and factors that may contribute to
student success. Their study was specified to meet the direct challenges of what a
students with disabilities may encounter attending their ground school campus.
Since the majority of the research has been done at the ground school, as noted in
Beilke and Yssel, (2002), Johnson, (2006) Field, Sarver, and Shaw (2004), online
programs and services are different for students with disabilities attending online classes
since they do not have the immediate face-to-face interaction with administration and its
faculty. The population of students will be more diverse graphically. A pilot study will

51. 49
be conducted to further verify the modified questions, and will be reviewed by the expert
panel. In order to further control related issues of privacy. The hard copies of this study
will be locked in a file cabinet where only the researcher will have access for five years.
To examine the validity further, 5 faculty members from Argosy University
Online will be randomly selected for the pilot study. In order to establish validity, a panel
of experts will use the following criteria:
1. Are the survey questions and initial responses measuring what is intended?
2. Is the survey appropriate for the sample population?
3. Does the modified survey retain the structure of the original questionnaire? The
questions will be reviewed to verify if they are open-ended, and similar to the
ones initially used in the Baylor University study.
4. Was the questionnaire completed and answered sufficiently (Radhaknisha, 2007).
As noted by Creswell, (2009), open-ended survey questions are used in
qualitative research to establish views and opinions from the participants
(Creswell, 2009). The collected responses will examine potential challenges that
students with disabilities may encounter, while attending Argosy University. The
disability services will be specified. The research will work in conjunction with
the protected guidelines established. The instructors’ experiences and view on
accommodations will be explored to analyze the issue of accommodation, as it
relates to students with disabilities.
The collection of the electronic survey results will be stored by Survey Monkey,
which uses a password secured server. It assigns numbers and uses an email system to
send the survey; this is done to protect the participant’s identity. The Nudist Software

52. 50
was designed specifically for qualitative research to identify similarities with question
responses by using patterns within the text responses to identify similarities and
differences. This software will be used to allow themes to emerge to potentially expand
disability services, and accommodations to students with disabilities attending Argosy
University Online.
Accommodations Measurement
The responses will be evaluated to assess if the accommodations given assisted
learning, and what suggestions faculty may offer, as it relates to assisting students with
disabilities. Responses from faculty will be reviewed to identify where there may
similarities and differences with the survey responses. The data will be analyzed by The
Nudist Software.
Disabilities
This variable may be defined in several ways. If a student has a documented
disability, the law requires that certain accommodations be made by the postsecondary
institution, or the student may take legal action. According to The Greater Cincinnati
Consortium of Colleges (GCCU), in 1993 the Education Department reported that its
office of Civil Rights determined that 86 colleges and universities failed to meet the
requirements for its disabled students (GCCU, 2008).
Data Processing and Analysis
The survey will be accessed by participants using Survey Monkey, a research tool
often used for studies that allows the data to be created and managed easily, and Nudist
Software, which is designed specifically to collect similarities and differences from the
responses. Themes will be established by analyzing the collective responses from the

53. 51
survey provided by Survey Monkey. These themes may further assist the researcher by
providing possible ways to provide services to meet the needs of disabled students
attending Argosy University.

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CHAPTER 4: FINDINGS
The Pilot Study Results
The purpose of this study is to assess the accommodations for provided by
Disability Services by faculty as it relates to students enrolled in online classes at Argosy
University. The data gathered from this study will aid in the evaluation of the types of
disabilities students have reported, the accommodations provided, and recommendations
made based on the responses from faculty. In order to further qualify the questions used
in this study, a pilot study was conducted using 5 randomly selected faculty members. Of
the 5 randomly selected faculty members, 4 completed the survey. To establish if the
questions, which were adapted to meet the different population that Argosy University
Online has, the following factors were reviewed by two distinguished professionals with
experience in education. One reviewer has a master’s degree in teaching and has worked
in post-secondary education and special education for over five years, and the other
reviewer has taught courses to law students and serves as Judge. They both are highly
qualified to identify if the pilot study met the following guidelines:
1. Are the survey questions and initial responses measuring what is intended?
2. Is the survey appropriate for the sample population?
3. Does the modified survey retain the structure of the original questionnaire?
The questions will be reviewed to verify if they are open-ended, and similar to
the ones initially used in the Baylor University study.
4. Was the questionnaire completed and answered sufficiently (Radhaknisha,
2007).

55. 53
As noted by Creswell, (2009), open-ended survey questions are used in qualitative
research to establish views and opinions from the participants (Creswell, 2009). The
collected responses will examine potential challenges that students with disabilities may
encounter, while attending Argosy University. The disability services will be specified.
The research will work in conjunction with the protected guidelines established. The
instructors’ experiences and view on accommodations will be explored to analyze the
issue of accommodation, as it relates to students with disabilities.
A copy of the Survey Monkey Pilot Study was given to two reviewers. They
were given a copy of the Baylor Study Questions and a copy of this research study
questions and Pilot Study Survey responses. Both reviewers agreed that the survey and
the initial responses measured what was intended. They also agreed that survey was
appropriate for the sample population. The reviewers agreed that the survey retained the
structure of the original questionnaire, and that they were open-ended and similar to the
ones used in the Baylor University study. The reviewers agreed that the questions were
answered sufficiently and they believed that the based on the responses, that there was no
need to make any changes or additions to the questions used (See Appendix D). After
collecting their evaluation of the Pilot Study, the researcher felt confident that she could
proceed by sending out invitations to take the survey.
The Survey Findings
Approximately 1,000 faculty members were teaching or have taught during the
duration of this survey. Of the 1,000 faculty members, 220 randomly selected faculty
members at Argosy University were sent an electronic invitation January 22-24, 2011.

56. 54
Of the 220 invitations that were sent, one faculty member sent a response stating
that they did not wish to participate at this time. Two members had some suggestions on
how to get a better response rate by including the link with the email to the survey, and
10 people sent permission letters within the first week of the invitation.
Due to the low response rate, a second invitation was emailed to the same
individuals three days later, with the link included in the email for easy access. At this
time, 10 faculty members had completed the survey. After a two week time frame, a
third invitation was sent out to those participants that had not responded. At the end of
February, 16 individuals had completed the survey. A fourth and final invitation was sent
out in the beginning of March. The last date that the survey was available was March 12,
2011.
A total of 24 participants completed the survey for a response rate of 10.9 %. Of
the 4 questions that were asked, all but one participant completed questions 1-3. For
question number 4, which stated that if they did not have any suggestions they could
leave this question blank, 6 responses were collected, and of those 6, 5 were applicable.
Question Number 1
For question number one, the following question was asked: Did a student
attending Argosy University Online ever request specific accommodations in the
classroom? If so, please provide more details? 24 participants responded. Of those 24
responses, 23 actually answered the question. 12 individuals gave more specific
responses, and elaborated on their answer. 16 faculty members responded with a no
response, and 6 responded with a yes response; 1 response did not qualify as a yes or a
no. Some examples of a no response were: “Other than extended time for illness, no.”