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Etiology of PUD
Instructor: Dr. Ahmad Farhad "Faiz"
Surgery presentation
Prepared By: Nasir Ahmad Danish
Discussable topics:
1. Macroscopic and Microscopic Anatomy of stomach
2. Mechanism of Acid secretion
3. Defensive factors against acid affect
4. Acid peptic disease
5. Etiology of PUD
6. Discuss the complications of PUD
7. Discuss the treatment of PUD
8. References
Histology of Stomach
Stomach is a large piece of digestive tube which is locate
between esophagus and small intestine.
Anatomical division of stomach:
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Corpus
4. Pylori
Layers of stomach
1. Mucous
2. Submucosa
3. Muscular
4. serosa
Glands of Stomach
A gland has two parts:
1. Superficial part (Excretion canal)
2. Deep part(secretion canal)
Due to anatomical division there are also
three types of Glands:
1. Cardiacglands
2. oxyntic=fundic glands
3. Pyloric glands
Mechanism of Acid secretion
Types of cells in gastric gland
Parietal cells have three types of receptor :
1. Gastrin receptor(G/CCK-B-R)
2. Histamine receptor(H2)
3. Acetyl choline receptor(M3)
Functions of Stomach
A. Release of intrinsic factor
B. Digestion
C. Storage
D. Absorption
E. Mixing
Disorder of this defensive mechanism
Mucous secretion(decrease)
NSAIDs(PGs defense suppress)
Hco3 decrease
Ingestion of acids and poison
Alchol
Hyperacidity
Pepsin
Acido peptic disesase
Protective factors vs. hostile factors
Peptic Ulcer Disease(PUD)
Pathogenesis
Aggressive factor
Acid
1. Gastrin receptor(G/CCK-B-R)
2. Histamine receptor(H2)
3. Acetyl choline receptor(M3)
Pepsin
1. Ph<2
2. Ph=4
3. Ph≥7
Poison agent(acid)
Bile
ACID hypersecratory situation
Corticosteroids
Helicobacter pylori
NSAID
No acid
No pepsin
No ulcer
OLD TESTAMENT
Etiology of PUD
Most common
infection in the world
(20%)
10% of men, 4%
women develop PUD
Positive in 70-100% of
PUD patients.
H.pylori related
disorders:
• Chronic gastritis – 90%
• Peptic ulcer disease – 95-
100%
• Gastric carcinoma – 70%
• Gastric lymphoma
• Reflux Oesophagitis.
• Non ulcer dyspepsia
Helicobacter pylori
 Gram negative, Spiral
bacilli
 Spirochetes,s form
,aerobic
 Do not invade cells –
only mucous
 Breakdown urea -
ammonia
 Break down mucosal
defense
 Chronic Superficial
inflammation
Urease
Diagnosis
• Urease(Urea-
ammonia(NH4)
+H2O)
• Protease &
phospholipase(
defensive line)
• Serology(ELIZA)-95%
• Urea breath test-90-
95%
• Histology-70-99&
• Biopsy 90-98%
• Culture-70-99%
• Rapid urea test
No HP No ulcer
NEW TESTAMENT
Invasive
Non anti inflammatory drugs(NSADs)
1. 30 million Tab(OTC)
2. 70 million use while prescription
3. Prostaglandin
1. cytoprotector function in duodenum
4. Inhbit PGs synthesis by COX1
5. NSAIDs and Aispirin are weak acids-lipophilic and nonionizing in Ph of Gaster-
penetrate to cell and ionizing-demage to cell
6. Back diffusion of H and pepsin
Sub factors
Endoscopy
Barium meal –
contrast x-ray
Biopsy –
bacteria &
malignancy
H.Pylori:
•Endoscopy
cytology
•Biopsy – Special
stains
•Culture - difficult
•Urease Breath
test.
Acid –pepsin
Corticosteroids-
High dosage
O blood group
•1:3Genitic
•Disorders of stomach emptying
•Decrease Bicarbonat secration in proximal part
of duodenum-mucus blood flow and healing..
Ciggarette
PUD - Diagnosis
Bleeding –
Chronic,
Acute,
Massive
Fibrosis,
Stricture
obstruction –
pyloric
stenosis.
Perforation –
Peritonitis-
emergency.
Gastric
carcinoma.
(not
duodenal
carcinoma)
PUD – Complications
Non-pharmacological Treatment of
Peptic ulcer Disease
1. 1-Avoid spicy food.
2. 2-Avoid xanthine containing beverages.
3. 3-Avoid Alcohol.
4. 4-Avoid Smoking.
5. 5-Avoid heavy meals.
6. 7-Avoid ulcerating drugs e.g. NSAIDs,
corticosteroids,xanthines and
parasympathomimetics
Pharmacological Treatment of Peptic ulcer Disease
)Helicobacter Pylori)
20
14 days diet treatment
1. ppi-bid
2. Clarithromycin 500 mg bid
3. Amoxicillin 1000 mg bid or metronidazole 500 mg bid
After end of this treatment diet continue PPI for 4-6 w od
10 day diet treatment(sequential treatment)
This method is divided to tow 5 days diet treatment:
1. 1th 5 day
• ppi - bid
• Amoxycillin 1gr-bid
2. 2ed 5 day
• ppi-bid
• Clarithromycin 500 mg bid
• Tinidazol 500 mg- bid
Eradication of H.Pylori
Triple Therapy
1-Bismuth subsalicylate 2 tablets qid
2- Metronidazole 250 mg qid
3-Tetracyclin 500 mg qid
1-Ranitidine bismuth citrate 400 mg bid
2 -Tetracycline 500 mg bid
3-Clarithromycin or metronidazole 500 mg bid
1- Omeprazole ( lansoprazole ) 20 mg bid
2-Clarithromycin 250 mg or 500 mg bid
3- Metronidazole 500 mg bid or Amoxicillin 1gr bid
Quadruple therapy
1- Omeprazole 20 mg daily
2- Bismuth subsalicylate 2 tablets qid
3- Metronidazole 250 mg qid
4- Tetracycline 500 mg qid
References
1. Harrison's™ PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL MEDICINEEighteenth Edition
2. Robbins basic pathology / [edited by] Vinay Kumar, Abul K. Abbas, Jon C. Aster. – 9th ed.
3. Abdominal surgery of Pro.Dr.Mohammad Masoun Azizi 3rd edition
4. Junqueiras Bsic Histalogy 13ed edition
5. Google image .com
6. Medical Microbiology volume 2 of Pro.Oaidullah Obaid
7. www.wekipedia.com
8. Digestive apparatus disease chapter of Dr.Said Ahmad fazli
9. Pharmacology chapter of Digestive apparatus of Dr.Omid Nahzat
‫قدس‬ ‫طایر‬ ‫ای‬‫کن‬ ‫راه‬ ‫بدرقه‬ ‫همتم‬
‫سف‬ ‫نو‬ ‫من‬ ‫و‬ ‫مقصد‬ ‫ره‬ ‫دراز‬ ‫که‬‫رم‬
Pud

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Pud

  • 1.
  • 2. Etiology of PUD Instructor: Dr. Ahmad Farhad "Faiz" Surgery presentation Prepared By: Nasir Ahmad Danish
  • 3. Discussable topics: 1. Macroscopic and Microscopic Anatomy of stomach 2. Mechanism of Acid secretion 3. Defensive factors against acid affect 4. Acid peptic disease 5. Etiology of PUD 6. Discuss the complications of PUD 7. Discuss the treatment of PUD 8. References
  • 4. Histology of Stomach Stomach is a large piece of digestive tube which is locate between esophagus and small intestine. Anatomical division of stomach: 1. Cardia 2. Fundus 3. Corpus 4. Pylori Layers of stomach 1. Mucous 2. Submucosa 3. Muscular 4. serosa
  • 5.
  • 6. Glands of Stomach A gland has two parts: 1. Superficial part (Excretion canal) 2. Deep part(secretion canal) Due to anatomical division there are also three types of Glands: 1. Cardiacglands 2. oxyntic=fundic glands 3. Pyloric glands
  • 7. Mechanism of Acid secretion Types of cells in gastric gland Parietal cells have three types of receptor : 1. Gastrin receptor(G/CCK-B-R) 2. Histamine receptor(H2) 3. Acetyl choline receptor(M3)
  • 8.
  • 9. Functions of Stomach A. Release of intrinsic factor B. Digestion C. Storage D. Absorption E. Mixing
  • 10.
  • 11. Disorder of this defensive mechanism Mucous secretion(decrease) NSAIDs(PGs defense suppress) Hco3 decrease Ingestion of acids and poison Alchol Hyperacidity Pepsin Acido peptic disesase Protective factors vs. hostile factors
  • 13. Aggressive factor Acid 1. Gastrin receptor(G/CCK-B-R) 2. Histamine receptor(H2) 3. Acetyl choline receptor(M3) Pepsin 1. Ph<2 2. Ph=4 3. Ph≥7 Poison agent(acid) Bile ACID hypersecratory situation Corticosteroids Helicobacter pylori NSAID No acid No pepsin No ulcer OLD TESTAMENT Etiology of PUD
  • 14. Most common infection in the world (20%) 10% of men, 4% women develop PUD Positive in 70-100% of PUD patients. H.pylori related disorders: • Chronic gastritis – 90% • Peptic ulcer disease – 95- 100% • Gastric carcinoma – 70% • Gastric lymphoma • Reflux Oesophagitis. • Non ulcer dyspepsia Helicobacter pylori  Gram negative, Spiral bacilli  Spirochetes,s form ,aerobic  Do not invade cells – only mucous  Breakdown urea - ammonia  Break down mucosal defense  Chronic Superficial inflammation
  • 15. Urease Diagnosis • Urease(Urea- ammonia(NH4) +H2O) • Protease & phospholipase( defensive line) • Serology(ELIZA)-95% • Urea breath test-90- 95% • Histology-70-99& • Biopsy 90-98% • Culture-70-99% • Rapid urea test No HP No ulcer NEW TESTAMENT Invasive
  • 16. Non anti inflammatory drugs(NSADs) 1. 30 million Tab(OTC) 2. 70 million use while prescription 3. Prostaglandin 1. cytoprotector function in duodenum 4. Inhbit PGs synthesis by COX1 5. NSAIDs and Aispirin are weak acids-lipophilic and nonionizing in Ph of Gaster- penetrate to cell and ionizing-demage to cell 6. Back diffusion of H and pepsin
  • 17. Sub factors Endoscopy Barium meal – contrast x-ray Biopsy – bacteria & malignancy H.Pylori: •Endoscopy cytology •Biopsy – Special stains •Culture - difficult •Urease Breath test. Acid –pepsin Corticosteroids- High dosage O blood group •1:3Genitic •Disorders of stomach emptying •Decrease Bicarbonat secration in proximal part of duodenum-mucus blood flow and healing.. Ciggarette PUD - Diagnosis
  • 18. Bleeding – Chronic, Acute, Massive Fibrosis, Stricture obstruction – pyloric stenosis. Perforation – Peritonitis- emergency. Gastric carcinoma. (not duodenal carcinoma) PUD – Complications
  • 19. Non-pharmacological Treatment of Peptic ulcer Disease 1. 1-Avoid spicy food. 2. 2-Avoid xanthine containing beverages. 3. 3-Avoid Alcohol. 4. 4-Avoid Smoking. 5. 5-Avoid heavy meals. 6. 7-Avoid ulcerating drugs e.g. NSAIDs, corticosteroids,xanthines and parasympathomimetics
  • 20. Pharmacological Treatment of Peptic ulcer Disease )Helicobacter Pylori) 20 14 days diet treatment 1. ppi-bid 2. Clarithromycin 500 mg bid 3. Amoxicillin 1000 mg bid or metronidazole 500 mg bid After end of this treatment diet continue PPI for 4-6 w od 10 day diet treatment(sequential treatment) This method is divided to tow 5 days diet treatment: 1. 1th 5 day • ppi - bid • Amoxycillin 1gr-bid 2. 2ed 5 day • ppi-bid • Clarithromycin 500 mg bid • Tinidazol 500 mg- bid Eradication of H.Pylori Triple Therapy 1-Bismuth subsalicylate 2 tablets qid 2- Metronidazole 250 mg qid 3-Tetracyclin 500 mg qid 1-Ranitidine bismuth citrate 400 mg bid 2 -Tetracycline 500 mg bid 3-Clarithromycin or metronidazole 500 mg bid 1- Omeprazole ( lansoprazole ) 20 mg bid 2-Clarithromycin 250 mg or 500 mg bid 3- Metronidazole 500 mg bid or Amoxicillin 1gr bid Quadruple therapy 1- Omeprazole 20 mg daily 2- Bismuth subsalicylate 2 tablets qid 3- Metronidazole 250 mg qid 4- Tetracycline 500 mg qid
  • 21. References 1. Harrison's™ PRINCIPLES OF INTERNAL MEDICINEEighteenth Edition 2. Robbins basic pathology / [edited by] Vinay Kumar, Abul K. Abbas, Jon C. Aster. – 9th ed. 3. Abdominal surgery of Pro.Dr.Mohammad Masoun Azizi 3rd edition 4. Junqueiras Bsic Histalogy 13ed edition 5. Google image .com 6. Medical Microbiology volume 2 of Pro.Oaidullah Obaid 7. www.wekipedia.com 8. Digestive apparatus disease chapter of Dr.Said Ahmad fazli 9. Pharmacology chapter of Digestive apparatus of Dr.Omid Nahzat
  • 22.
  • 23. ‫قدس‬ ‫طایر‬ ‫ای‬‫کن‬ ‫راه‬ ‫بدرقه‬ ‫همتم‬ ‫سف‬ ‫نو‬ ‫من‬ ‫و‬ ‫مقصد‬ ‫ره‬ ‫دراز‬ ‫که‬‫رم‬

Editor's Notes

  1. قطعه وسیع تیوب هضمی بوده در بین مری و امعای رقیقه جا دارد نواحی معده از نظر اناتومی : به چهار قسمت تقسیم گردیده است: Cardiac (محل اتصال مری به معده) Fundus( ناحیه گنبد مانند که بالاتر از خط اتصال مری و معده قرار دارد) Corpus (دو ثلث نهای معده را در بردارد) Pylorus ( قطعه نهای معده میباشد ) طبقات معده : معده شامل چهار طبقه است مخاط - شامل : اپیتل ( استوانه ای یک طبقه ای – افرازات این حجرات مخاط میباشد) غدوات ( در اثر فرورفتگی اپیتل ایجاد شده ) عضلی مخاطی ( عضله ملسا – تقلصات یک تعداد باعث تخلیه غدوات میگردد) تحت مخاط ( از نسج منضم حاوی اوعیه و ججرات لمفوئید) طبقه عضلی ( داخلی منحرف –متوسط حلقوی (در ناحیه پایلو اسفنکترمیسازد)- خارجی طولانی ) طبقه سیروزا
  2. Lymphoid tissue, cells and organs that make up the lymphatic system, such as white blood cells (leukocytes), bone marrow, and the thymus, spleen, and lymph nodes. The human lymphatic system, showing the lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. Lymphoid tissue has several different structural organizations related to its particular function in the immune response. The most highly organized lymphoid tissues are in the thymus and lymph nodes, which are well-defined encapsulated organs with easily identifiable architectures. In the spleen (a soft, purplish organ lying high in the abdomen), the lymphoid tissue is a cylinder of loosely organized cells surrounding small arteries. In the bone marrow this tissue is mixed with the blood-forming cells, and no organization is apparent. The most diffuse lymphoid tissue is found in the loose connective-tissue spaces beneath most wet epithelial membranes, such as those that line the gastrointestinal tract and the respiratory system. In these spaces many cells of the lymphatic system wander and become exposed to invading microorganisms and foreign material. They can establish localized centres of cell production in response to such invasions. These are referred to as nodules and are not to be confused with nodes, an entirely different structure. Some nodules become relatively permanent structures, such as the tonsils, appendix, and Peyer’s patches, which are in the lining of the small intestine. Most nodules appear and disappear in response to local needs. Several types of cells are included in the lymphoid system—for example, reticular cells and white blood cells such as macrophages and lymphocytes. Reticular cells provide structural support, since they produce and maintain the thin networks of fibres that are a framework for most lymphoid organs. Macrophages help eliminate invaders by engulfing foreign materials and initiating the immune response. These cells may be fixed in one place, such as lymph nodes,
  3. غدوات معده فرورفتگی ها اپیتل اند در غشای بالخاصه که تا سرحد طبقه عضلی مخاطی امتداد یافته ، فاصله بین غدوات را نسج منضم فرا گرفته است . یک غده دارای دوقسمت است : قسمت سطحی ( کانال افراغی ) قسمت عمیق ( قطعه افرازی بوده شامل سه قسمت است :عنق ، جسم و قاعده ) نظر به تقسیمات اناتومیک سه نوع غده و جود دارد : غدوات cardiac ( نزدیک دهانه مری و معده قرار داشته افرازات مخاطی دارند ) غدوات معدوی یا oxyntic=fundic (در جسم و فوندوس قرار داشته افرازات مختلف دارند ) غدوات پایلوریک ( در ناحیه پایلور و جود داشته و افراز مخاطی دارند) Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 is also called cobalamin, and since it is a water-soluble vitamin, the body does not store it. As you digest food that contains vitamin B12, pancreatic enzymes free it to bind to a protein known as intrinsic factor. The body does not absorb vitamin B12 unless it is bound to intrinsic factor. Receptors that are in the small intestine are responsible for taking up vitamin B12 and intrinsic factor complex but can only do so when calcium is present. Considerations Calcium and vitamin B12 depend on each other for bone mineral density and overall absorption. If you have low levels of calcium, your body may not be able to absorb vitamin B12. Alternatively, low levels of vitamin B12 affect your bones and put you at an increased risk of fractures. Low levels of calcium may be related to problems with absorption or a lack of other nutrients such as vitamin D. Because your bones hold 99 percent of the calcium in your body, your bone density suffers if you are unable to absorb calcium. Significance
  4. Gastric lipase is an acidic lipase secreted by the gastric chief cells in the fundic mucosa in the stomach. It has a pH optimum of 3–6. Gastric lipase, together with lingual lipase, comprise the two acidic lipases. These lipases, unlike alkaline lipases (such as pancreatic lipase), do not require bile acid or colipase for optimal enzymatic activity. Acidic lipases make up 30% of lipid hydrolysis occurring during digestion in the human adult, with gastric lipase contributing the most of the two acidic lipases. In neonates, acidic lipases are much more important, providing up to 50% of total lipolytic activity. Oxyntic means acid-secreting and they secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.[2] Pepsin is an enzyme that breaks down proteins into smaller peptides (that is, a protease). It is produced in the stomach and is one of the main digestive enzymes in the digestive systems of humans and many other animals, where it helps digest the proteins in food. Pepsin has three dimensional structure, of which one or more polypeptide chains twist and fold, bringing together a small number of amino acids to form the active site, or the location on the enzyme where the substrate binds and the reaction takes place It is one of three principal proteases in the human digestive system, the other two being chymotrypsin and trypsin. During the process of digestion, these enzymes, each of which is specialized in severing links between particular types of amino acids, collaborate to break down dietary proteins into their components, i.e., peptides and amino acids, which can be readily absorbed by the small intestine. Pepsin is most efficient in cleaving peptide bonds between hydrophobic and preferably aromatic amino acids such as phenylalanine, tryptophan, and tyrosine.[2] Pepsin's proenzyme, pepsinogen, is released by the chief cells in the stomach wall, and upon mixing with the hydrochloric acid of the gastric juice, pepsinogen activates to become pepsin. Pepsin is an aspartic protease, using a catalytic aspartate in its active site.[3] Vitamin B12 Vitamin B12 is also called cobalamin, and since it is a water-soluble vitamin, the body does not store it. As you digest food that contains vitamin B12, pancreatic enzymes free it to bind to a protein known as intrinsic factor. The body does not absorb vitamin B12 unless it is bound to intrinsic factor. Receptors that are in the small intestine are responsible for taking up vitamin B12 and intrinsic factor complex but can only do so when calcium is present. دیواره معده Carbonic anhydrase found in gaster mucous ,rbc,renal tuble,pancreatic cell مشخصات بافت شناسی لایه‌های چهارگانه دیواره معده به شرح زیر می‌باشد. طبقه مخاطی سلولهای پوششی مخاط معده از نوع منشوری ساده است که با فرو رفتن در عمق آستر ، چاله‌های معدی را بوجود می‌آورند. ترشحات غدد گاستریک به عمق این چاله‌ها تخلیه و سپس به سطح معده می‌رسد. سلولهای پوششی مخاط موکوس خنثی ترشح می‌کند. موکوس مترشحه بوسیله سلولهای پوششی لایه ضخیمی را در سطح سلولها تشکیل داده و آنها را از اثرات اسید معده محافظت می‌کند. آستر مخاط بافت همبند شلی است حاوی الیاف کلاژن و رتیکولر ، سلولهای لنفاوی و رشته‌های عضلانی صاف منشعب از عضلات مخاطی. غدد لوله‌ای ساده یا منشعب معدی نیز در آستر قرار دارند. عضلات مخاطی ، عمقیترین لایه مخاط می‌باشند که از عضلات صاف حلقوی در داخل و عضلات صاف طولی در خارج تشکیل شده‌اند. طبقه زیر مخاط در معده بافت همبند فیبر و الاستیکی است شبیه لایه زیر مخاط سایر نواحی لوله گوارش که با پیشروی در زیر طبقه مخاطی باعث پیدایش چینهای طولی می‌شود. طبقه عضلانی در معده متفاوت از سایر قسمت های لوله گوارش بوده و از سه لایه عضلانی به صورت مورب در داخل ، حلقوی در وسط و طولی در خارج تشکیل شده است. عضلات حلقوی در ناحیه پیلور ضخیم شده و اسفنکتر پیلوریک را بوجود می‌آورد. سطح خارجی معده توسط سروز یا به عبارت دیگر ، لایه احشایی صفاق پوشیده شده است. غدد معدی غدد معدی در نایحه کاردیا و پیلور از نوع موکوسی هستند که ترشحات خود را به عمق چاله‌ها می‌ریزند. علاوه بر سلولهای موکوسی ، تعدادی سلول متمایز نشده و سلولهای APUD ترشح کننده گاسترین نیز در دیواره این غدد دیده می‌شود. قسمت نزدیک به چاله را گردن غده ، انتهای نزدیک به عضلات مخاطی را قاعده و حد فاصل این دو ناحیه را تنه غده می‌نامند. سلولهای مختلفی که در قسمتهای سه‌گانه غدد معدی یافت می‌شوند، عمل ترشح مواد و آنزیمهای مختلف را برای هضم مواد غذایی را انجام می‌دهند. انواع سلولهای موجود در غده‌های معده سلولهای موکوس گردن سلولهایی هستند با شکل نامنظم که در حد فاصل سلولهای جداری یا مرز نشین فشرده شده‌اند و با رنگ‌آمیزی به سختی از سلولهای اصلی قابل تشخیص هستند. موکوس مترشحه از این سلولها اسیدی است و از موکوس مترشحه از سلولهای سطحی که خنثی می‌باشد، متفاوت است. سلولهای متمایز نشده این سلولها به عنوان سلولهای ریشه‌ای در اثر تکثیر و تمایز همه سلولهای پوششی معده شامل سلولهای موکوسی ، جداری ، انترو اندوکرین و اصلی را جایگزین می‌کنند. فعالیت این سلولها در ضمن آسیبهای اپیتلیال افزایش یافته و به التیام سریع زخم کمک می‌کند. در شرایط عادی سلولهای پوششی معده هر 4 - 3 روز تجدید می‌گردند. سلولهای اصلی این سلولها در تنه و قاعده غدد یافت می‌شوند. این سلولها دارای سیتوپلاسم بازوفیل بوده و دارای شبکه آندوپلاسمی خشن هستند که مشخصه سلولهای پروتئین ساز است. این سلولها ، آنزیمهای پپسین (برای تجزیه پروتئینها)، لیپاز (برای تجزیه چربیها) و رنین (برای انعقاد شیر) را سنتز و ترشح می‌کنند. سلولهای کناری یا مرز نشین سلولهای اسیدوفیل هستند که در تمام قسمتهای غدد معدی یافت می‌شوند. این سلولها حاوی تعداد زیادی میتوکندری هستند. سطح سلولها دارای فرورفتگی عمیق و حاوی میکرویلیهای بلند هستند. سلولهای کناری مسئول ترشح اسید معده هستند. میزان ترشح اسید معده توسط اعصاب کولینرژیک ، هورمون گاسترین و هیستامین تحریک می‌گردد. این سلولها فاکتور داخلی معده را ترشح می‌کنند که باعث جذب ویتامین B12 می‌شود. در صورت عدم ترشح این فاکتور، جذب ویتامین B12 مختل شده و سنتز هموگلوبین صورت نمی‌گیرد و یک نوع کم خونی بوجود می‌آید. سلولهای انترو اندوکرین ترشحات این سلولها از سطح قاعده‌ای به رگهای خونی منتقل می‌شود. این سلولها در فوندوس معده ، سروتونین را برای تحریک عضلات جدار معده و روده و در پیلور ، گاسترین را برای تحریک ترشح سلولهای کناری ترشح می‌کنند. اعمال و وظایف معده معده ارگانی است برای تجمع و هضم اولیه مواد غذایی خورده شده. مواد غذایی در معده 4 - 3 ساعت توقف کرده و با ترشحات معده که پس از خوردن غذا به یک لیتر می‌رسد، مخلوط شده و کیموس نامیده می‌شود. ضمن تشکیل کیموس معدی ، اسفنکتر کاردیا مانع از برگشت محتویات معده به مری می‌شود. پس از آماده شدن کیموس معدی ، تحت تاثیر PH اسیدی آن اسفنکتر پیلوریک باز شده و موجب تخلیه محتویات معده به دوازدهه می‌گردد. به علت اسیدی بودن محتویات معده بروز زخمهای مخاطی در دوازدهه شایع است. از دیگر وظایف معده ترشح آنزیمهای گوارشی ، اسید معده و فاکتور ضد کم خونی است. بیماریهای معده زخم معده به معنی آسیب سلولهای پوششی معده است که اسید معده از آن طریق به بافتهای عمقی نفوذ کرده و باعث زخم شدن معده می‌شود. یکی از علایم زخم معده ، وجود خون در مدفوع است. یکی از راههای درمان زخم معده ، برداشتن قسمت آسیب دیده معده است. التهاب یا تورم معده به التهاب معده ، گاستریت هم گفته می‌شود. التهاب ممکن است در اثر مسمومیت بوجود بیاید. علایم التهاب معده ، دل درد ، استفراغ و اسهال و گاهی تب است. عصب واگ با تولید استایل کولین بصورت مستقیم سبب تحریک حجرات جداری و ترشح اسید میگردد. با تحریک حجرات G سبب افراز گاسترین میگردد. با تحریک حجرات Enter chromaffin like سبب تحریک افرازهیستامین از این حجرات میگردد. سبب نهی افراز Somatostatin از حجرات D میگردد. گاسترین: از حجرات G معده تولید میشود ) پس از تحریک توسط عصب واگ و یا موجودیت غذا در معده (  با تحریک حجرات جداری معده سبب افراز اسید میگردد.  با تحریک حجرات Enter chromaffin like سبب تحریک تولید هیستامین از این حجرات میگردد. هیستامین: از حجرات Enterchromaffine like معده تولید میشود . بر روی آخذه های H2 در حجرات جداری نصب گردیده سبب تحریک افراز اسید میگردد. :Somatostatin با افزایش اسید افراز شده در داخل معده حجرات D تحریک شده و Somatostatin تولید میکنند. Somatostatin بر روی حجرات G تاثیر نموده و مانع افراز گاسترین میگردد. )که در نتیجه از افراز اسید بیشتر جلوگیری میگردد( هرگاه گاسترین از طریق حجرات G انتروم یا استایل کولین از نهایات عصب Vagus افراز گردد سبب تحریک آخذه های مخصوص خود در حجرات جداری می گردد. گاسترین و استایل کولین همچنین سبب آزاد سازی هیستامین از حجرات Enter Chromaffin like میگردند که هیستامین آزاد شده برروی آخذه های H2 حجرات جداری نصب گردیده و سبب ترشح اسید میگردد. تحریک این آخذه ها سبب فعال شدن پروتون پمپ در حجرات جداری شده و این عمل باعث افراز شدن اسید از طریق پروتون پمپ حجرات جداری میگردد. Cholecystokinin (CCK or CCK-PZ; from Greek chole, "bile"; cysto, "sac"; kinin, "move"; hence, move the bile-sac (gallbladder)) is a peptide hormone of the gastrointestinal system responsible for stimulating the digestion of fat and protein. Cholecystokinin, previously called pancreozymin, is synthesized and secreted by enteroendocrine cells in the duodenum, the first segment of the small intestine. Its presence causes the release of digestive enzymes and bile from the pancreas and gallbladder, respectively, and also acts as a hunger suppressant.[3][4] Function CCK plays important physiologic roles both as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system and as a peptide hormone in the gut.[8] It participates in a number of physiological processes such as digestion, satiety and anxiety. Gastrointestinal CCK is synthesized and released by enteroendocrine cells in the mucosal lining of the small intestine (mostly in the duodenum and jejunum), called I cells, neurons of the enteric nervous system, and neurons in the brain.[3] It is released rapidly into the circulation in response to a meal. The greatest stimulator of CCK release is the presence of fatty acids and/or certain amino acids in the chyme entering the duodenum.[5] In addition, release of CCK is stimulated by monitor peptide (released by pancreatic acinar cells), CCK-releasing protein (via paracrine signalling mediated by enterocytes in the gastric and intestinal mucosa), and acetylcholine (released by the parasympathetic nerve fibers of the vagus nerve).[9] Once in the circulatory system, CCK has a relatively short half-life.[10]
  5. وظاایف معده ازاد ساختن فکتور داخلی هضم=عصاره معده که حاوی انزایم ها و hcl امتصاص=امتصاص آبت و بعضی مواد دیگر از قبیل الکول و ادویه دخیره مخلوط میکاینیزم رفاعی معده باوجود انزایم و hcl-ماده مخاطی و تجدید حجرات اپیتیل که د رهر سه روز تجدید میشوندو Prostagalndin f2a e2 stimulate secration of mucous
  6. Components involved in providing gastroduodenal mucosal defense and repair. CCK, cholecystokinin; CRF, corticotropin-releasing factor; EGF, epidermal growth factor; HCl, hydrochloride; IGF, insulin-like growth factor; TGF, transforming growth factor ; TRF, thyrotropin releasing factor. (Modified and updated from Tarnawski A. Cellular and molecular mechanisms of mucosal defense and repair. In: Yoshikawa T, Arakawa T. Bioregulation and Its Disorders in the Gastrointestinal Tract. Tokyo, Japan: Blackwell Science, 1998:3–17.)
  7. Acid peptic disease 1-gerd 2-stress ulcer 3-pud
  8. قرحه پپتیک از بین رفتن تمادی غشای مخاطی یا اثناعشر را میگویند که اندازه آن بیشتر از 5 میلی میتر بوده و حد اقل تا طبعه تحت مخاط پیشرفته باشد که در اثر التهاب فعال بوجود آمده و باعث ایجاد ضیاع مادی میگرددکه در مراحل بعدی که تداوی صورت نگیرد این ضایعه میتواند طبقات تحت مخاط وعضلی را نیز مصاب کند و باعث ایجاد یک حفره گردد. Acid peptic disease” is a collective term used to include many conditions such as: gastro-esophageal reflux disease (GERD), gastritis gastric ulcer duodenal ulcer, esophageal ulcer, Zollinger Ellison Syndrome (ZES) and Meckel’s diverticular ulcer. بقای قنات ویتلیو اینتستاینل جنین است. قرحه پیپتیک از باعث قرار گرفتن اپیتیلیوم معده در رتچ به شکل مخفی-حجرات افراز کننده اسید- و اکثرا در اطفال مشاهده میشود-یکی از اسباب میلانا نیزمیباشد-سن ده سالگی-نادرا باعث قرحه-باعث درد بعد از گرفتن غذا-همچنان دارای انزایم های مخفی پانقراس نیزز هستند.
  9. اسید توسط محجرات پریتل تولید میشود-hcl-با ایون کلوراید که در خون است یکجا شده اسید را میسازد-و هایدروجن که در نبیجه فعالیت انزایماتی کاربونیک انهیدراز ا زکاربن دای اکساید و اب –h2co3-این مرکب به یون hو hco3=بلاخره هایدروجن به کلور یکجا=اسید-هایپرگلایسیمیا با نهی امینواسیدهای داخل ورید(باعث تحریک گاسترین و افراز اسید)از افراز اسید جلوگیری میکند-شحم –اسید در اثنا عشز- و مواد هایپر تونیک باعث نهی اسید میشود. پیپسین=تاثیر پروتیولایتیک پپسین همزمان با با خصوصیات مخرش اسید معده است-از پیپسینوجن به کمک اسید تولیدبا پاییین اوردن ph-در ph کمتر از 2 به اوج فعالیت-ph4 فعالیت به حد اصغری- ود phبیستر ومساوی به 7 غیزفغال است Bile made in liver Function=emulaion neutralization-excretion of toxic metabolite Secration=food-meat –lipid-heptocrinin hormone-pneumaogastric hormone Ingrednts=86%h2o-14%solid substaces(cholesterol,lipid,mucen salt of bile ,chloride,hco3,nucleoprotein, Bile salts(cholic acid,deoxycholic acid,cholesterol chenodeoxycholic acid)
  10. Ph h pylori 6-7 است یعنی نمو مینماید ود ر پی اچ معده نمو نمیکند مخاط به مقابل اسید غیر قابل نغود بوده و خاصیت بغری دارد Phنزدیک لومن پاین 1-2است در حالیکه ph نزدیک اپیتیل 7.4 است یان میکروب ه به عمق خاطی نزدیک سطح اپیتیل جای کبه ان فزیو لوزیک است میرود فعالیت و پروتیاز تولید میکند که باعث تغیر محیط و اسیب حجرات میشود. موکوس 95 از اب –شحم و گلایکوپروتین ساخته شده است.
  11. Cortic sterioid suppress the synthesis of pgs and healing Hyper parathyroidism…
  12. Xanthine (/ˈzænθiːn/ or /ˈzænθaɪn/; archaically xanthic acid) (3,7-dihydropurine-2,6-dione), is a purine base found in most human body tissues and fluids and in other organisms. A number of stimulants are derived from xanthine, including caffeine and theobromine.[2] Xanthine is a product on the pathway of purine degradation. It is created from guanine by guanine deaminase. It is created from hypoxanthine by xanthine oxidoreductase. It is also created from xanthosine by purine nucleoside phosphorylase (PNP).[3] Xanthine is subsequently converted to uric acid by the action of the xanthine oxidase enzyme. Studies reported in 2008, based on 12C/13C isotopic ratios of organic compounds found in the Murchison meteorite, suggested that xanthine and related chemicals, including the RNA component uracil, were formed extraterrestrially.[4][5] In August 2011, a report, based on NASA studies with meteorites found on Earth, was published suggesting xanthine and related organic molecules, including the DNA and RNA components adenine and guanine, were found in outer space.[6][7][8] Clinical significance of xanthine derivatives Derivatives of xanthine (known collectively as xanthines) are a group of alkaloids commonly used for their effects as mild stimulants and as bronchodilators, notably in the treatment of asthma symptoms. In contrast to other, more potent stimulants like sympathomimetic amines, xanthines mainly act to oppose the actions of the sleepiness-inducing adenosine, and increase alertness in the central nervous system. They also stimulate the respiratory centre, and are used for treatment of infantile apnea. Due to widespread effects, the therapeutic range of xanthines is narrow, making them merely a second-line asthma treatment. The therapeutic level is 10-20 micrograms/mL blood; signs of toxicity include tremor, nausea, nervousness, and tachycardia/arrhythmia. Methylated xanthines (methylxanthines), which include caffeine, aminophylline, IBMX, paraxanthine, pentoxifylline,[9] theobromine, and theophylline, affect not only the airways but stimulate heart rate, force of contraction, and cardiac arrhythmias at high concentrations. In high doses they can lead to convulsions that are resistant to anticonvulsants. Methylxanthines induce acid and pepsin secretions in the GI tract. Methylxanthines are metabolized by cytochrome P450 in the liver. These drugs act as both: competitive nonselective phosphodiesterase inhibitors [10] which raise intracellular cAMP, activate PKA, inhibit TNF-α [9][11] and leukotriene [12] synthesis, and reduce inflammation and innate immunity [12] and nonselective adenosine receptor antagonists [13] which inhibit sleepiness-inducing adenosine. But different analogues show varying potency at the numerous subtypes, and a wide range of synthetic xanthines (some nonmethylated) have been developed searching for compounds with greater selectivity for phosphodiesterase enzyme or adenosine receptor subtypes.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26] Xanthines are also found very rarely as constituents of nucleic acids. For decades, doctors thought eating a lot of spicy food caused stomach ulcers, or painful sores on the lining of the esophagus, stomach or upper area of the small intestine. It certainly made sense, as patients would often complain of burning stomach pains after eating spicy food. The treatment: a strict diet of bland food (which didn’t actually get rid of the ulcer pain). Smoke. Smoking may increase the risk of peptic ulcers in people who are infected with H. pylori. Drink alcohol. Alcohol can irritate and erode the mucous lining of your stomach, and it increases the amount of stomach acid that's produced. Have untreated stress. Eat spicy foods. Acetylcholin –betanchol-carbachol