applications of radioisotopes in biochemistry.pdf

Congress
1st Session / COMMITTEE PRINT
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES AND
RADIATION IN THE LIFE SCIENCES
SUMMARY-ANALYSIS OF HEARINGS
HELD ON
MARCH 27, 28, 29, AND 30, 1961
BEFORE THE
SUBCOMMITTEE ON
RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND RADIATION
OF THE
JOINT COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC ENERGY
CONGRESS OF THE UNITED STATES
JUNE 1261
Printed for the use of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy
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9° WASHINGTON : 1961
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
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JOINT COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC ENERGY
CHET HOLIFIELD, California, Chairman
JOHN 0. PASTORE, Rhode Island, Vice Chairman
MELVIN PRICE, Illinois
WAYNE N. ASPINALL, Colorado
ALBERT THOMAS, Texas
THOMAS Q. MORRIS, NewMexico
JAMES E. VAN ZANDT, Pennsylvania
CRAIG HOSMER, California
WILLIAM H. BATES, Massachusetts
JACK WESTLAND, Washington
RICHARD B. RUSSELL, Georgia
CLINTON P. ANDERSON, New Mexico
ALBERT GORE, Tennessee
HENRY M. JACKSON,Washington
BOURKE B. HICKENLOOPER, Iowa
HENRY DWORSHAK, Idaho
GEORGE D. AIKEN, Vermont
WALLACE F. BENNETT, Utah
JAMES T. RAMEY, Executive Director
SUBCOMMITTEE ON RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND RADIATION
MELVIN PRICE, Illinois, Chairman
CHET HOLIFIELD, California JOHN 0. PASTORE, Rhode Island
JAMES E. VAN ZANDT, Pennsylvania
CRAIG HOSMER, California
ALBERT GORE, Tennessee -
HENRY M. JACKSON, Washington
BOURKE B. HICKENLOOPER, lows
GEORGE D. AIKEN, Vermont
KENNETH S. MCALPINE, Professional Staff Member
JAMES L. LIYEKMAN, Technical Adviser
JOHN F. BONNER, Technical Adviser

C O N T E N T S
(An alphabetical list of photographs, charts and other exhibits contained in the
hearings appears on p. 19 as a ready reference to the subject matter which was
presented at the hearings)
Page
Background of hearings 1
Highlights of presentations 2
Introduction 3
A. Medical and dental research 4
B. Agricultural research and insect control 8
C. Water resources studies and marine and oceanographic research._ 12
D. Basic research and instrumentation 13
E. Education and training programs in radiation biology 17

APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION IN THE
LIFE SCIENCES
BACKGROUND OF HEARINGS
The Joint Committee on Atomic Energy, Subcommittee on lie-
search, Development, and Radiation, held hearings the latter part of
March 1961, entitled "Applications of Radioisotopes and Raidiation
in the Life Sciences." Because of the time elapsed since 1956 when
similar hearings were held, it was considered desirable to determine
what progress had been made on the peaceful uses of atomic energy
in the life sciences. In many respects these hearings served to update
the 1956 hearings in atomic energy research in biology, medicine,
agriculture, and associated fields. They were intended to focus
mainry on the applications of atomic energy in medical research and
agriculture, giving special attention to studies of biochemical proc-
esses, immunization, genetics, and related research undertakings
utilizing radioisotopic techniques.
A steering committee 1
made up of scientific experts in the various
fields of interest was called upon to assist in preparing the agenda for
the hearings. With the aid of this very able group, the committee
obtained a reasonably balanced presentation of the best available
data on these highly technical subjects.
Nineteen well-qualifiedwitnesses were selected to present testimony
on the most recent developments in the life sciences using radioisotopes
and radiation in the following categories: (1) Medical and dental
research; (2) agricultural research and insect control; (3) water re-
sources studies and marine and oceanographic research; (4) basic
research and instrumentation; and (5) education and training pro-
grams in radiation biology.
In addition, nine other well-qualified individuals were invited to
submit related papers on similar subjects as statements for the record
of these hearings.
On the last day of the hearing, a group of six scientists served as a
panel2
to summarize the main points developed and to indicate the
major implications of the testimony and statements received.
Assistance was rendered throughout the preparation of this hearing
by Dr. Charles L. Dunham, Director, Division of Biology and Medi-
cine, Atomic Energy Commission, and his staff. Particular mention
should be made of the efforts of Dr. James Liverman, Chief, Biology
i Dr. Joseph E. Smadel, Laboratory of Biology and Eickettsiology, Division of Biological Standards,
National Institutes of Health; Dr. John H. Lawrence,director, Dormer Laboratory, Lawrence Radiation
Laboratory, Universityof California; Dr. TheodoreC. Byerley, Deputy Administrator,Farm Research,
Agriculture Research Service, U.S. DepartmentofAgriculture; Dr. A. G. Norman,DepartmentofBotany,
University of Michigan:Dr. J. B. H. Kuper, chairman,instrumentation and health, Physics Department,
Broobhaven National Laboratory; Dr. Dixy Lee Ray, special consultant, National Science Foundation
(professor ofzoology, Universityof Washington); Dr. Leroy G. Augenstine, Departmentof Biology, Brook-
haven National Laboratory;Dr. Leon 0. Jacobson, director, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, Univer-
sity of Chicago; and Dr. Bernard Trum, director, Animal Research Center, Harvard Medical School.
* Dr. J. Totter, Universityof Georgia; Dr. S. Hendricks, U.S. Department of Agriculture; Dr. G. Leroy,
University of Chicago; Dr. D. L. Ray, Universityof Washington, Dr. H. Bentley Glass, Johns Hopkins
University, and Dr. J. Bugher, Puerto Rico Nuclear Center.

2 RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION IN THE LIFE SCIENCES
Branch, and Dr. John F. Bonner, Acting Chief, Medical Research
Branch, in the preparation of this summary analysis as well as many
other valuablecontributions.
HIGHLIGHTS OF PEESENTATIONS
SESSION ON THE JOINT COMMITTEE ON ATOMIC ENERGY, SUB-
COMMITTEE ON RESEARCH, DEVELOPMENT, AND RADIATION
HEARINGS ON APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIA-
TION IN THE LIFE SCIENCES
MONDAY, 2 P.M., MARCH 27, 1961
Introductory remarks—Dr. Charles L. Dunham, Director, Division of Biology
and Medicine, Atomic Energy Commission.
USES OF RADIATION IN MEDICAL RESEARCH
Presented by witnesses
I. The Use of Radiation and Radioisotopes in Dentistry and Dental Research—
Dr. W. D. Armstrong, University of Minnesota.
II. Use of Radioisotopes and Radiation in the Diagnosis of Diseases—Dr.
Clarence Lushbaugh, Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory, Los Alamos, N. Mex.
III. Special Sources of Radiation and the Basis for Application in Medical
Therapy—Dr. Cornelius A. Tobias, University of California.
IV. New Developments in the Treatment of Diseases with Various Sourcesof
Radiation—Dr. Robert J. Hasterlik, Argonne Cancer Research Hospital.
Submitted for the record
I. Clinical Use of Radiation in Organ Transplantation—Dr. G. J. Dammin,
Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, Boston, Mass.
II. Role of a Nuclear Reactor in Medical Research and Therapy—Dr. L. E.
Farr, Brookhaven National Laboratory.
III. Scanning Techniques Including Instrumentation—Dr. Marshall Brucer,
Oak Ridge Institute of Nuclear Studies.
IV. Use of Radiation and Radiosotopes in Pharmacology—Dr. H. C. Hodge,
University of Rochester.
V. Statement of Dr. William H. Sweet, Neurological Surgery, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Boston, Mass., Concerning Neutron Capture Therapy and
Treatment of Brain Tumors and Other Lesions Using Radioisotopes.
TUESDAY, 10 A.M., MABCH 28, 1961
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION IN AGRICULTURE
Presented by witnesses
I. The Use of Atomic Energy to Study Agricultural Chemical Residues—?
Dr. H. L. Haller, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
II. Soil Chemistry and Plant Nutrition—Dr. S. R. Olsen, U.S. Department
of Agriculture.
III. Control of Insect Pests by Radiation Sterilization Techniques—Dr. L. D.
Christenson, U.S. Department of Agriculture.
IV. The Use of Atomic Energy in Farm Animal Studies—Dr. Fred Andrews,
Purdue University.
V. The Role of Radiation in the Production of New Plant Varieties—Dr.
Seymour Shapiro, Brookhaven National Laboratory.1
Submitted for the record
I. The Use of Radiation in Soil Physics—Dr. C. H. M. Van Bavel, Southwest
Water Conservation Laboratory.
II. Use of Radioisotopes in Insecticide Studies—Dr. John E. Casida, Uni-
versity of Wisconsin.
III. Metabolism of Animals—Dr. Max Kleiber, University of California.
IV. Use of Radioisotopes and Radiation in Tropical Agriculture—Dr. Howard
Boroughs, Institute Interamericano de Ciencias Agricolas, Turrialba, Costa Rica.
1
First witness Tuesday afternoon.

RADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION IN THE LIFE SCIENCES 3
TUESDAY, 2:30 P.M., MARCH 28, 1961
APPLICATIONS OF RADIOISOTOPES IN STUDIES OF WATER PROBLEMS
I. The Use of Radioisotopes to Determine the Diffusion, Dispersion, and
Circulation of Ocean Waters—Dr. Vaughn Bowen, Woods Hole Oceanographic
Institute.
II. Ground Water Tracing—Dr. L. L. Thatcher, U.S. Geodetic Survey,
Washington, D.C.
III. The Use of Radioisotopes and Radiation to Study Plant and Animal Life
in Fresh and Marine Waters—Dr. Allyn Seymour, University of Washington.
WEDNESDAY, 2 P.M., MARCH 29, 1961
OTHER USES OF RADIATION AND RADIOISOTOPES
I. The Use of Radiation and Radioisotopes to Study Biochemical Processes—•
Dr. G. D. Novelli, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
II. Use of Radioisotopes and Radiation to Study Immunization—Dr. F. J.
Dixon, University of Pittsburgh.
III. Processes Involved in Genetics and Other Cell Processes—Dr. H. J.
Taylor, Columbia University.
IV. The Development of New Techniques for Studying Life Processes Using
Radioisotopes—Dr. A. Benson, Pennsylvania State University.
THURSDAY, 2 P.M., MARCH 30, 1961
I. Basic Instruments Used in Atomic Research in the Life Sciences—Dr. C. J.
Borkowski, Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
II. Radiation Summer Institute Program—Dr. Donald Fluke, Duke Univer-
sity; Mr. J. Tyson, Austin High School, Austin Tex.
III. Discussion Panel to Summarize Hearings and to Give Overall Views—
Panel members: Dr. J. Totter, University of Georgia; Dr. S. Hendricks, U.S.
Department of Agriculture; Dr. G. Leroy, University of Chicago; Dr. D. L. Ray,
special consultant, National Science Foundation (University of Washington);
Dr. II. Bentley Glass, Johns Hopkins University; Dr. J. Bugher, Puerto Rico
Nuclear Center.
INTRODUCTION
The use of radioisotopes and radiation in the life sciences has pro-
vided us with new techniques by which we can unravel many of the
scientific complexities of the various basic life processes.
The tracer technique involves the substitution of a relatively few
radioisotopes of an element for the stable isotope of the element. By
means of radiation detection apparatus such as a geiger counter the
radioisotope can then be followed through the various biological
processes involved. The radioisotope is chemically the same as the
stable element and reacts in the same biological manner. The
physical difference relates to its radiation properties which make it
useful. It is not too much to say that the radioactive tracer tech-
nique has become an essential tool in medical and biological research.
In many cases it merely requires the ingenuity of the user inutilizing
one of the many dozens of radioisotopes of the elements, which we
have at hand, to follow or study the stages of development of a
particular growth process. Almost on a daily basis new approaches
and innovations are being pursued which offer fruitful hope ofpositive
accomplishment. At the same time new experts are appearing on the
scene because of the rapid pace of this proof of principletechnique.
As was noted in the hearings our need to know the effects of radia-
tion and the mechanisms by which such effects are produced in
biological systems has brought forth much new knowledgein the field
of genetics. It was noted that research in this area could not reveal

such knowledge by any other presently known method. This holds
forth much promise for the future benefit of man. Likewise it has
taught us a great deal about the mode of induction of cancer and the
metabolism, the growth, and the survival characteristics of cancer
cells in a variety of biological situations. Similarly in the plant
sciences we have been able to intensify our efforts to understand
the selective uptake by roots and leaves of a variety of radioisotopes,
the movementof these elements in the soil, and the factors that modify
these things. These efforts have produced much fundamentalknowl-
edge of soils, of plant metabolism, plant genetics, and of the ecological
relationships of living things in artificial and natural habitats. Thus
we can with greater efficiency add to our storehouse of knowledge for
the betterment of mankind.
Power and knowledge are the peaceful products of atomic energy.
Scientists in every discipline, in laboratories throughout the Nation
and the world, are pursuing knowledgewith the new methods and new
opportunities made possible by atomic energy. It was indicated that
the value of that knowledge will far exceed the expectations of those
who first made nuclear energy available to man.
A. MEDICAL AND DENTAL RESEARCH
1. Dental research
Application of radioisotopes in dental research has revealed hitherto
unexpected biochemical and physiological processes occurring in in-
tact, mature teeth. In spite of the fact that enamel and dentin have
no power of self-regeneration these structures are not static stones.
Isotopes of calcium and phosphorus enter the enamel mainly from the
saliva and find their way in the dentin predominantly from the blood.
Isotopes of some elements not normally present in teeth have been
observed to traverse the entire tooth structure, showing the operation
of a two-way migration through the tooth.
The efficiency of dental filling materials when tested with radio-
isotopes reveals that all fillings leak mouth fluids between the filling
and the tooth. These studies should lead the way to discovery of
better dental filling materials.
Experiments with radiofluoride in the human and in experimental
animals have given results which support the safety of water fluorida-
tion and have indicated how the body regulates the content offluoride
in body fluids. The mechanisms involved are rapid and effective
renal excretion and skeletal sequestration of fluoride.
2. Diagnosis of disease using isotopes
The use of large liquid scintillation counters has shown that they
have many practical applications to diagnosis in clinical and experi-
mental medicine. These devices are large enough to assay radio-
activity in a whole human body after administration of minute
amounts of a radioisotope. Measuring such a person for several
ensuing days discloses the excretion rates of the isotope from various
bodily compartments and, by this means, various aspects of human
metabolism and diseases can be tested and studied. Thyroid uptake
of iodine; intestinal absorption of iron, vitamin B12
, and fatty acids;
the lifespan of red blood corpuscles tagged with radiochromium; and
absorption and utilization of trace minerals are all among the studies

that can be done with these devices. A 100-second counting time is
needed for an analysis. This, along with the minute amount of
radioisotopes utilized and the great precision of the counters, makes
such analyses safe, rapid, inexpensive, and accurate.
8. Biological basis of and instrumentation available for medical therapy
Direct cancer therapy with high energy radiation is based on the
selective destruction of cancerous tissue. Success depends on the
physician's ability to focus the radiation on the cancer while sparing
the normal tissue—an objective not often achieved with X-rays and
electrons of normal energies because of their excessive scattering in
the body tissue. Through the use of supervoltage X-rays, gamma
rays, and electrons, it is possible to minimize undesirable side effects
and thus improve the treatment of a number of localized cancers.
Among these are cancers of the larynx, esophagus, cervix, uterus,
bladder, and lung.
Indirect cancer therapy involves irradiation of centers, such as the
pituitary gland, that control tissue proliferation in order to depress
their function. Regressions of tumor growth have been observed in
60 to 150 cases of nonterminal mammary cancer which have been
treated by irradiating the pituitary gland, a master control center.
Bony, lymph node, pulmonary, and skin cancer invasions appear to
respond better than visceral or brain cancers to this type of indirect
treatment. This technique has been useful as a therapeutic measure-
as well as in affording a better understanding of the therapy and
pharmaceutical prevention of cancer. Pituitary irradiation has been
useful in investigating prostate cancer, diabetes mellitus, pituitary
tumors, and malignant exophthalmos.
The use of heavy particle radiation beams as surgical scalpels both
to treat certain diseases such as Parkinson's disease and schizophrenia
and also as tools to study brain function is a fascinatingarea of present
investigation. This technique may augment or replace certain neuro-
surgical procedures wnich are hazardous as a result of severebleeding
and the formation of scar tissue.
The presence of high energy heavy ions in outer space raises ques-
tions as to their effects on astronauts and their role in modifying life
on other planets. Thus studies of the biological effects produced by
high energy heavy ions, originally initiated on the basis of medical
and basic biological interest, are beginning to have more extensive
ramifications in man's conquest of space.
One witness brought out the fact that no accelerator exists today
which is devoted exclusively to research in the life sciences. A need
for this was indicated.
4. Medical therapy
Advances in the treatment of malignancies with radiations in the
past 5 years have developed along the following lines:
Precise localization of the malignant area to be destroyed by radia-
tion, an ability to deliver an "adequate" dose of radiation to the site,
and a marked reduction of radiation dose to adjacent healthy tissues
and vital structures.
One important such approach is through the use of the low energy
X-ray emitting isotope palladium 103. This, when injected into
tumors as particulate palladium 103 "black," produces ahomogeneous
70289°—61 2

radiation field within the tumor, with a small dose to the surrounding
tissues.
Refinements of the techniques of the transnasal implantation of
pellets of radioactive yttrium into the pituitary gland under direct
visual control with the image intensifying fluoroscope make destruc-
tion of this gland a relatively simple procedure. This has been found
to be another helpful step in the treatment and care of patients with
advanced breast cancer.
The 50 Mev linear electron accelerator at the Argonne Cancer
Research Hospital and the 70 Mev X-ray producing synchrotron at
the University of California make possible the treatment of malig-
nancies at sites treated previously with difficulty or with much
attendant disability for the patient. These very large machines
will not prove a general panacea in radiation therapy but allow the
advance of those principles previously outlined: adequate radiation
dose in the tumor and small dose to healthy and vital adjacent
structures.
An advance of note is the development of the production at the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital of large amounts of the hitherto
unavailable iodine 125. The use of this long-lived, low-energy (27.3
Kev) X-ray emitting isotope has many advantages over that of the
more conventional iodine 131, a usefully long "shelf-life" (60-dayver-
sus 8-day halflife), a reduction of radiation exposure to the patient by
a factor of 10 to 20, the use of greatly reduced scintillation crystal
size and shielding, and marked improvement in the contrast obtained
on scintillation scans. In addition, iodine 125 is counted with great
efficiency (60-70 percent) in conventional well counters.
5. Organ transplantationin humans
Studies of organ and tissue transplantation involve many diverse
disciplines among which are surgery, medicine, biochemistry, immu-
nology, and radiology. One of the major problems involved is that
of the "host reaction" which is in effect an "immune response" and,
in the case of skin grafts to normal man, the grafts seldom survive
more than 10 to 14 days.
Studies with dogs show that a kidney may be transplanted from
one site to another within the same individual (autograft) or be-
tween identical twins (isograft) and remain functional throughout
the life of the individuals. Transplants between family members are
successful to some degree but transplants between completely unre-
lated individuals (homografts) most often fail. Recent results in
humans have shown that homografts sometimes are successful if the
individual is irradiated with X-rays or gamma rays prior to the
Operation. The use of tritiated thymidine has shown that rejection
is definitely a property of the recipient of the graft and not of the
graft organ itself.
6. Radioisotope scanning techniques
Every drug, once it gains access to the body, tends to follow a
pattern of distribution. This localization is a necessary measure-
ment preliminary to any further study. With radioisotope tagging,
the distribution of a material inside the body may be determined
from outside the body by a method called scanning. Many methods
of scanning are already under development. Point scanning over
one dimension; linear scanning, over two dimensions; area scanning,

over three dimensions; spectral scanning over the spatial dimension
of gamma-ray energies; temporal scanning, scans the known spatial
dimension of time. Combinations of these dimensions or of others
include almost every method of detection external to the body.
The instrumentation for these methods of radioisotope detection
is not yet completed. The current improvements range all the way
from mechanical devices for moving an instrument, to electronic
devices for storing information, through methods of presenting data,
to methods of interpretation. These methods are presented in detail
in the record of the hearings.
7. Nuclear reactor for medical research
A nuclear reactor specifically designed for a program of investiga-
tion of medical problems has been constructed at the Brookhaven
National Laboratory as an integral part of the Medical Research
Center.
The medical research reactor is a heterogeneous tank-type reactor,
operating at power levels up to 3 megawatts. Experimental facilities
consist of two shielded rooms equipped with special treatment ports
and shutters. A broadbeam experimental area located at the endof
a thermal column is available for whole-body irradiation.
One of the most promising new techniques of cancer treatment is
based on the capture of thermal neutrons by an element such as
boron 10.
A thermal neutron is captured by boron 10 and will ultimately
yield lithium 7 and a helium ion (alpha particle) plus 2.79mev energy
in the reaction. The energetic helium ions (alpha particles) are easily
absorbed by tissue and usually result in the destruction of any living
cells in their path. If the boron 10 can be localized in a tumor, and
the field containing the tumor exposed to a stream of slow neutrons,
the alpha particles should destroy the cancerous tissue with little
damage to the regions of healthy surrounding tissue. A particular
brain tumor, gliablastoma multiforme, which is invariably fatal, has
been selected as a suitable object for study and development of a
therapeutic technique.
In addition to the clinical observations on the experimental pro-
cedure of neutron capture therapy, a combined topographical and
histopathological survey has been made of the irradiated brains
obtained at autopsy.
Besides neutron capture therapy the medical reactor has been
successful in producing a number of short-lived radioisotopes useful
in clinical research; for example: chlorine 38, iodine 132, astatine 211,
and bromine 82.
Activation analysis is a technique in which very small amountsof
certain elements may be detected by transformation of the rare
atoms by neutron bombardment into radioactive atoms easily detect-
able by their radiations. This procedure has been applied to the
detection of manganese in blood plasma and tissue fractions. Ex-
perimental work is continuing in both animals and in patients to
determine the role played by manganese in normal metabolism and
in disease.
The application of neutrons of intermediate energy ranging from
thermal neutrons up through the kilovolt range has not been investi-
gated. It is possible that with the development of proper instru-

mentation this energy range may be investigated for possible biological
therapeutic effects.
8., Isotopes in pharmacology
Isotopes are preeminently suited to the tasks of tracing the routes
and pathways of drugs in the body. The absorption of very small
quantities of material can be detected. Drugs can be localized in
an organ or tissue with some facility even when only minute quan-
tities are present. A considerable improvement in our understanding
of the blood-brain barrier to the penetration of drugs has been
achieved. Studies of normal bodily processes, such as blood circula-
tion, and their alteration by drugs have been made. Microauto-
radiography can detect radioactive drug molecules at a cellular level.
Metabolic processes by which drugs are altered chemically can
sometimes be discovered and unsuspected metabolites detected. In
a few rare instances some evidence of the mechanism of action of
a drug has been gained. The measurement of rates and routes of
excretion of drugs is peculiarly susceptible to attack using isotopic
techniques. The search for potent antiradiation compounds with
low enough toxicity to be suitable for human use has been unsuccessful
to date.
B. AGKICULTURAL RESEARCH AND INSECT CONTROL
1. Agricultural chemical residues
Kadioisotopes have proved to be a valuable tool in obtaining in-
formation on residues of agricultural chemicals (pesticides). Many
radioactive-labeled pesticides have been synthesized and used to obtain
residue data needed for the establishment of safe limits or tolerances
for pesticides. Under the Miller amendment to the Federal Food,
Drug, and Cosmetic Act, tolerances are necessary before pesticides
which leave residues on foods can be used. Radioisotopes have also
proved useful in studying the mode of action of radioactive-labeled
pesticides in plants and animals.
2. Soil physics
Soil physics comprises the investigation of the mechanical properties
of soils, their retention and transmission of water, and the character-
istics of soil gases. Applications of soil physics research are made in
various problem fields such as erosion control, land drainage, water
conservation, watershed management, and soil tilth and tillage.
These endeavors have benefited greatly in recent years from the use
of research methods based on radiation and radioisotopes. Some
types of measurements would be impossible without these methods.
Others are improved by the convenience, speed, and precision pro-
vided by radiation techniques.
Soil moisture content can now be measured accurately and rapidly
in the field using either a neutron scattering method or a gamma
radiation source such as cobalt 60 or cesium 137. Precise soil density
measurements also can be made using these gamma ray sources.
Water labeled with the radioactive isotope of hydrogen (tritium) is
being used as a tracer for studies of the efficiency of irrigation systems.
In other studies radioactive isotopes have made possible rapid studies
of root distribution in the soil.

8. Soil chemistry and plant nutrition
The use of radioisotope techniques in research on soils and plants
has made substantial contributions to our understanding of the be-
havior and movement of plant nutrients in soil, their uptake by roots,
their essential functions in plants, and the relationship of soil water
to these processes.
Radioisotope techniques offer unique advantages in that one can
distinguish between uptake of the nutrient from the fertilizer and
that from the soil.
The advantage of this procedure is its virtual independence of
yield and kind of crop, temperature, and light intensity.
Radioisotopes have also proven exceedingly valuable in assessing
the relative economic advantage to be obtained by leaf application
of liquid fertilizers (foliar feeding) as compared to soil or irrigation
water application of fertilizers.
4- Radiation sterilization of insects
Radiation sterilization of insects achieved by means of gamma rays
emanating from a cobalt 60 source is an intriguing new approach to
control or eradication of insect pests. The method requires distri-
bution and release of sufficient numbers of sterile insects to overflood
natural populations of pest species. The radiation dosage must be
adequate to achieve sterilization without affecting mating or other
behavior.
Release of more than 3 billion sterile screw worm flies in the South-
eastern United States by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and
Florida Livestock Board resulted in eradication of this pest within 18
months. Losses to livestock growers caused by the screw wormin this
area have been as high as $20million in 1year. Experiments in Mexico
and Hawaii indicate the sterilization method may also be effective on
insect species which mate more than once, such as the tropical fruit
flies. In a cooperative isolated island test on Rota in the western
Pacific, approximately 1 million sterile melon flies and 3 million sterile
oriental fruit flies are now being released each week. Overflooding
of the melon fly has been achieved but the tests have not progressed
to a point where a marked effect of the sterile flies can be expected.
Results of tests involving releases of sterile mosquitoes are incon-
clusive. Research on numerous other insects is underway or con-
templated.
The finding that dosages of 10,000 to 15,000 or 20,000 r will destroy
the reproductive potential of immature stages of tropical fruit flies
in fresh fruits and vegetables has suggested that radiation may have
quarantine usefulness as a treatment to prevent the spread of insects
in infesting commodities.
5. Farm animal studies
From 1860 until the end of World War I, animal producers in the
United States were primarily concerned with the conversion of forages
and feed grains to meat and especially to animal fat. A large share
of our working force was engaged in hard physical work and required
large amounts of food energy. Since a unit of fat contains about 2%
times as much energy as a unit of carbohydrate or protein, fat was a
desirable source of heat-producing energy. Lard was regarded as the
standard cooking fat; swine were selected for maximum lard produc-
tion rather than muscle and prime fat beef was at a premium.

10
The situation has changed radically. Vegetable oils and fats pro-
vide a cheaper source of edible fats, the consumer will not buy ex-
cessively fat meat, and animal producers are faced with the problem
of increasing meat production in terms of muscle and of reducing fat
production.
The animal breeder has lacked an accurate simple method of esti-
mating the body composition of the live animal in terms of muscle
and fat. The animal nutritionist has felt the same need. Nutri-
tionists have dealt in terms of rate of gain but have been unable to
evaluate the gains or growth in terms of muscle and fat without de-
stroying the animal. There is almost a direct relation between the
amount of muscle and the amount of natural radioactive potassium.
The animal whole body counter is capable of quickly and accurately
measuring this naturally occurring radioactive potassium 40 and
equating it in terms of body composition. This instrument is being
used to establish a basis of selection for the genetic improvement of
swine, namely, the increase in muscle or meat and a reduction of fat.
It is also being used to evaluate the composition of beef, lamb, and
poultry meat, to study the growth process of farm animals to provide
new information as to how animal feedstuff are converted to desirable
edible products, etc.
6. Metabolism of farm animals
The use of radioisotopes has steadily added to our knowledge of
animal metabolism. Bone growth and the mobility of bone minerals
have been explored by the use of the artificial radioisotope phosphorus
32 and calcium 45. Feeds have been evaluated as sources of phos-
phorus and other minerals by the use of radioactive isotopes. Milk
fever can be prevented in dairy cattle by feeding low calcium/high
phosphorus diets for a prepartum period. Radioactive calcium 45
permitted a study of just what effects these diets had on absorption,
excretion, and metabolism of dietary calcium.
Radioisotope techniques are also used in investigating the metabolic
paths involved in the formation of milk by the dairy cow. Labeled
compounds are introduced into the jugular vein, mammary gland, or
into the feed, and the isotopic label is followed in the collected
respiratory carbon dioxide, excreta, and the milk. Carbon 14 labeled
feed can be used to measure the efficiency of feed conversion to milk
products such as lactose, casein, and milk fat. With these methods
or similar ones it is also possible to answer the question "How muchof
the carbon in milk sugar came from carbonate or some other carbon
compound?"
Radioisotopes have also been employed to study the role of the
udder in formation of milk components by injecting labeled substances
directly into the cistern of an udder and studying the transfer of the
milk compounds.
Other information in animal metabolism has been gained by tech-
niques in which organs are perfused with a labeled precursor or
tissues studied in vitro. By all of these studies information is gained
in regard to the metabolic processes in different animal species.
7. Production of new plant varieties
Since 1956, a number of new varieties of important crop plants
have been released to the farmers as a direct consequence of radiation-
induced mutations. These mutations have imparted new desirable

characters to these crops which make them more satisfactory than
their predecessors.
One was a new variety of bean developed through the use of radia-
tion at Michigan State University which ripens considerably earlier
than the variety from which it was produced, has resistance to
several serious diseases that have plagued the bean growers of
Michigan, and grows as a bush rather than as a vine. These at-
tributes resulted in an estimated saving to the farmers of Michigan
of $4,500,000 in 1959 when only one-third of the bean acreage was
devoted to this new variety. In 1960 about two-thirds of the total
acreage was put into the new variety, Sanilac, and even more will be
planted to it in 1961. Among other mutation-derived new varieties
there is a crown rust disease resistant oat developed in Florida, a new
peanut in North Carolina, and a more desirable carnation mutant in
Connecticut.
At the very core of all of these practical uses of atomic energy is
the fundamental research which made it possible. Without basic
studies of the responses of plants to radiation, none of these practical
advances would have materialized. The need to accelerate research
at the fundamental level becomes clearly apparent when one is aware
of the practical advances already made despite the fragmentary state
of our theoretical knowledge at the present time.
8. Tropical agriculture
There are many difficulties in the path of tropical countries that
would like to use nuclear energy in agricultural research. National
budgets are usually not big enough to support this kind of work. A
serious shortage of trained technicians exists, and often when a scientist
is sent abroad to study he is given an administrative rather than a
research position on his return. Maintenance of electronic equip-
ment in the humid Tropics can be a discouraging problem. Unless
the research center is near a source of radioisotopes, delays in shipping
and in customs can cause large tosses in radioactivity for the shorter
lived isotopes.
In spite of these barriers, many countries in the Tropics are now
making use of radiations and radioisotopes in agriculture.
India is fortunate in having a nuclear research reactor and a corps
of scientists competent to work in this field. Many agricultural in-
stitutes take advantage of the irradiation service of the Indian Atomic
Energy Establishment in their programs of crop improvement. The
crops studied are for the most part those of economic interest, such as
rice, wheat, jute, cotton, peanuts, sorghum, and others. Fundamental
studies on genetics and on the nature of radiation damage are also
being done. Radioactive tracers have been used to study soil and
fertilizer problems, and excellent workis being done in plant physiology
and biochemistry.
Burma, Pakistan, Thailand, Iran, the Philippines, Taiwan, the
Congo, Sudan, Morocco, Ghana, Tunisia, and the Federation of Mali
all have some agricultural research underway, or are just about to
begin.
Hawaii has made use of radiation and radioisotopes for many years
to study sugarcane. The path of photosynthesis was first established
in algae, so it was noteworthy to find that the path in sugarcane is
different. The movement of sucrose from leaf to stalk to root, and
then to other stalks, has been made clear with the help of carbon 14.

Peru, Mexico, Guatemala, Panama, Venezuela, Ecuador, Puerto
Rico, and Brazil are all making use of nuclear energy, to some extent,
in agriculture. Research in Brazil has centered on coffee, and radio-
isotopes have been used to study fertilizer practices, zinc deficiencies,
and the uptake of carbon 14 labeled urea as a source of nitrogen.
Probably the largest research and training program making use of
nuclear energy in agriculture in Latin America is the one at the
Tropical Center for Research and Graduate Training, in Turrialbar
Costa Rica. This is part of the Interamerican Institute of Agri-
cultural Sciences, and their nuclear energy program is supported by
the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. The original 200 curie cobalt
60 source is now being replaced with 1,300 curies of cesium 137.
This source is used for periodic irradiation of plants. A water pool
cobalt 60 irradiator of 1,000 curies will be used for seed and insect
irradiation.
Radiosensitivity of many tropical plants has been studied. Rice
mutants have been obtained for field tests, and fundamental research,
on the nature of radiation damage is being done with coffee and cocoa.
Radioisotopes have been used to study phosphate fixation and
availability to plants. Root uptake studies with rubidium 86 have
suggested a pattern of fertilizer placement for growing coffee. More
than 10 times as much phosphate can be absorbed by leaves with the
help of wetting agents.
9. Radioisotopes in insecticide biochemistry
Radioactive forms of the elements hydrogen, carbon, phosphorus,
sulfur, chlorine, arsenic, bromine, iodine, and lead are proving ex-
ceedingly useful in studying the mode of action of chemicals which
are used to eradicate part of the insects which cause more than $4
billion loss annually. With the aid of these labels it has been possible
to follow the distribution and metabolism of the toxic agricultural
chemicals containing these compounds. The labels are also useful
in determining whether or not a residue remains on food products,
to study their transformation within plants and animals to nontoxic
compounds, and to study the effectiveness of different methods of
application. The vast field of insect resistance is becoming better
understood through the use of labeled compounds and it can be
hoped that better insecticides will be developed as a result of these
studies.
C. WATEE RESOURCES STUDIES AND MARINE AND OCEANOGRAPHIC
RESEARCH
1. Ocean waters
Advantage has been taken of the introduction of natural and fallout
radioisotopes in the ocean to answer questions concerning the dis-
tribution of radioactive waste when disposed of in the ocean, to eval-
uate the capacity of the oceans to produce food, and to enable us to
predict with greater precision the changes in the weather and in
climate which are inextricably bound up with an understanding of
circulation in the ocean.
Tritium, carbon 14, and radium 226 are naturally produced radio-
isotopes that have reached equilibrium in the ocean and thus will
serve as indexes of circulation on a long time basis as well as providing
base levels for experimentally added materials.

KADIOISOTOPES AND RADIATION IN THE LIFE SCIENCES 13
Fallout added isotopes such as tritium, strontium, and cesium pro-
vide tools for studying the vertical movements of water in a massive
experiment that is giving good information.
2. Ground waters
The U.S. Geological Survey and others have streamlined and sim-
plified the procedures for measurement of tritium in water and im-
proved the electrolysis recovery. A research program to investigate
fieldhydrologic problems using tritium in rain was undertaken in 1958.
Activity levels of rainout tritium were higher toward the interior of
the continent and lower in the coastal areas because of the diluting
effect of oceanic mixture, which is low in tritium. Other studies
attempted to make a detailed analysis of basin hydrology by following
the tritium influx into various depths in wells and from streams. In
order to estimate the amount of recharge through depressions on the
earth's surface, tritium is being measured in water table weUs. The
movement of liquid wastes from waste disposal sites can be followed
by the addition of tritium. Objectives of such tests are threefold: to
find out how much water leaks through solution cavities in the bottom
of the reservoir; to measure the rate of ground water movement from
the leakage area to its outlets in a group of springs; and to estimate
the stored volume of ground water in the area. The Survey program
also includes laboratory-model studies designed to explore some funda-
mentals of tritium environmental behavior. Tritium exchange phe-
nomena with montmorillonite and other clay minerals are also being
studied.
3. Environmental studies in fresh and salt water
Radioelements make possible the study of food and feeding habits of
oysters and clams, thus contributing facts that are useful to the man-
agement of these important resources. Trace quantities of radio-
isotopes permit the study of progressing events within an ecological
system, such as the utilization of fertilizers, the herbivore-carnivore
activities in a feeding cycle, and the energy productivity of a total
population.
Radioactive cobalt has been incorporated into metal tags that
increase the efficiency of studies of fish behavior.
Activation analysis by neutron irradiation makes possible the
identification of elements that are present in trace quantities in sea
water and in marine organisms, thus assisting in studies of the pro-
ductivity of natural waters as well as of polluted waters.
Irradiation of fishes and of their reproductive products can be used
to speed the development of fish varieties. Irradiation may also be
used as a method of treatment of certain fish diseases.
As with terrestrial organisms, audioradiography has proven to be a
useful technique for study of cells and tissues of aquatic organisms.
D. BASIC RESEARCH AND INSTRUMENTATION
1. Biochemistry
"The Use of Radiations and Radioisotopes in Biochemical Proc-
esses" is illustrated by an example of their use in studying the processes
by which bacterial cells make proteins. Proteins or enzymes are the
chemical machines that catalyze all the manifold processes occurring

in living cells and are responsible for converting food into energy and
new cell substances. Proteins are large molecules consisting of several
hundred to several thousand of some 20 different amino acids arranged
in an exact sequence. In proteins of similar function but from
different species of animals, the sequence of amino acids is different.
The information for making these proteins with exact duplication of
sequence is contained in the genetic material of the cell, and the
information is inherited from generation to generation.
Application of ultraviolet irradiation was found to inhibit the syn-
thesis of a specific protein, the enzyme /3-galactosidase. This in-
hibition was overcome by exposing the cells to white light. Exami-
nation of the internal contents of such cells revealed the presence of a
hitherto unsuspected fraction of particle-bound enzyme. This find-
ing led to the establishment of a cell-free system that could synthesize
new protein molecules. The synthesis of enzyme was established by
using radioactive precursors of protein, carbon 14labeled amino acids,
and by showing that the newly synthesized protein was radioactive.
Thus a deeper insight into the manner by which cells arrange the
sequence of amino acids into a specific protein becomes possible.
Exposure of the cells to X irradiation also inhibited the ability to
make the specific enzyme. Studying the nature of the inhibition of
enzyme synthesis in the previously developed cell-free extract led to
the finding that the addition of specific deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA),
the genetic material of the cell, was capable of overcoming the X-ray
inhibition.
These studies thus establish that both ultraviolet and X irradia-
tion cause damage to genetic material. On the positive side, the use
of radiation and radioisotopes has led to the discovery of a system
that permits the study of gene action in a test tube in the absenceof
living cells. This system should allow us to learn more about how
the information in the gene is transmitted to the protein-synthesizing
machinery and how it acts.
2. Immunization
Study of the phenomenon of immunization involves investigations
into the manner in which foreign substances (antigens) react in an
individual to stimulate an immune response causing the synthesis of
protective gamma globulin molecules (antibodies) and the ways in
which antigens and antibodies react. Radioactive isotope techniques
have made new advances possible by allowing us (1) to label antigens
and antibodies, and to follow these materials by virtue of their radio-
activity within the blood and tissues of the host which receives them;
(2) to study rates of antibody formation in relation to time and dose
of immunization; and (3) to study the interaction of foreign materials
and antibodies within the affected subject as well as in the test tube.
Isotope labeled antigens, once injected into a subject, have been
found concentrated in the liver and spleen, often combined with
ribonucleoprotein of the cells. Since the ribonucleoprotein probably
serves as a template for protein, i.e., antibody synthesis this observa-
tion suggests that the antigen may directly be involved in theformation
of antibody.
The rates of antibody formation following initial and booster im-
munizations have been determined through the use of radioactively
labeled amino acids, which the host incorporates into antibody. In-

creases in amount and duration of antibody formation have been
observed after booster immunizations in comparison to the responses
seen after initial immunization.
Isotope labeled antibodies have been employed in determining the
life of antibody in the circulating blood. In the human, the half life
of circulating antibody in the adult is 2 to 3 weeks, and in the infant
approximately 1 month.
Exposure to relatively small amounts of whole body penetrating
radiation prior to initial immunization has been found to inhibit the
immune response. On the other hand, exposure to relatively large
amounts of whole body radiation a few days after an initial immuniza-
tion, or prior to a booster immunization, has little or no suppressive
effect on the subsequent antibody formation. This identifies early
steps in the initial immune response as being extremely radiosensitive,
while the synthesis of antibody itself is a radioresistant process.
In the case of allergic or hypersensitive antibody responses which,
instead of being protective, are injurious to the individual, isotope
labels have allowed us to follow the antigens and antibodies and to get
some idea of the mechanisms involved in allergic tissue injury. It
appears that soluble complexes of nontoxic antigens and antibodies in
the circulation can produce tissue changes in experimental animals
closely resembling those seen in human glomerulonephritis, rheuma-
toid arthritis, and rheumatic fever. The complexes of antigen and
antibody are deposited in the vulnerable tissues, and destruction
of tissue, inflamation, and scarring occur.
3. Genetics and cell division
Inheritance of man and all other forms of life is determined by the
information carried in the desoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) contained
in the chromosomes of the cell nuclei of the organism. Because
ionizing radiations and certain chemicals can irreparably damage
DNA, it is imperative that its nature and role in life processes be
known.
From genetic studies before the advent of radioactive labels it was
concluded that every time a cell divides the chromosomes and their
DNA molecules were exactly reproduced so that the hereditary
materials of the two daughter cells closely resembled that of the
mother cell.
With the advent of radioactive thymidinc, one of the principal
components of DNA, it became possible for the biologist to label DNA
and confirm precisely this earlier finding; namely, that once a DNA
molecule is formed it remains intact. This finding demonstrated
experimentally that new DNA molecules are built from preexisting1
molecules which act as templates to assure the precise organization of
the new molecule. Thus all daughter cells contain DNA molecules
of precisely the same structure as those of the parent cell, i.e., heredity
remains constant.
Since these pioneering studies, tritium-labeled thymidine has been
used for research and diagnosis of cancer and various blood diseases,
for studies of wound healing and cell proliferation, for further analyses
of the cellular effects of external radiation, for studies of chromosome
abnormalities and variations associated with glandular malfunction
and abnormal development, and for further studies on fundamental
problems of DNA synthesis, new cell formation, and the dynamics of
growth and survival of cells. This research is a good example of how

a basic exploratory study in one field can prove both rewarding in
itself and stimulating to other fields.
4. New radioisotope techniques
The radiochromatpgraphic method is widely used in investigating
the chemistry of living things. It has revealed the nature and se-
quence of intermediates of metabolism which would have been im-
possible to determine by other methods. The compounds in an
extract of plant or animal tissue separated on sheets of filter paper
by appropriate solvent migration form a pattern of spots wherein
each compound has a specific location. When radioisotopes have
been used in the nutrient for a plant or fed to an animal, the locations
of the compoundscontaining the radioisotope are recorded by exposing
X-ray film on the filter paper.
Radiochromatography has recently revealed the presence and
function of two important surfactant (detergent) components of plant
and animal cells. They were discovered as a result of examining
radioactive products formed when plants were grown in radiophos-
phate or in radiosulfate. Of the countless components of a cell, only
the radioactive ones are visible on the radiogram.
Plants grown in radiophosphorus formed a compound 10 times more
concentrated than any previously known metabolite. It was a form
of a new phospholipid molecule, most concentrated and metabolically
most active in the subcellular green particles performing photosynthe-
sis in leaves.
Phosphorus compounds like these may be made radioactive by
neutron irradiation after their separation on the filter paper. The
resulting chromatogram is the same as if the compounds had been
labeled by metabolism of a radioisotope. The nuclear reactor, there-
fore, can be an important tool in the study of metabolism. The
method is useful for human and large animal experiments where
radioisotope labeling is not feasible. Neutron activation of many
other elements separated on paper by chromatography is practical
and involves no specialized equipment other than the neutron source.
Methods of revealing nonactivated compounds (which can't be ac-
tivated) by binding to them activated bromine-containing molecules
have been developed.
Radiochromatography of componentsof plants grown in radiosulfur
35 revealed an important sulfur-containing fat (sulfolipid). Its chem-
ical structure was determined using sulfur 35 and carbon 14 without
isolation of visible amounts. It surprisingly resembles the synthetic
compounds widely used in modern detergents. These compounds
form layers at interfaces between fat (lipid) and water (protein)
phases in a cell. An important frontier in modern biology lies in
determining the nature of these monomolecular membranes where
surfactant compounds of this type congregate to perform vital func-
tions of the cell.
5. Basic instrumentation
Research in basic instrumentation provides new approaches, tech-
niques, building blocks for electronic systems, and devices which
improve the ability to measure or to observe new phenomena.
A new generation of nuclear radiation detectors, called semicon-
ductor nuclear particle detectors, have been developed which promise
to have as much impact on the life sciences as did the scintillation

17
counter in the past decade. These detectors can be made as small
as a grain of sand and are easily mounted in a hypodermic needle or
placed on the end of catheters for insertion in blood vessels, urinary
tract, gastrointestinal tract, or the respiratory system. The possible
use of these detectors arranged in a matrix around the body to deter-
mine the localization of administered radioisotopes is an exciting
speculation.
Localization of radioactivity in living systems using scintillation
counter scanners presents a general problem ofdata display. Methods
of scanning have been developed which reveal additional information
not found previously.
Further improvement of liquid scintillators and photomultipliers is
needed to fully exploit the usefulness of carbon 14 and tritium as
tracers in biological systems.
Kesearch in other fields has provided new components and tech-
niques which permit the development of complex electronic systems
which a decade ago would have been impossible. The small size of
these components has made possible the development of tiny radio
transmitters which can be placed in ingestible capsules. Another
example of miniaturization is the development of a personal radiation
monitor which is about the size of a fountain pen. Worn in the
pocket, the device emits a warning tone and flashes a small neon
lamp in the presence of a gamma radiation field.
E. EDUCATION AND TRAINING PROGRAMS IN RADIATION BIOLOGY
1. A radiation biology summer institute—director and participant
(ex-student)
A typical summer institute radiobiology curriculum was discussed
in some detail, and the influence of the institute upon the host uni-
versity's staff and curriculum in broadening existing courses or in
creating new ones was described as definitely beneficial.
The view of a former participant indicated benefits he has derived
from institute attendance and how such attendance affected his activ-
ities since his participation. It was estimated that at least 178,000
high school students have received the benefit of 1,127 teachers who
have returned to their high school classrooms not only with this new
knowledge, but with broadenedhorizons, stimulated interest in science,
and increased enthusiasm for teaching.
2. Special fellowships
The proportion of fellows who have gone immediately into employ-
ment directly associated with their training or who are making effective
use of their specialized training has been very gratifying to date. A
resume of fellows trained to date is as follows: in health physics, 500;
advanced health physics, 10; industrial hygiene, 53; industrial medi-
cine, 60—making a total of 623 fellows to date, or through fiscal
year 1961.
Training^ equipment grants.—To date (October 1957-April 1961),
the Commission has awarded 416 grants to 252 schools to a total of
$4,305,907. It is interesting to note that 47 out of the 50 States have
received 1 or more of these grants to their educational institutions.
These schools continue to report an increasing interest in their teaching
staff and among the students as a direct result of these funds for the
purchase of special teaching equipment.

Faculty training institutes in radiation biology.—Since the beginning
of the program in the summer of 1957, 1,127 high school teachers have
been trained in 57 institutes and 153 college teachers in 7 institutes.
This makes a total of 1,280 teachers in 64 institute sessions; and 25
universities have participated in the program. Of significance is
the fact that every one of the 50 States now has 2 or more teachers
who have benefited from this special training. The State with the
largest number of teachers is California with 120. The State with
the smallest number of teachers is Alaska with a total of two.

I N D E X
(The following alphabetical list of exhibits provides a ready reference by subject
and page of the material to be found in the printed hearings.)
Page
Absorption curves for X-rays, gamma rays, electrons, and protons_ _ 55
Accelerators:
Control panel of 50 Mev 98
Demonstrating klystrons, accelerating tube, and pulsing apparatus,
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, 50 Mev , 96
Electromagnetic beam bending device, diagram of 50 Mev 99
Electron beam to be scanned over desired area and spare vital struc-
tures, such as the eye, illustration of ability of the 103
Geographical distribution of major installations for biological or
medical useof __,, , 54
Model of patient being arranged by physicians for treatment by the
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital, 50 Mev 102
Proposed medical research facility at the University of California 75
Showing klystron on right, waveguides, and accelerating tube, por-
tion of 97
Alga, green, "Scenedesmus," radiogram of soluble phosphorus 32—labeled
compounds of ^_.. 317
Algea, green, "Chlorella," radiogram of alcohol-soluble components from., 324
Alpha spectra taken with silicon surface-barrier detector (second alpha
group resolved) 335
Alpha spectrum taken with Frisch'grid pulse-ion chamber (unresolved
second alpha group) „_, , 334
Antibody, formation in rabbits, rates of „___ 297
Argonne Cancer Research Hospital (outside entrance view) 113
Bean stem, radioaudigrams of a „_, ,„_,.__ 167, 168
Blood concentrations ofRose Bengal-iodine 131, typical changesin, innormal
persons and in patients with known hepatic disease_, , ,. 44
Blood retention curves of a chromium 51 label on normal human red blood
cells . .,_- -_,--- , 43
Bone cancer before pituitary irradiation 59
Bone cancer after pituitary irradiation 59
Calcium 45 radioautograms of the proximal end of the carpal bones of
cows prefed Ca/high P diets and high Ca/low P diets 477
Carbon 14;
Activity of plasma acetate and plasma glucose after intravenous injec-
tion of 2-C14
butyrate 489
In respiratory CQs from 3-C14
butyrate 482
Standardized specific activity of fat fraction from the right front
quarter after injection of 2-C14
acetate 491
Summated activity—in lactose. ,--_,_ , 494
Summated activity—in butterfat , 493
Transfer acetate to lactose 487
Transfer of, injected into udder (direct) _ __ 490
Transfer of, injected into udder (indirect via body) 492
Yield in milk after injection of CH3(C")OONa 484
Yield in milk after injection of NaH(C14
)03 483
Carbonate fixation "transfer quotient" , 496
Cell:
Fractionation project (ORNL) 343
From root of a plant, "Bellevalia," autoradiograph of 307
Of rodent (Chinese hamster) grown in culture medium 305
Typical plant 165
Cell-free system, effect of X-ray treatment on 292
19

20 INDEX
Page
Central nervous system stimulation 67
Chlorophyll-containing lamallae within the chloroplast of a corn leaf cell,
electron microscope photograph of 326
Chromatograms (paper) swimming pool type reactor with tubes containing_ 321
Chromosomes:
During two divisions, distribution of tritium to daughter 309
From a labeled nucleus, autoradiograph of 308
From Chinese hamster cell 310
Of Chinese hamster cells at division stage 306
Conversion of codeine to morphine 471
Diglycerophosphate, structure of 317
Edick mask 480
Enzyme:
Formation, scheme of 293
Production 289
Synthesis in the X-ray inactivated system, effect of added DNA 293
Fallout radioisotopes, distribution of, Rongelap, 1959 270
Fallout rare earth radioactivity in ocean 249
Penetration to depth in Atlantic Ocean 240, 250, 251
Fission product distribution in ocean, table of 236, 242, 243, 244
Flour beetle, gross developmental abnormalities in the 69, 70
Fungicides which have been radioactively labeled 157
Gamma rays, a device for focusing 419
Gamma ray energies in a magnetic memory core unit, diagram showingone
method of pigeonholing 425
Gamma isomer of benzene hexachloride lindane 161
Hemoglobins, differences in human 287
Herbicides which have been radioactively labeled 157
I-BSA induced serum sickness in the rabbit, graph of 300
Insects. (See Sterilization of insects.)
Insecticide investigations, radioactive 430, 431
Iodine 131 gamma ray spectra, oscilloscope presentation of 421
Ionizing ability of heavy ions in tissue 53
lonization properties of alpha and heavy ion beams used for stimulation._ 66
Isodose curves comparing energy distribution in depths of tissue of 70
million volt X-rays from the synchrotron with distribution of energy
from cobalt 60 gamma rays 108
Labeled atropine, studies of 470
Lake McMillan project 265
Lesion in a rat cerebellum prepared by alpha particles 63,64
Magnetic memory core unit, linear selection 425
Measurement of isodose lines over a mannikin simulating a hyperthyroid
patient 413
Metabolic:
Fate of LSD 470
Phosphorus in feces by injecting phosphorus 32, measuring 478
Products of parathion 153
Metabolism of—
DDT 150
Demeton 154
Carbon 14—labeled compounds, studies of the 467
Heptachlor and aldrin 152
Morphine, one of the pathways for the 471
Phorate (Thimet) 154
Metastases before pituitary irradiation, pulmonary and lymph node 59
Metastases after pituitary irradiation, pulmonary and lymph node 59
Milk formation, utilization of short chain fatty acids for 488
Moist and dry conditions as the level of available phosphorus increases, the
relative effect of 162
Moisture level in the soil on the uptake of phosphorus by corn roots, illus-
tration of the effect of 162

INDEX 21
Mutants: Page
African daisy , 206
Chrysanthemum... ,. 213, 214, 215
Chrysanthemum (Fred Shoesmith) 212
Chrysanthemum (Masterpiece) , „ _ , _ _ _ •„ : ^ 214
Concord grape ^ . ,. 204
Fairhaven peach___ 203
Flower cell , 205
Geranium 209, 210
Rose (Better Times) „ ._._. 208
Snapdragon ^ .. 207
Strawberry „ ,, .. ^_ 205
Mutations exhibit—Brookhaven National Laboratory._,, ^ 200, 201
Neutron-activated compounds from mitochondria of sheep heart muscle
cells, radiogram of ,__, ^.,_,__^_ 322
Neutron activation analysis of nonaetivatable compounds 323
Neutrons and mesons as used for therapy ,. , 51
Neutron capture therapy treatment for the patient, chart summary of
course of patient treated by 453
Neutron capture therapy on transplantable mouse sarcoma, showing the
results on tumors of different diameter on day of treatment, effect of
different exposures to thermal neutrons on outcome of 458
Nuclear particle detector, silicon surface-barrier 332
Nucleotide analyzer (Oak Ridge National Laboratory) .._ 342
Palladium 103 (see also Tumor):
In tissues, photomicrograph of the omentum of a rat 4 weeks following
the injection of , 81
Radiograph of pelvis of patient with large cystic malignant tumor of
the uterus injected with., ,^ ,._, 83
Shielding of radiation from , 86
Phantoms, electrons of various energies penetrating into masonite 106
Phosphorus 32:
Labeled compounds from lipids of a bull's liver, radiogram of 320
Labeled compounds from lipids of a rat, radiogram of 319
Photosynthesis, radioactive compounds formed during 316
Pituitary:
Abnormally large, dueto internal tumor pressure . 61
Arrangement of image intensifying fluoroscopes and patient for the
insertion of radioactive pellets of yttrium 90 into the ,. 88
Basilar view of skull demonstrating radioactive pellets of yttrium 90
uniformly spaced within the , , 93
Irradiation of a patient with 900 Mev alpha particles 58
Lateral view of skull showing radioactive pellets of yttrium 90 placed
within the . 91
Needle used to insert radioactive pellets of yttrium 90 into the 89
Radiograph of skull showing needle extending through the nose into
the pituitary gland and six radioactive pellets placed within the
gland 90
With radioactive pellets of yttrium 90 demonstrating the regressionof
cancer of the breast which had spread to the lungs, appearance of
chest before and after destruction of the „ .--,- 94
Plant breeders, geographical chart showing distribution of world 101
Precursors for milk components, efficiency of , 485
Protein:
Molecule 285
Schematic of - 286
Separation, graphs of , 291
Pulse-height analyzers, multichannel, 1950 model versus 1960 ... 344
Pulse-ion chamber, Frisch-grid . 333
Radiation:
Crop improvement exhibit, Brookhaven National Laboratory 197
Monitor, personal 345
Therapy, direct and indirect , 49
Treatment with 70 million volt X-rays, advantages of 109
Use in biological research with plants exhibit, BNL , 198
Range-energy relationships for accelerated particles 71, 72

22 INDEX
Reactor:
Medical research facility at Brookhaven National Laboratory 449, 450
To port components, diagram of 449, 450
Renal concentration ratios and renal radiofluoride clearance 21
Respiration apparatus for measuring carbon balances in cattle 481
Retention studies using Nal131
, diagnostic whole-body 41
Retention of orally administered radioactive iron 42
Scans:
An improved scan on a hyperthyroid patient 414
Linear scan of a patient who has been given iodine 131 416
Of a head with a suspected brain tumor 420
Positron scan made before removal of a brain tumor 423
Positron scan made 5 months after the removal of a tumor 424
To show a neck with a normal thyroid 426
Scanners:
Linear scanner (Oak Ridge Institute) 415
Positron scanner at U.S. Naval Hospital, Bethesda 422
Research scanner designed to be adaptable to many new ideas 338, 418
Research scanner positioned over patient on a thyroid scan (OakRidge
National Laboratory) 416
Scanning:
A pinhole scanning device adapted to human use 417
A survey of possible kinds of scanning 417
An experimental positron pinhole scanning device 418
Machinery developed for the rapid scanning of small animals 425
Scanning of liver for cancer nodules using iodine 131—labeled Rose
Bengal in comparison with the iodine 125 labeled dye 111
Scatter radiation in tissue using various beams 56
Scintillation counter:
Composite graph of whole-body retention of Nal131
in normal persons
as determined with Humco I 39
Geneva human radioactivity counter, drawing showing subject stand-
ing against a vertical tank of scintillator solution 33
Humco I:
A liquid scintillation counter, shown with well open 28
Artist's diagram of a patient in position to be counted within 30
Showing a new-born infant about to be assayed for radioactive
iron 32
Tank and phototubes, shown drawn out from the circular lead
shield for maintenance 29
Humco II:
Actual appearance of, with door to the shielding room open for
inspection 35
Drawing showing cutaway diagram of scintillator tank 34
Los Alamos arm counter, most recent version, shielded with turret
armor plate 38
Original Los Alamos arm counter with electronic scaling units 37
Subject in leading sling being carried into the counting tank for clinical
studies 31
Subject with left arm in arm counter and a collimated sodium iodide
crystal scintillometer scanning his liver during a Rose Bengal-
iodine 131 liver function test 36
Whole-body counter, adaptable to plastic scintillators, model of high-
sensitivity, low resolution 422
Screw-worm eradication program, areas of release of sterile flies 176
Soil and solution, relationship between 164
Specific activities of calcified tissues and of urine of 116th day following
radiophosphorus administration to rats 13
Sterilization of insects:
Air drop containers for sterile flies 184
Areas of release of sterile screw-worm flies, 1958 176
Fruit fly eggs (oriental) 179
Fruit fly pupae, shipping containers for sterilized 181
Irradiation unit at Sebring, Fla 175
Mass production methods for sterilization techniques 173
Melon fly 178
Screw-worm fly factory at Sebring, Fla 172
Site of radiation sterilization experiments at Rota, air view 183
Sterile fruit flies loaded aboard a flying boat for distribution over Rota. 182

INDEX 23
Strontium 90: Page
Cycle Rongelap, 1959 272
In Atlantic Ocean, table of 241
Sulfolipid, molecular model of plant 325
Synchrotron, 70 Mev., with patient treatment chair 107
Teeth:
Horizontal cross sections of human teeth following exposure to solu-
tions of radiocarbon, radiophosphorus, and radiosodium, radio-
graphs of ., 15
Penetration of radiocarbon containing solutions between tooth cavity
preparations and various fillings 19
Radiophosphorus contents of layers of enamel and dentin of monkey
teeth following intravenous administration of radiophosphorus 16
Uptake and transport of radioiodine by teeth of cats 17
Vertical and horizontal section of a human molar 11
Therapy, rotational 105
Tissue distribution of morphine and its surrogates 465
Tritium counting tube 262
Tritium laboratory equipment. 261
Tungsten gold probe assembly 337
Tumor:
Digital photoscan of brain 339
Lateral view of the pelvis 84
Marked decrease in the size of, 14 months later 86
Radiograph of pelvis of patient with large cystic malignant tumor of
the uterus injected with palladium 103 83
Rescan record of brain 340
Uptake of phosphorus by plants '. 163
Uptake of rubidium 86 163
Van Allen radiation belts around the earth 68
X-rays, electrons, and protons showing their origins and physical nature 50
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