2. Patients with HIV are at risk for both acute kidney injury (AKI)
and chronic kidney disease (CKD), secondary to:
Medication nephrotoxicity.
HIV-associated nephropathy (HIVAN).
Immune complex kidney diseases.
Thrombotic Microangiopathy (less commonly).
3.
4. Prior to the introduction of combination antiretroviral therapy
(ART), acute kidney injury (AKI) was commonly attributed to
septicemia, or volume depletion.
5. The incidence of AKI in HIV-positive patients is higher than it is in
patients without HIV.
The incidence of AKI in patients with HIV has also increased over
time.
Acute renal failure in hospitalized patients with HIV: risk factors and impact on in-hospital mortality, Wyatt CM, Arons RR, 2006;20(4):561
6. The risk factors for AKI among HIV-positive patients are similar to
risk factors for AKI in the general population:
Older age.
Diabetes mellitus.
Chronic kidney disease (CKD).
Acute or chronic liver disease.
7. Risk factors are specific to HIV:
Receiving ART.
AIDS-defining illness.
Co-infection with hepatitis C virus (HCV).
Low CD4 count.
High viral load.
Incidence and etiology of acute renal failure among ambulatory HIV-infected patients, Franceschini N, Napravnik S, Kidney Int. 2005;67(4):1526.
8. As in the general population, the development of AKI increases
the risk of morbidity and mortality in HIV-positive patients
(Inpatient mortality and Long-term mortality).
Acute renal failure in hospitalized patients with HIV: risk factors and impact on in-hospital mortality, Wyatt CM, Arons RR, 2006;20(4):561
9. The most common types of AKI in patients with HIV infection,
similar to patients without HIV, are prerenal states and acute
tubular necrosis.
10. 1. Prerenal states:
2. Acute tubular necrosis:
3. Crystalluria with obstruction:
4. Interstitial nephritis:
Incidence and etiology of acute renal failure among ambulatory HIV-infected patients, Franceschini N, Kidney Int. 2005;67(4):1526.
11. Patients with HIV infection are at risk for nephrotoxicity from ART,
as well as from medications used to treat opportunistic infections
or hepatitis virus co-infection.
Medication nephrotoxicity may present with acute or chronic
kidney injury or with acid-base and electrolyte disturbances.
12. Some of the more commonly agents include the following:
Protease inhibitors :
Indinavir and atazanavir are protease inhibitors that can cause
crystalluria and AKI.
13. Tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) –
Tenofovir is a nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor, can
cause AKI, proximal tubular dysfunction, or both in combination.
According to expert guidelines, TDF should be avoided in patients
with an (eGFR) less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, and should be
discontinued in patients who experience a 25 percent or greater
decline to an eGFR less than 60 mL/min/1.73 m2.
The risk of kidney toxicity with TDF has varied across different
studies, with estimates ranging from 2-10 %.
The significance of antiretroviral-associated acute kidney injury in a cohort of ambulatory human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients, Wikman P, Nephrol Dial
Transplant. 2013;28(8):2073.
14. Other antiviral agents – Acyclovir, foscarnet, and cidofovir are
drugs used to treat herpes simplex virus or cytomegalovirus
infection. Each of these agents can be associated with the
development of AKI.
Anti-Pneumocystis drugs – Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole and,
less commonly, pentamidine are agents used to treat
Pneumocystis infection. Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole can
produce interstitial nephritis, while approximately 25 percent of
patients treated with pentamidine develop reversible AKI that is
likely due to nephrotoxic acute tubular necrosis.
15. In addition, several antiretroviral agents can interfere with the
tubular secretion of creatinine, producing an increase in serum
creatinine (and decline in estimated glomerular filtration rate
[eGFR]) without a true decline in kidney function.
These include the boosting agent, cobicistat, and the integrase
inhibitor, dolutegravir; the increase in serum creatinine with these
drugs occurs early and is typically in the range of 0.05 to 0.2
mg/dL.
16. HIV-associated thrombotic microangiopathy can present with
significant AKI.
Results of a large observational cohort study suggest that
systemic thrombotic microangiopathy is a rare complication of
HIV infection in the ART era.
HIV-associated thrombotic microangiopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: an observational study, Becker S, Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S267.
17.
18. The prevalence and incidence of HIV-related end-stage renal
disease (ESRD) are projected to increase as the prevalence of
HIV infection continues to rise.
Highly active antiretroviral therapy and the epidemic of HIV+ end-stage renal disease, Schwartz EJ, J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(8):2412.
19. Risk factors for incident or progressive CKD in HIV-positive
adults include hepatitis C virus (HCV) co-infection, low CD4 T cell
count, high HIV viral load, and traditional CKD risk factors such
as diabetes and hypertension.
Treatment with tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF) and boosted
protease inhibitors has also been associated with GFR decline or
decreased GFR in several studies, while ART in general appears
to slow the rate of renal function decline.
20. The etiology of CKD in patients with HIV:
HIV-independent disorders (such as hypertension, diabetes).
Incomplete recovery from an episode of acute kidney injury.
HIV-related disorders, including HIVAN.
HIV immune complex kidney disease (HIVICK).
In addition, many HIV-positive adults are also at risk for
glomerulonephritis secondary to HCV co-infection.
21. The classic kidney disease of HIV infection, HIV-associated
nephropathy (HIVAN), was first described in 1984 in patients with
advanced HIV infection.
HIVAN is a collapsing form of focal segmental glomerulosclerosis
(FSGS) with associated tubular microcysts and interstitial
inflammation.
22. HIVAN classically presents with significant proteinuria and rapidly
progressive kidney disease in the setting of normal blood
pressure and normal to enlarged kidneys, although the
presentation may be less dramatic in the ART era.
HIVAN is usually not seen in patients on ART who have a normal
CD4 T cell count and an undetectable HIV viral load.
23. Nearly 40% of HIV-positive patients with proteinuric kidney disease
and suspected HIVAN will have an alternative diagnosis on biopsy.
Renal pathology of human immunodeficiency virus infection, D'Agati V, Appel GB, Semin Nephrol. 1998;18(4):406.
24. A number of immune complex kidney diseases have been
reported in patients with HIV infection, including:
Membranous nephropathy.
Membranoproliferative.
Mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis.
"lupus-like" proliferative glomerulonephritis.
Though rare, IgA nephropathy has also been reported in the
setting of HIV infection.
25. HCV co-infection has been associated with the development of
acute and chronic kidney disease.
The classic clinical findings of cryoglobulinemia and
hypocomplementemia may be less common in co-infected
patients.
26.
27. Expert guidelines that recommend screening and early
identification of CKD in patients with HIV.
HIV-positive individuals should have their GFR estimated at least
twice yearly and should have either a urinalysis or quantitative
assessment of urine protein excretion at least once yearly in order
to monitor for the development of kidney disease.
Such patients whose eGFR has declined by 25 percent or more
to a level below 60 mL/min/1.73 m2, or who have protein
excretion greater than 300 mg/day, should be referred for
nephrology evaluation.
28. Identification of CKD in a patient with HIV should prompt initiation
of ART (if not already started) and tight control of comorbid
diabetes and hypertension (if present).
Medication doses should be adjusted for the calculated creatinine
clearance, with particular attention to nucleoside and nucleotide
reverse transcriptase inhibitors.
29. Analyses of data from the US Renal Data System (USRDS) have
demonstrated similar outcomes in HIV-positive ESRD patients
treated with hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis, as well as
significant improvements in survival in the ART era.
Editor's Notes
This was documented in a study of hospitalized adults in New York state which compared administrative data from 1995 (before the introduction of ART) to data from 2003 (after the introduction of ART) [17]. Compared with HIV-negative hospitalized patients, AKI was documented in a significantly greater proportion of HIV-positive hospitalized patients, both in 1995 (2.9 versus 1 percent) and 2003 (6 versus 2.7 percent). Among HIV-positive patients, the proportion with documented AKI was two-fold higher in 2003, although in-hospital mortality was lower.
In the study of 754 HIV-positive patients : receiving ART (12 versus 4 percent) and those with an AIDS-defining illness (30 versus 7 percent).
BACKGROUND: Acute renal failure (ARF) is a cause of renal dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Its incidence and causes have not been studied since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV ambulatory patients.
METHODS: This is a prospective cohort study of 754 HIV patients, 18 years or older, seen at a university-based infectious disease clinic between 2000 and 2002. ARF was identified using proportional increases in serum creatinine from baseline and by chart review. Clinical conditions were assessed at the time of the ARF event. ARF incidence rates (IR) were calculated by dividing the number of events by person time at risk. To compare patients with and without ARF, t test or chi-square test were used.
RESULTS: Patient's mean age was 40 years; 68% were male and 61% were black. One hundred-eleven ARF events occurred in 71 subjects (IR 5.9 per 100 person-years; 95% CI 4.9, 7.1). ARF was more common in men, in those with CD4 cell count<200 cells/mm(3), and HIV RNA levels>10,000 copies/mL. These patients more often had acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), hepatitis C infection (HCV), and have received HAART. ARF was mainly community-acquired, due to prerenal causes or acute tubular necrosis, and associated with opportunistic infections and drugs. Liver disease was a cause of ARF in HCV-infected patients.
CONCLUSION: ARF is common in ambulatory HIV patients. Immunosuppression, infection, and HCV are important conditions associated with ARF in the post-HAART era
Inpatient mortality was significantly more frequent among HIV-positive patients who had AKI than among HIV-positive patients without AKI in a 2003 sample of hospitalized patients in New York state (27 versus 4 percent).
The best data come from a prospective study of 754 HIV-positive patients followed at a single center; 111 episodes of AKI developed in 71 patients during a two-year period. The major types of AKI in this population included:
In the study of 754 HIV-positive patients : receiving ART (12 versus 4 percent) and those with an AIDS-defining illness (30 versus 7 percent).
BACKGROUND: Acute renal failure (ARF) is a cause of renal dysfunction in human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-infected patients. Its incidence and causes have not been studied since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in HIV ambulatory patients.
METHODS: This is a prospective cohort study of 754 HIV patients, 18 years or older, seen at a university-based infectious disease clinic between 2000 and 2002. ARF was identified using proportional increases in serum creatinine from baseline and by chart review. Clinical conditions were assessed at the time of the ARF event. ARF incidence rates (IR) were calculated by dividing the number of events by person time at risk. To compare patients with and without ARF, t test or chi-square test were used.
RESULTS: Patient's mean age was 40 years; 68% were male and 61% were black. One hundred-eleven ARF events occurred in 71 subjects (IR 5.9 per 100 person-years; 95% CI 4.9, 7.1). ARF was more common in men, in those with CD4 cell count<200 cells/mm(3), and HIV RNA levels>10,000 copies/mL. These patients more often had acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), hepatitis C infection (HCV), and have received HAART. ARF was mainly community-acquired, due to prerenal causes or acute tubular necrosis, and associated with opportunistic infections and drugs. Liver disease was a cause of ARF in HCV-infected patients.
CONCLUSION: ARF is common in ambulatory HIV patients. Immunosuppression, infection, and HCV are important conditions associated with ARF in the post-HAART era
BACKGROUND: To determine the incidence and significance of acute kidney injury (AKI) after initiating highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART).
METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 271 consecutively treated HIV-infected patients, initiating first (75) or sequential HAART (196) from January 2008 to June 2011. AKI was diagnosed according to the Risk, Injury, Failure, Loss of kidney function, End-stage renal disease (RIFLE)/Acute Kidney Injury Network (AKIN) criteria, and the risk of progression to chronic kidney disease (CKD) was evaluated.
RESULTS: A greater estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) decrease after 1 year was observed for patients initiating a tenofovir disoproxil fumarate (TDF)-based regimen (-6.45 versus +0.98 mL/min/1.73 m(2) when compared with patients without TDF; P<0.01), both in the case of the first (-8.5 versus -2.27; P = 0.04) or successive regimens (-5.3 versus + 1.18 mL/min/1.73 m(2); P<0.01). AKI, as defined, was observed in 10% (28 cases, 6.98 episodes/100 patients-year), mostly stage I (27 cases), in a median time of 6 (3-16.5) months. Four cases (14%), having a worse baseline renal function progressed to CKD, whereas four recovered completely. In the multivariate analysis, AKI was associated with the concomitant use of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis and to low CD4+ count. CKD was diagnosed in 2% (six cases) of patients. Therefore, the overall rate of HAART-associated renal disorders was 11% (30 cases, 7.46 episodes/100 patients-year (95% confidence interval, 6.09-8.83).
CONCLUSIONS: The initiation of a tenofovir-based regimen is followed by a significant decline in eGFR, although it could be misinterpreted by the concomitant use of cotrimoxazole. A substantial proportion of patients develop AKI, but only a minority progress to CKD. Patients initiating HAART and developing AKI should be carefully monitored for progression of renal disease.
Other antiviral agents – Acyclovir, foscarnet, and cidofovir are drugs used to treat herpes simplex virus or cytomegalovirus infection. Each of these agents can be associated with the development of AKI. (See "Crystal-induced acute kidney injury (acute renal failure)", section on 'Acyclovir' and "Foscarnet: An overview", section on 'Renal insufficiency' and "Cidofovir: An overview", section on 'Toxicity'.)
HIV-associated thrombotic microangiopathy in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy: an observational study.
AU
Becker S, Fusco G, Fusco J, Balu R, Gangjee S, Brennan C, Feinberg J, Collaborations in HIV Outcomes Research/US Cohort
SO
Clin Infect Dis. 2004;39 Suppl 5:S267.
The prevalence and predisposing factors of thrombotic microangiopathy (TMA) in the era of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) were evaluated among patients in the Collaborations in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) Outcomes Research/US cohort. Of 6022 patients, 17 (0.3%) had TMA, with unadjusted incidences per 100 person-years of 0.079 for TMA, 0.009 for thrombotic thrombocytopenic purpura, and 0.069 for hemolytic-uremic syndrome. Compared with patients without TMA, patients with TMA had lower mean CD4(+) cell counts (197 vs. 439 cells/mm(3); P=.0009) and higher mean log(10) HIV-1 RNA levels (4.6 vs. 3.3 copies/mL; P=.0001) at last follow-up and a significantly greater incidence of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (82.4% vs. 55.3%; P=.025), Mycobacterium avium complex infection (17.6% vs. 3.3%; P=.018), hepatitis C (29.4% vs. 11.3%; P=.001), and death (41.2% vs. 7.4%; P<.0001). The prevalence of herpes and use of antiherpetics were slightly higher for patients with TMA, but unadjusted distributions were not statistically significant. TMA in a cohort surveyed after the introduction of HAART was rare and was associated with advanced HIV disease.
Highly active antiretroviral therapy and the epidemic of HIV+ end-stage renal disease.
Schwartz EJ, Szczech LA, Ross MJ, Klotman ME, Winston JA, Klotman PE
J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005;16(8):2412.
The rise in the number of patients with HIV-associated nephropathy and HIV-infection with end-stage renal disease (HIV+ ESRD) continues to be a substantial concern for the ESRD program. In order to assess the impact of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) on the progression of patients with AIDS to the development of ESRD and to project the prevalence of HIV+ ESRD through 2020, a mathematical model of the dynamics of HIV+ infection in the ESRD population was developed. Epidemiologic data on AIDS and HIV+ ESRD among black individuals in the United States were obtained since 1991 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and US Renal Data System, respectively. The model was constructed to predict the prevalence of HIV+ ESRD incorporating the current rate of growth in AIDS prevalence. Two possible trends were considered: linear AIDS growth and exponential AIDS growth. The likely effectiveness of HAART in slowing progression to HIV+ ESRD was estimated from the best fit of the model to the data after 1995, when HAART was introduced. The model was then used to evaluate recent data and to project the prevalence of HIV+ ESRD through 2020. The model suggested that HAART has reduced the rate of progression from AIDS to HIV+ ESRD by 38%. The model projected an increase in HIV+ ESRD prevalence in the future as a result of the increase in the AIDS population among black individuals. This increasewas predicted even assuming a 95% reduction in the progression from AIDS to HIV+ ESRD. Despite the potential benefit of HAART, the prevalence of HIV+ ESRD in the United States is expected to rise in the future as a result of the expansion of the AIDS population among black individuals. It is concluded that prevention of progression to ESRD should focus on early antiretroviral treatment of HIV-infected patients who have evidence of HIV-associated nephropathy.