This document provides an overview of disaster communications in a changing media world. It discusses the historical uses of media in civil defense and disaster response efforts. New media like blogs, social media, and citizen journalism are now playing an important role in disaster communications. The evolution of new media use has changed the roles of government agencies and traditional media outlets. Effective disaster communications now require embracing new technologies while maintaining core principles like transparency, accessibility, and partnerships with the media.

1. Disaster Communications
in a Changing Media
World

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3. Disaster Communications
in a Changing Media
World
By
George D. Haddow and Kim S. Haddow
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Haddow, George D.
Disaster communications in a changing media world / by George D. Haddow
and Kim S. Haddow.
p. cm. — (Butterworth-Heinemann homeland security series)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
1. Emergency management. 2. Disasters—Press coverage—Planning.
I. Haddow, Kim. II. Title.
HV551.2.H25 2008
363.340
6--dc22 2008034720
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5. To Douglas and Owen

7. Table of Contents
Acknowledgement xv
Introduction xvii
1. Communications: The Critical Function 1
Mission 2
Assumptions 2
Customer Focus 3
Leadership Commitment 5
Inclusion of Communications in Planning
and Operations 8
Situational Awareness 10
Media Partnership 15
Communicating in the Era of Homeland Security 19
Conclusion 22
2. Disaster Communications in a Changing Media World 23
Introduction 23
Historical Uses of Media 24
Civil Defense 24
Disaster Response and Recovery 27
New Media and Disaster Communications 32
“Burmese Blog the Cyclone”—BBC News Headline 33
In China, New Media Helps Speed Recovery 35
New Media: New World 36
The Evolution of New Media Use in Disasters 40
3. Principles of a Successful Communications Strategy 45
Focus on the Needs of Your Customers 46
Make a Commitment to Effective Communications 48
Be an Active Participant in Communications 48

8. Include Communications Director on Senior
Management Team 48
Hire and Maintain Professional Staff 48
Invest in Ongoing Training for Staff 48
Invest Resources in Communications 48
Make Communications an Integral Part of All
Planning and Operations 49
Bring Communications Professionals to the Table 49
Run All Decisions Through the Communications Filter 49
Develop Communication Strategies to Support
Operations 49
Create Communications Strategies to Promote
Plans 49
Be Transparent in Your Communications 49
Don’t Lie 50
Don’t Talk About What You Don’t Know 52
Don’t Talk About Actions of Other Organizations 54
Don’t Make Promises You Can’t Keep 55
Be Informed 55
Acknowledge the Conversation 55
Focus on Performance 55
Ensure that Your Information is Accurate 55
Make Information a Priority 55
Invest in Information Collection 55
Invest in Information Management 56
Use Only Confirmed Information 56
Make Decisions Based on Good Information 56
Release Information in a Timely Manner 56
Don’t Hold Onto Information—Share It 56
Conduct Regular Updates 56
Make Special Updates When New Information
Emerges 57
Reach Out to As Many Media Outlets
As Possible 57
viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

9. Make Yourself, Your Staff, and Others, Where
Appropriate, Available and Accessible 57
Be Available and Accessible to Media 57
Make the Incident Commander Available to Media 57
Work with Elected and Appointed Officials 58
Support Your Public Information Officer 58
Make Technical Staff Available to Media 59
Include Officials from Other Emergency Agencies 59
Secure Media Training for Yourself and Staff 59
Create an Emotional Connection with Your Audience 60
Give Your Organization a Human Face 61
Assure Audience Who is in Charge 61
Be the Source of Information for Media and Public 61
Share Information 62
Speak in Plain and Direct Language 62
Ensure that All Parties are Served 62
Be Emphatic 62
Be Accountable 62
Be Consistent 62
Build a Partnership with the Media 62
Maintain a Trained Media Relations Staff 64
Be Consistently Accessible to the Media 64
Be the Central Information Source 64
Provide Safe Access to Disaster Site 64
Respond to Media Inquiries 64
Understand Media Deadlines and Information Needs 64
Work with All Media—Traditional and New 65
Monitor Media Stories 65
Thank Media for Their Help 65
4. Application of Communications Principles to
All Four Phases of Emergency Management 67
Mitigation 68
Preparedness Programs and Actions 76
Response 89
Table of Contents ix

10. Recovery 98
Conclusion 100
5. Disaster Communications Audiences 101
The Public 102
Elected Officials and Community Leaders 109
Partners and Stakeholders 111
The Media 112
6. Building New Disaster Communications Capabilities 113
Introduction 113
Citizen Journalists and the Traditional Media 117
Calls for Contribution 119
Formal Partnerships 120
Replacing Traditional Media with Online News Sites 121
New Media and Government 122
7. Working with the News Media 127
Introduction 127
News Operations 129
The Never-Ending News Cycle: It’s Never
Too Late for News 129
Reporters Now Write Their Story, Do a Web
Version, Blog, and Post Audio and Video 129
Respect What’s Being Generated Online
by the Public: The Media Does 130
Reporters Mine Online Content for Story
Ideas and Sources 130
News Rooms Decide What’s News Several
Times a Day 131
Who’s Who in a TV Newsroom? 131
The Scoop on TV News Operations 132
Building Relationships with Reporters 132
Sample Intro Call Rap 133
How Do I Match My Story to Media Outlet? 139
Keys to All Successful Media Outreach 139
x TABLE OF CONTENTS

11. 8. Building an Effective Disaster Communications
Capability in a Changing Media World 145
Introduction 145
A Communication Plan 146
Information Coming In 147
Information Going Out 150
Messengers 154
Staffing 155
Training and Exercises 156
Monitor, Update, and Adapt 157
Conclusion 158
Resources 159
Glossary of Terms 160
Innovations 165
VA Emergency Officials Launch YouTube Channel 165
State Posts Clips About Preparedness On YouTube 165
Spanish Class Offered for First Responders 165
Guard Has New Cellular System 166
Advanced Technology Helps Firefighters Talk to Each
Other in Maine 166
Making the Call When a Crisis Hits 167
State Unveils 211 Phone Number for Storm Calls 168
Alabama Tests Blimp for Disaster Communication Use 168
County EMA to Distribute 260 Weather Radios
(Ledger Enquirer (GA), 5/18) 168
More Weather Radios for Sale in Wisconsin
(Capital Times, 5/14) 169
Illinois Distributes Emergency Radios to College Campuses 169
Maryland Colleges Trying to Institute Text Message
Systems to Send Emergency Alerts 170
Nonprofit Group Puts Web to Work for Emergencies 170
Wildfires Communications 171
National Cell Phone Emergency Alert System? 171
Emergency Text Alerts to Cell Phones Approved 172
Table of Contents xi

12. California Wildfires—Using New Media to
Communicate In A Crisis 173
Firestorm 2.0—Using Social Media Services to Track
The California Fires 173
Twitter Used By News Outlets and Emergency Services
During California Fires 173
Disaster-Related Newsletters 174
Continuity E-Guide: A Wednesday Update by
the Disaster Resource Guide 174
Attainium’s Business Continuity NewsBriefs 174
Disaster Research 174
Homeland Security Week 174
FEMA Emergency Management Higher Education Reports 174
Disaster Websites 175
General 175
New Media 175
Response 176
Warning 178
Preparedness 178
Media Support 180
Mapping 180
GIS 180
Bloggers 182
In Case of Emergency 182
News Organizations’ Blogs 182
Hurricane Blog Aggregators 183
Weblogs 183
List of Blogs, etc. from 2007 Southern California Wildfires: 186
Message Boards and Web Portals 186
Special Needs Populations 187
Emergency Preparedness Initiative (EPI): A Program
of the National Organization on Disability 187
EPI Guide for Emergency Planners, Managers,
Responders 187
xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

13. National Organization on Disability 187
Disability Preparedness Resource Center: The Interagency
Coordinating Council on People with Disabilities in
Emergency Preparedness 187
Lessons Learned from September 11. Claude L. Stout 187
Disabilities Websites 188
Preparedness Messages 188
Talking About Disaster: Guide for Standard Messages 188
Public Perceptions of Disaster Preparedness Presentations
Using Disaster Damage Images 189
The Twelve Cs of Disaster Preparedness Education. 2007.
Rocky Lopes, PhD, Manager, Homeland Security,
National Association of Counties 189
Research Papers 190
Early Warning—From Concept to Action: The Conclusion
of the Third International Conference on Early Warning 190
Communicating with the Public Using ATIS During
Disasters: A Guide for Practitioners 190
Quick Response Research Report 189—The Emergency
Management Response To Hurricane Katrina: As Told
by the First Responders—A Case Study of What Went
Wrong Recommendations fot the Future 190
Quick Response Report #117—Hurricane Georges:
The Experience of the Media and Emergency
Management on the Mississippi Gulf Coast 192
The Role of the Media in Disaster Mitigation: Roundtable
on the Media, Scientific Information and Disasters 193
The Media and Disaster Reduction: Roundtable on the
Media, Scientific Information, and Disasters at the
United Nations World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction– 193
Natural Disasters and the Media: Relevance of Mass
Media for Disaster Management 194
Communications Plans/Guides 194
Table of Contents xiii

14. Assessing Your Disaster Public Awareness Program 194
The Five Pillars of Emergency Communications Planning 194
The Five P’s of Crisis Communications 195
Terrorism and Other Public Health Emergencies:
A Field Guide for Media 195
Small Business Administration (SBA) Disaster Recovery
Media Guide 195
Nigeria—National Emergency Management Agency
(NEMA) 196
Pandemic Influenza Preparedness, Response, and Recovery
Guide For Critical Infrastructure and Key
Resources, 2006 196
How to Develop a Communications Plan 196
Article by Nancy Rathbun Scott, Dumfries, VA 196
Case Studies 199
Emergency and Risk Management Case Studies Textbook 199
National Media Outlets 201
Online Local News Sites 202
Books 202
Index 205
xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

15. Acknowledgement
We would like to acknowledge the emergency management and communications
professionals who contributed their “Other Voice” to this book: Jane Bullock, John
Copenhaver, Kim Fuller, Holly Harrington, Eric Holdeman, Greg Licamele, Rocky
Lopes, Bob Mellinger, Ann Patton, and JR Thomas. Their generosity in sharing their
experiences and lessons learned is greatly appreciated.
Many thanks to Orli Cotel.

17. Introduction
“Providing clear and consistent direction to citizens before, during, and fol-
lowing disasters is key to emergency preparedness and an effective response.”
–Florida Governor Jeb Bush1
Communications is core to the success of disaster mitigation, preparedness, response,
and recovery. The ability to disseminate accurate information to the general public,
to elected officials and community leaders, and the media reduces risk, saves lives
and property, and speeds recovery. It is no longer an afterthought or a luxury—com-
munications is now as important as logistics or the pre-deployment of materials.
Planning and controlling the flow of information before, during, and after a disaster
will define credibility, trustworthiness, authority, and effectiveness of your efforts
(Figure FM.1).
The emergence of new media—online news sites, e-mail, blogs, text messaging,
cell phone photos, and the increasing role played by “first informers”—witnesses
who now have the ability to transmit information immediately from the event—are
redefining the roles of government and media.
The government’s historical role as gatekeeper is now an anachronism. Tradi-
tional media’s role as the sole conduit of reliable and officially sanctioned informa-
tion has been eclipsed by the increasing use and influence of new media. The tools
and rules of communications are evolving and disaster communications must evolve
to capitalize on these changes and exploit the opportunities they provide—imagine
being able to deploy an army of bloggers to help convey an evacuation order or
report on the locations of new shelters as they open.
Finally, even though the means to the end are evolving, the goals, the values,
and the underlying principles of effective disaster communication—the need for
transparency, increased accessibility, trustworthiness and reliability, and to create
partnerships with the media—have not changed and need to be embraced along with
the practical ability to convey information effectively.
1
Assessing Your Disaster Public Awareness Program: A guide to strengthening public education. 2006. Emer-
gency Management Accreditation Program, The Council of State Governments Through Support from the
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, October 2006.

18. The purpose of this textbook is to define the principles of effective communica-
tions before, during, and after disasters. It examines the challenges to communicating
in a world altered by the emergence and evolution of new media, the impact of “first
informers” on disaster communications, and the changing roles of the government
and traditional media as information gatekeepers. The book contains practical infor-
mation and advice on communications staffing and planning, working with the media,
and real world examples of good and bad communication strategies and tactics.
Chapter 1 examines the critical role communications plays in a successful emer-
gency management operation and throughout all four phases of emergency manage-
ment—mitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery. This chapter defines the
mission of an effective disaster communications strategy and outlines five critical
assumptions that serve as the foundation for such a strategy. Examples of effective
communications in disaster events and promoting disaster reduction efforts are
included in this chapter; examples of ineffective communications and the effect these
failures had on disaster response operations are also included.
Chapter 2 looks at disaster communications in a changing media world. Much
has changed in the past 20 years in the media world, including the advent of cable
news and 24/7 coverage, the rise of the Internet, and the emergence of “first infor-
mers.” This chapter tracks the increasing use and influence of new media in succes-
sive disasters since the September 11 attacks in 2001 and how these changes have
FIGURE FM.1 Tallahassee, FL, August 16, 2004—Gov. Jeb Bush provides information to the media at the state
Emergency Operation Center as FEMA and other state officials look on. FEMA Photo/George Armstrong.
xviii INTRODUCTION

19. affected overall coverage of disasters, how disaster-related messages are presented to
the public, and what these changes mean to emergency management professionals in
their efforts to communicate with their partners and the public.
Chapter 3 presents a set of basic principles for a successful communications
strategy. Discussion and examples are provided in the areas of accuracy, accessibility,
transparency, customer focus, leadership commitment, the role of communications in
disaster planning, developing a partnership and trust with the media, and creating an
emotional connection with the public.
Chapter 4 provides guidance on how emergency managers can develop and
implement effective communication plans based on the principles discussed in
Chapter 3 in all four phases of emergency management—mitigation, preparedness,
response, and recovery. While the types of information to be communicated and the
means for collecting, analyzing, and sharing this information may vary to some
degree from one phase to the other, the basic principles of focusing on customer
needs, leadership commitment to communications, and including communications
in all planning and operations cross all phases. The timing and the delivery of the
information may vary between mitigation and response, but the need for the deliv-
ery of timely and accurate information that individuals and communities can act
on is constant. Many of the delivery mechanisms are also the same, including
television, radio, print and the Internet, and new media.
Chapter 5 examines what it takes for emergency officials to communicate and
work together with these four primary audiences—the general public, elected offi-
cials and community leaders, partners and stakeholders (i.e. first responders, volun-
teers, non-governmental organizations, etc.), and the media. Communicating with
these four primary audiences is no longer a one-way street for emergency officials.
It is now a cooperative venture that requires new skills, protocols, and technologies
to be employed to design, build, and maintain effective disaster communications.
The emergence of the new media has created a cadre of ordinary citizens as “first
informers” providing first hand accounts of conditions where they live in real time.
The new media must also be enlisted in getting information back out from emergency
officials to local populations through their networks and contacts.
Chapter 6 examines the wide variety of new communication mechanisms avail-
able to collect disaster information and disseminate disaster communications. New
technologies allow emergency officials to speed the flow of disaster information;
increase the means and odds that people can access and share disaster information;
humanize the crisis; expand the community; enlarge the perspective; and enrich,
expand, and enhance disaster coverage, as Figure FM.2 shows. Topics covered in this
chapter include how citizen journalists are working with traditional media outlets in
disasters by making contributions to traditional media, establishing formal partner-
ships with traditional media, and replacing traditional media with online news sites.
The relationship between the new media and the government is examined and defini-
tions for new media functions are included in this chapter.
Chapter 7 examines how newsrooms and operations work. Topics discussed
include the never-ending news cycle; how reporters now are expected to write their
Introduction xix

20. story, do a Web version, blog, and post audio and video; how the traditional media
mine online content; and how news rooms decide what is news several times a day.
Information is provided on how a news room functions, how to prepare for inter-
views, building relationships with reporters, who’s who in a newsroom, and how
to pitch story ideas to news departments.
Chapter 8 discusses the challenges of having the truth heard in a cluttered,
chaotic world where everyone is a reporter and turning that trend to your advantage.
This chapter examines the fact that emergency management organizations must
establish partnerships with both the traditional media outlets and the new media in
order to meet their primary communications mission of providing the public with
timely and accurate information before, during, and after a disaster. These new part-
nerships must be based on the communications principles detailed in this book and
take full advantage of the various information sources, networks, and messengers
available to emergency management organizations. The purpose of this chapter is
to detail the seven elements that we believe will comprise an effetive disaster commu-
nications capability in the future. These seven elements include: Communication
Plan; Information Coming In; Information Going Out; Messengers; Staffing; Training
and Exercises; and Monitor, Update, and Adapt.
FIGURE FM.2 University of Iowa Web page on flooding (http://uiflood.blogspot.com/).
xx INTRODUCTION

21. Finally, the Resources Section of the book contains a wealth of information
concerning all aspects of disaster communications complete with Web links and refer-
ences to information sources, research papers, and support materials for use by emer-
gency officials seeking to establish an effective disaster communications capability.
Information is included in the following categories: Glossary of Terms, Disaster-
Related Newsletters, Disaster Web sites, Bloggers, Special Needs Populations, Pre-
paredness Messages, Research Reports, Communication Plans, Case Studies, and
National Media Outlets.
Disaster communications is vitally important to effective emergency
management. Traditional and new media play significant roles in disaster communi-
cations. Our hope is that this book will inform and guide emergency management
professionals on how they can best work with these media outlets to provide timely
and accurate information to the public before, during, and after a disaster.
Introduction xxi