The Effects of Self Talk

Running head: THE EFFECTS OF SELF-TALK IN FITNESS
The Effects of Self-Talk in Fitness
Mikenna Kossow
William Jessup University

THE EFFECTS OF SELF-TALK IN FITNESS 2
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to understand self-talk in order to change negative and
unwanted thoughts. Self-talk is a complex topic to study because of the differences in cognitive
nature. No one person is the same, but everyone uses self-talk; everyone talks to themselves.
Various research has found benefits to using positive self-talk. Negative self-talk can be
motivational to some people but should be reduced. Self-talk has many forms and functions. The
key to changing unwanted self-talk is recognizing the negative talk and becoming aware of its
use and content. Creating a self-talk plan will aid in creating a more attractive form of self-talk;
attractive meaning the type that makes someone better rather than worse. Negative self-talk
impacts most people. The findings presented will help in the understanding of this topic.
Keywords: self-talk; motivation; mental-training; positive self-talk; negative self-talk;
self-talk strategies; thoughts; mental preparation; psychological skills training;
awareness; fitness; sports psychology

Imagine a client standing in front of a plyometric box. It is her first time doing a weighted
box jump. As she stands in front of the daunting obstacle with small weights in her hand she
begins to think to herself, “I cannot do this”. Self-talk is a prominent factor in our ability to act,
achieve, and make progress. The words someone says, whether spoken out loud or in thought,
have the potential to impact progress in any aspect of life. In fitness, the use of the word “can’t”
can be very detrimental. Because the client already told herself she could not do the task, it has
already been decided that she will not be able to do it. Therefore, when the client went to
perform the move, it resulted in failure. However, her chances of succeeding the exercise
challenge may have increased if she believed she could do it.
The concept of self-talk has many dimensions whether it is overtness, functional or is
either positive or negative (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy, 2009). It is important to understand how
people incorporate self-talk in their daily lives. For example, an obese person may use negative
or positive self-talk as a coping response to the stigma of obesity (Myers and Rosen, 1999). Will
the positive phrases enable someone to perform well? Does negative self-talk impact a person
more than positive self-talk? What are some ways self-talk practices increase health and fitness
in society? These are questions to think about as self-talk is dissected and the negative self-talk
in exercise is resolved.
Statement of Problem
Many people today lack the time, confidence, money, and mentality to focus on exercise.
In an already obese nation, the statistics are only going to rise with lack of exercise. Yet, it does
not have to be this way. The problem is this: so many people make excuses for why they cannot
exercise whether it is a whole workout or just a specific movement. It all comes down to

mentality and self-talk. The purpose of this study is to understand self-talk in order to figure out
what is behind the excuses and to incorporate ways we can change the mindset of those lacking
the motivation to exercise.
Body of Literature Review
Self-talk, otherwise known as intrapersonal communication, is a widely researched topic.
It refers to the internal communication people have with themselves (Weinberg and Gould, 2015,
p. 223). This type of communication has major impact on whether or not someone will be
motivated to exercise. This concept has been used as a tool to better performance and mental
strength in all aspects of life. Foundations of Sport and Exercise Psychology breaks down self-
talk in to three categories: negative self-talk, positive self-talk, and instructional self-talk
(Weinberg and Gould, 2015, p. 387). This review will focus on positive and negative self-talk as
the factors affecting exercise. It is important to note the majority of self-talk research is directed
toward sports and athletes but can be correlated with basic exercise behavior.
Determining the origins of self-talk, although not well researched, could be the starting
point for understanding and changing self-talk (Zourbanos, Papaioannou, Argyropoulou, and
Hatzigeorgiadis, 2014). When it comes to being aware, understanding, and assessing self-talk,
some researchers have suggested developing a foundation for self-talk. In other words, what is
the functionality of self-talk? One group of researchers based their study of the use of self-talk
around the 4 W’s (where, when, what, and why). The study was done using a 3 part
questionnaire administered to 150 varsity athletes; men and women (Hardy, Gammage, and Hall,
2001). The main component of the questionnaire essentially asked athletes these 4 questions:
1. Where do you use self-talk?
2. When do you use self-talk?

3. What do you say to yourself?
4. Why do you use self-talk?
Each question had different categories with subcategories such as competition (before or after),
miscellaneous (alone or all the time), nature (positive or negative), or structure (cue words or
phrases). The study, ultimately, demonstrated a functional framework to be able to describe
individual self-talk. However, the questions presented above could bring researchers closer to the
origins of self-talk. It is a stepping stone in creating awareness and better understanding of the
thoughts that can affect a person’s behavior and performance.
According to Tod, Hardy, and Oliver (2011), self-talk is believed to be a negative or
positive factor in performance and psychological states. These three researchers reviewed
various journals and articles to examine and make conclusions on the effect of self-talk on
performance. The findings pointed toward 75% of positive self-talk having a positive impact on
an athlete’s performance and no negative self-talk had any impact (Tod, Hardy, and Oliver,
2011). It also examined two other contemporary types of self-talk: instructional and
motivational. Both showed a high percentage of positive impact on performance. Interesting
enough, the authors pointed out only a few studies had been done on positive-talk being better
than negative-talk and other research saw no performance difference between the two (Tod,
Hardy, and Oliver, 2011). These findings highlight negative self-talk not having much detriment
to skill performance. Yet, it is noted in this study that the suggestion could be due to various
reasons such as negative-talk intervention methods, negative-talk being motivational, and
negative-talk being a challenge. Later discussions will provide more insight behind the
implications of negative self-talk.

Positive self-talk has been studied in various lights and by various researchers. One
particular article looked at the effect of self-talk in mental training for performance. Positive self-
talk is used more by successful people than those less-successful (Kahrovic, Radenkovic,
Mavric, and Muric, 2014). The authors studied a number of other research articles as well as
specific sports groups such as tennis, swimming, and basketball. One specific group was split
into an experimental group and control group. The experimental group was given specific
instructions on self-talk in addition to the normal training. The researchers gathered from the
experiment that those who practice self-talk not only perform better but have higher self-
confidence. It was mentioned by the authors that not only do these successful people practice
positive self-talk in athletics but also in everyday life (Kahrovic, Radenkovic, Mavric, and
Muric, 2014). Conclusions can be made based from this particular article that positive self-talk
aids in mental training and is a big part of improving not only performance but the confidence to
act. Those who are not confident in their physical fitness endeavors may benefit from a positive
self-talk strategy.
Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall (2007) performed a study to assess the effects of both
positive and negative-self talk on endurance performance. The study was done using a stationary
bicycle, and the participants that volunteered were regular exercisers. The test was done over a
20 minute period, twice a week and participants were told to complete as much work as possible
within the time frame. Each volunteer was assigned to different types of self-talk (positive,
assisted positive, or assisted negative self-talk). The study findings showed that positive self-talk
(assisted or not) has quite the impact on performance. Assisted self-talk refers to being told the
positive or negative statements either through audio-tape or a person and then internalizing those
statements. This is an intervention tool that may be used for someone who is not confident or

lacks the motivation to exercise. By aiding the self-talk process in someone who struggles with
mental training, the trainee or athlete may acquire the motivation and self-confidence quicker.
The next finding from the study showed that negative self-talk may not be entirely detrimental.
Two thirds of the participants utilizing the assisted negative intervention actually had better
performance (Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall, 2007). In contrast to several other research
articles, this suggests negative self-talk can be motivational to not all but some individuals. The
authors provided extra insight to the finding on negative talk. It was suggested that negative self-
talk is viewed as a challenge.
Self-talk is a mental skill in everybody whether they are aware of it or not. It has been
mentioned that 96% of adults have some sort of dialogue (self-talk, conversations, etc.) with
themselves (Zourbanos, Papaioannou, Argyropoulou, and Hatzigeorgiadis, 2014). Regardless of
the type of self-talk a person uses, awareness of such talk is a key to change. Understanding the
patterns, the use, and the effects of self-talk gives an individual the opportunity to take hold and
change what needs to be changed. Conroy and Metzler (2004) discuss the patterns self-talk can
have on anxiety and self-confidence. They suggest that self-talk is central to behavioral and
psychological change (Conroy and Metzler, 2004). The instruments used for this study were
various types of questionnaires [demographic, anxiety (PFAI, FOSS, SAS), and Intrex introject
(introject while failing, introject while succeeding, wished-for introject while performing, and
feared introject while performing)] given to various college students. Overall, the findings from
the data collected point to an association between anxiety and negative self-talk (Conroy and
Metzler, 2004). The study did not associate these findings in a negative light but instead
described the patterns of various anxiety forms with self-talk. For example, fear of failure is

associated with self-blame but had some low-levels of self-affirmations. The implications behind
this information is clear: find the motivational cues behind specific anxiety and self-talk.
Often times when someone is looking to start an exercise program or improve their port-
specific skills, he or she will set goals. “I want to be able to due 5 pull ups in 4 weeks” or “I want
to improve my mile time in competition by 15 seconds”. Whatever it is, there is usually a goal
behind it. The relationship between goals and self-talk is present. A group of researchers studied
the effect self-talk has on goal-setting. The participants they studied were self-regulated learners
in grade school and the sport was dart-throwing. Regardless of goal-setting, results showed that
those who used self-talk had performance improvements over those who did not (Kolovelonis,
Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012). The second finding was those who practiced positive self-talk
with particular goal had an even bigger improvement. Earlier it was mentioned assisted (or
instructional) self-talk can have a positive effect on changing the negative function of self-talk
and increasing performance. This particular study pointed out that assisted or instructional self-
talk can increase the attention to a particular motor element in whatever it is they are doing; in
this case, dart-throwing (Kolovelonis, Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012). In other words, by giving
a person who is lacking motivation and focus a particular cue-word or phrase they may be able to
stick to the task at hand and perform better. Overall this study presents evidence that self-talk can
be used as a technique in a strategy to reach particular goals and improve performance
(Kolovelonis, Goudas, and Dermitzaki 2012).
Before moving to negative self-talk, tools to be aware and change it, it is important to
briefly discuss the more contemporary types of self-talk. Instructional and Motivational self-talk
has been briefly mentioned in some of the research thus far. “Self-Talk and Gross Motor Skill
Performance: An Experimental Approach” discussed these specific forms of self-talk

(instructional and motivational) as merely a function or a mechanism of self-talk. The purpose,
similar to many others, was to understand self-talk effects. The participants were all female and
were subjected to an endurance-based crunch test. The researchers measured self-talk with the
Self-Talk Grid, self-efficacy (confident and how confident), and manipulation check. The
participants were placed into three groups: motivational self-talk, instructional self-talk, and
control groups. Each were given specific instructions on what to say. The first set of results
found that all three groups employed not only the self-talk instructed for each specific group but
also employed the self-talk of the other groups (Hardy, Hall, Gibbs, and Greenslade, 2005). For
example, the motivational group not only say “I can” statements but also employed statements
that the instructional group used such as saying “sit-up”. Previous research has failed to find a
performance difference between instructional and motivational self-talk. This particular study
did not find much indication that instructional (breathe out) or motivational (I can) self-talk had
much impact on performance (Hardy, Hall, Gibbs, and Greenslade, 2005). However, the findings
did point to self-efficacy having an impact on performance. Perhaps the use of motivational or
instructional self-talk can have an impact on confidence in which improved self-efficacy creates
better performance. A personal training client who tells him/herself “I can” statements creates
confidence and that confidence creates the ability to be successful.
In retrospect, the research done thus far suggests negative self-talk needs to be changed
and positive self-talk should be encouraged. Negative self-talk can be a motivating factor for
some but more often than not it is seen as a threat on a person’s behavior and skills. Many
methods and strategies are useful to changing and replacing negative statements. However, as it
has been mentioned, awareness and types of awareness are an important step in reducing
negative talk and the effectiveness of these methods and strategies. Two types of awareness are

mentioned in a study done by J. Hardy, Roberts, and L. Hardy (2009): awareness of use and
awareness of content. In order for any individual to be in control of his/her thoughts he/she must
first be aware of the thoughts being made, the occurrences, and the actual content. Negative
thoughts will not stop unless it is recognized as an unwanted thought by the individual (Hardy,
Roberts, and Hardy 2009). Two methods were chosen as a mode of creating awareness: logbook
and paperclip technique. J. Hardy, Roberts, and L. Hardy (2009) attempted to study the
effectiveness of these techniques on awareness of negative self-talk. For the study, 73 students
were split into three groups: logbook, paperclip, and control group. The logbook method
consisted of answering questions about the type of self-talk used (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy,
2009). Paperclip is geared toward the amount of occurrences negative self-talk is used (moving a
paperclip from one pocket to another for every occurrence).
The results gathered from the study showed evidence that the logbook was the most
effective for building awareness on the use and content of negative self-talk. The study provided
insight behind how the logbook might be the best technique. It is less disruptive because you are
not having to remove and replace something with every thought unlike the paperclip technique.
Also, there can be deeper reflection with the log book because the individual could potentially
discuss the source and uses of the negative thought (Hardy, Roberts, and Hardy, 2009). This
study also discussed another study discussed earlier. The 4 W’s (when, where, what, and why)
may assist alongside the logbook in recognizing the negative thoughts.
The awareness and recognition of negative self-talk has been discussed. The final area
that needs to be understood is the potential impact of self-talk strategies on behavior and
performance; this has been mentioned briefly. Self-talk strategies aim to enhance any behavior,
performance, or skill through the use of particular cues and phrases (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis,

Zourbanos, and Theodorakis, 2014). In “Self-Talk and Competitive Sport Performance”, the
researchers observed how effective self-talk strategies were in athletes. However, this could
potentially be transferred to the fitness realm and even just an individual’s life in general. The
participants developed their own self-talk plans. These self-talk plans consisted of different self-
talk cues, motivational self-talk, and instructional self-talk. Evidence from this study suggests the
use and practice of a self-talk strategy, ultimately, creates a systematic habit of self-talk
(Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos, and Theodorakis, 2014). The use of a self-talk plan,
whether involving motivational, instructional, or positive self-talk, will contribute to the change
of negative self-talk. Although specific “types” of strategies are not mentioned, it can be
assumed that by developing a plan on self-talk, one may find great success in meeting goals,
enhancing performance and much more.
Conclusion
The overall objective of this paper was to understand self-talk and the impact it has on
our ability to exercise and ultimately live. Although negative self-talk can be beneficial and
motivational to some people, the majority allow this type of self-talk to disrupt and prevent
improvement. It has been suggested that the importance is not whether the self-talk is positive or
negative but it is the way the content is interpreted (Hamilton, Scott, and MacDougall, 2007).
The 4 W’s and logbooks are the first step in changing the interpretation of the self-talk.
Answering the questions associated in those two techniques helps an individual to recognize and
be more aware of the unwanted self-talk. That is the first step to changing negative and unwanted
self-talk. Creating a self-talk plan is the other step to changing self-talk. The individual saying “I
can’t” while attempting a box jump should change that phrase to “I can”. Using that phrase
continually will in turn create a habit of using positive phrases and believing those phrases as the

confidence builds. Self-talk is complex because of its cognitive nature so every individual will
need to create his/her own plan. Everyone talks to themselves, but it is the habitual use and the
understanding of purpose that brings about wanted change (Hatzigeorgiadis, Galanis, Zourbanos,
and Theodorakis, 2014).
Future Research
Self-talk is complicated to research due to the cognitive nature of it and every person
being different. Through the research process, it was noted that many holes are present. First,
“negative” self-talk is briefly noted in some research and has shown to have some sort of impact
on performance. Majority of the studies confirm positive self-talk has positive effects but very
little point to negative self-talk having positive effects as well. Future research should focus on
how and why “negative” self-talk can positively impact performance. By understanding both
“positive” and “negative” self-talk, better practical tools could be implemented in not just fitness
but all areas of life. Second, future research should look at the relationship between self-talk
tools in the performance of fitness and self-talk tools in everyday life. If people are only
practicing self-talk in one area of their lives, could it carry over positively to other areas? Will
lacking positive self-talk in other areas of life affect the area where it is being used?
Clinical Implications
Research makes it obvious to assume that everyone takes part in self-talk. It is in human
nature to talk to oneself and think to oneself. Consequently, those thoughts can be detrimental to
personal success. The issue is everyone thinks differently to some extent, and it can be hard to
pinpoint generalizations of self-talk for the general public. For the sake of research, most cases
negative thinking and “negative” self-talk can prevent progress in many people. By allowing
poor thoughts and affirming those thoughts to oneself a person can become cancerous to

his/herself. Self-awareness is an important place to start in order to change one’s way of
thinking. When a person is more aware of his/her thoughts, self-talk methods will be more useful
in the process of success. Fitness professionals, coaches, and peers can help in the awareness
process by observing and conversing with the client. It is important to note that negative self-talk
can be beneficial and needs to be considered when dealing with the transforming of thoughts in a
person. The way to progress and success is awareness and transforming of self-talk and thoughts.
Without a healthy mind, one may never see that progress.

References
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