Camel in ethiopia

Melaku Tefera and Getachew Abebe

Camel in Ethiopia - 2012
The Camel in Ethiopia 2012
Edited by: Melaku Tefera and Getachew Abebe
Cover design: Melaku Tefera
Layout: Melaku Tefera
Production manager: Fisseha Abnet
______© Ethiopian Veterinary Association ISBN 9789994498192
All rights reserved

PREFACE
“Going lower to get higher”
The pastoral regions of Ethiopia are traditionally lowland, namely those areas less
than 1500 meters above sea level (masl). The most extreme of these is the Afar
Triangle which at its lowest point is to 116m below sea level in temperatures range
from 25°C in the rainy season to 45°C in the dry season. . It can be said that it is the
opposite of the polar regions of our planet where only thermophilic species and
life style can survive.
The lowlanders are linked to the highlanders socially and economically via what is
called the string of nature: water is discharged in the form of rain on the mountain
roofs of Ethiopia and agriculturalists plow and cultivate cereals. Streams run to the
lowland plains forming several perennial rivers which are the last refuge of
pastoral people during the driest periods.
The pastoral area of Ethiopia is the main camel belt in the horn of Africa. It is
known by a camel culture, a monoculture which is expressed as adaptation to arid
ecology through dependence on the camel which is based on uniform husbandry
methods and mobility.
The camel is the only large mammal capable of inhabiting the arid lowlands.
Although official surveys estimate a total camel population of some two million
head in Ethiopia this is most likely an under-estimate. The unique geographical,
economic, social and cultural fabric of this biosphere is less known to the outside
world even to many Ethiopians, as pastoralists were marginalized in the past.
Furthermore, Ethiopia was considered as terra incognita vis a vis camel pastoralism
and camel research.
In this book we tried to distill the scattered and scanty literature on Ethiopian
camel, the pastoralist, the environment, the market and camel health and
welfare.We relied heavily on our experience of the past 25 years of on and off
teaching and research on camels, blended with results and experience from other
countries.
The economic importance and adaptive value to climate change of the camel are
on the rise which means that camels are considered as a priority for policy makers
and researchers. Thus it is timely to compile such information in the form of book.
Although camel production and health has, for the past last three decades,
featured in the curricula of Ethiopian Veterinary and Agriculture colleges there has
been no textbook on Ethiopian camels. This book is intended for undergraduate
veterinary and animal science students, policy makers and researchers.

We are grateful to the following organizations organizations and all people who
helped us in the preparation of this book, including FAO, for finacing the book
project. The Ethiopian Veterinary Association (EVA) for coordinating and
supervision of the project, Dr. Abrha Tesfay, Mr. Sirak Alemayehu for generously
providing some of the photographs and those people who shared their
photographs in public domain with no copyright restrictions, and Dr Peter
Morehouse for taking his valuable time to go through all the cahapters of the book
“If Mona Lisa is mysterious art then the camel is a mysterious creature”
Melaku Tefera
Associate Professor
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University
P.O.Box 144 Haramaya Campus. Ethiopia.
251-0914722459,
< melaku22@yahoo.com >
Getachew Abebe
Professor,
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

I
FOREWORD
The camel which is an economically, socially and environmentaly important animal
is the least studied domestic species. The writing of such book is timely and will
rekindle camel research in Ethiopia. Haramaya University being located at the
pastoral and agropastoral interface has served as a brige between the highland
and the lowlands research over the last 50 years. The camel research center at
Babile and the Institute of Pastoral and Agropastoral at Haramaya University
contributed to the meager research on the camel. This book is a culmination and
milestone in camel research in endeavour Ethiopia.
The camel as the bonanza of the drylands has an incomparable advantge
compared with other livestock as it is the only livestock species capable of
producing meat and milk when all other animals are limited by dehydration.
Furthermore most of its products are nutritious, healthy and have medicinal value.
This book attempts to create awareness of these aspects.
Indigenous knowledge provides the basis for problem-solving strategies for local
communities. The most important element to survive in the drlands is knowledge.
A key factor is balancing livestock with the available plant biomass and moisture.
The pastoralist experience of severlal millena is incorporated in this book.
Intensification of camel production and advances are blended to encourage
alternative techniques to extensionists, development professionals and
researchers.
The book, emphasizes on the importance of the camel husbandry in a holistic
approach as a result it is of value to government bodies and policy makers in
addressing climate change and sustainable livelihood.
This book being the first on Ethiopian camels, is educative, informative and will
inspire and guide young Ethiopians to pursue carrierrs on camel.
“… one man camels safeguards for he owns them legally
another man does so for the benefits he from them derives
while a third man does so, too for the love he for the camel has…”
(Somali oral tradition; Abokor, 1987)
Professor Belay Kassa
President, Haramaya University

I
I
CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
The dry land ecosystem
Pastorlalism and pastoralists
Camel pastoral tribes
1
CHAPTER TWO: CAMEL FEED, FEEDING AND NUTRITION
Feed and Feeding of Camels
Brows species of Camels
Salt Lick and Water Resources and Management
Watering
32
CHAPTER THREE: CAMEL BREEDS AND BREEDING
Breeds
Breed classification based on location
Breed classification based on production performance
Reproductive performance of male camel
Reproductive performance of female camel
49
CHAPTER FOUR: CAMEL PRODUCTS AND PRODUCTIVITY
Meat
Milk
Camel Hides
Work Performance (pack and transport)
68
CHAPTER FIVE: CAMEL MARKETING AND ITS VALUE CHAIN
Milk marketing
Milk market value chain
Structure of the livestock Supply markets
Primary market
Secondary market
Terminal markets
Live animal and meat export value chains
85
CHAPTER SIX : CAMEL WELFARE 110
CHAPTER 7: DISEASES OF CAMEL
Bacterial diseases
Viral diseases
Parastic diseases
Saddle soures and wounds
118
CAHPTER 8 :CAMEL RESEARCH AND THEWAY FORWARD 151
ANNEX 159
REFERENCES 169

1
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION
Melaku Tefera,
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 144, Haramaya
Campus, Ethiopia, melaku22@yahoo.com
he camel is a versatile animal; it can be milked, ridden, loaded, eaten, harnessed
to plow or wagon, traded for goods or wives, exhibited in zoos or turned into
sandals and camel hair coat (Faye, 1997). Despite the vital role of the camel in the
arid zones its status vis a vis disease is not different from other domestic animals
(Tefera, 1985).The camel in Ethiopia is not well studied. Camels are raised under
traditional management systems details of which are not well documented.
Pastoral camel production is under pressure because of multiple changes in the
production environment (Scoones, 1994). Increasing human population pressure
on pastoral grazing areas and the economic implications resulting from diseases
and lack of veterinary services are some of the factors that adversely affect
traditional camel production (Tefera, 2004). As camel owners become sedentary,
the camel disappears. In many places of the world the development of
infrastructure, especially roads, has caused the camel to lose its value as a riding
animal or beast of burden. Despite the ecological, economical, environmental and
social benefits of the camel it has remained the least studied domesticated animal
(Payne, 1990). One reason is the main camel belt area is located in three poor
countries, namely Ethiopia, Somalia, and Sudan accounting for 60% of the world
camel population (Mukassa Mugerewa, 1981). The objective of this chapter is to
document the origin distribution of the camel and to describe the habitat of the
camel and the pastoralists in Ethiopia who look after them.
1.1.Origin and distribution of the camel
All camels in Ethiopia are dromedaries (Camelus dromedarius). The history and
origin of the domestic camel remain elusive when compared with those of cattle
and small ruminants. A molar tooth and metatarsal bone was found by a team of
Paleontological researchers in Ethiopia in the lower Omo valley, and these the
fossils date from 2.6 million year ago (Pleistocene) and seem to be those of
Bactrian camels. These are the first camel remains to be recognized in eastern
Africa (Howell, et al. 1969). However during the Holocene period Bactrian camels
became extinct in Africa (Kohler, 1993 cited by Getahun, 1998). The one-humped
camel or dromedary is generally thought to have evolved from the two-humped
Bactrian species. This theory is partly based on embryological evidence showing
that during prenatal development the dromedary fetus actually has two humps De
la Tour, 1971 (Cited by Mukasa Mugerwa, 1981) while a vestigial anterior hump is
present in the adult. Williamson and Payne (1990) speculate that the one-humped
species probably evolved in one of the hotter and more arid areas of western Asia.
Dromedaries were probably domesticated in coastal settlements along the
southern Arabian Peninsula somewhere between 3000 and 2500 BC (Wilson,
T

2
1984). Once in Africa, Mikesell (1955) suggests that the camel spread west and
southwards from Egypt, although Bulliet (1975) is of the view that the camels of
the Horn of Africa are more likely to have come across the sea from the Arabian
Peninsula than spread southwards from Egypt and Sudan. Curasson (1947) and
Epstein (1971) indicate that the dromedary was introduced into North Africa
(Egypt) from southwest Asia (Arabia and Persia).
The camel was introduced into Ethiopia around 1000 BC. There are historical
accounts describing the Queen of Sheba of the ancient Abyssinia kingdom at the
head of a caravan of riches when she visited Israel's King Solomon and established
trade in the Middle East. However, other reports suggest that camels were
introduced into Eastern Ethiopia around 500 AD together with the introduction
and spread of Islam. (Tefera, 2004). Archeological evidence shows that a camel
tooth was discovered in Axum probable date 500 AD (Philipson, 1993). Cave
Paintings of Lega–Oda near Diredawa presented as Figure 1.2, dated to the 1st
centuary AD depict a camel. Thus the camels in North and Eastern Ethiopia appear
to be distinct breeds and two routes of introduction were suggested as shown on
Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.1: Painting of Queen of Sheba and King Solomon
The domestication of the dromedary, like many other domesticated mammals, has
promoted unprecedented progress in cultural and economic development of
human societies, representing a
great leap forward for human
civilization.
Figure 1.2: Cave painting of
camel at lega- oda, diredawa
1st century ad (Cervicek,
1971)

3
In Ethiopia camels were involved in the salt trade when salt blocks locally known as
Amole were used as money in trading goods.
All camel raising areas In Ethiopia have many similarities and one can conclude
that it is a mono culture.
1.2 Abundance and distribution
According to FAO (1979) statistics, there were about 17 million camels in the
world, of which 12 million are found in Africa and 5 million in Asia. Of this
estimated world population, 15.1 million are believed to be one-humped camels.
There are 2 million camels in Ethiopia (CSA, 2009). Ownership varied from several
hundreds, 50-100 and less 5-10 camels. Mostly in the large herds females were
dominant 75%. Males were sold for as pack animals and meat. While in small herds
mainly males were dominant in number and they were used for transport of
goods. The distribution of the camel coincided with that of the drylands, and of T.
evansi, and overlaps with the area occupied by Muslim societies as shown on
Figure 1.4 A-D. In these areas there were no horses and mules. But in the south
western lowlands there are no camels due to cyclically (tsetse) transmitted
Trypanosomosis. There were four breeds: milk, meat, dual purpose and baggage
camels. These were identified by their coat color conformation and production.
Population growth was estimated (Tefera, 1985),using predictive formula:
[Population growth estimate .
Where A= % adult females above 4 years of age,
B= % of infertile she camel,
C= calving interval.
D= survival rate of neonates and
E=10% being the allowance for population mortality and slaughter.
Figure 1.3: Origin and distribution of camels in
Ethiopia (Tefera, unpublished)

4
In 1985, the camel herd was growing annually by 2.5 %. Taking the following
parameters as determined in our study: e A= 60 %, B= 10% C= 2 years. D= 0.5 and
E=10%.
1.3 The dryland ecosystem
Ethiopia is topographically classified into two areas: highland and lowland. The
periphery encircling the country generally consist of lowland plains, with an
elevation below 1500 masl and mean annual rainfall below 500mm. The lowlands
cover some 65 million hectares (61%) of the total area of Ethiopia and consist
mainly of rangeland which is home to 12% of the human population and 26% of
the livestock (Coppock, 1994). The climate in the lowlands is arid and, owing to the
unreliable rainfall, the ecosystem in these environments never achieves
equilibrium between grazing and fixed number of settled livestock. With increasing
drought and erratic rainfall, cultivation of land is difficult and crop failure is
common resulting in reduced per capita food production. Thus, traditional
pastoralism constitutes the only efficient means of exploitation of the dryland
resources (Payne 1990; Wilson 1984) otherwise heavy investment or irrigation and
moisture harvesting technologies would be required.
In the drylads where
biomass is meager,
resource utilization should
be optimized through
appropriate livestock
production system
(Njeuru, 1996). Multiple
herd species have
ecological and
socioeconomic adaptive
value, risk spreading and
conservation of resources,
identified as energy
extraction pathways: a)
the reliable pathway,
shrub-camel-milk-human,
b) the opportunistic
pathway grass-cattle-milk-
human and c) contingency,
sale for cash pathway grass-small stock-meat-human as shown in Table 1.1. Camels
cause less environmental harm compared to other livestock species (Schwartz and
Dioli 1992). As climate change is drastically altering the global landscape, camels
raising could become an alternative livelihood which is second to none. In
Figure 1.4: Map of Ethiopia showing the peripheral
lawlands ( a), distribution of camels ( b), muslim society
(c) ,non existence of horses and trypanosoma evansi
(d),(Tefera and Gebreab, 2001).

5
comparison to other livestock, camel production would appear insignificant, if
viewed in isolation from the environment. Howevere camels can produce milk
under very harsh conditions when and where other livestock species cease
producing (Yagil, 1985). Most of the drylands in Ethiopia are range land and
primarily arid and semi arid where other land uses such as agriculture is not
economically feasible but it may also include areas that have in the past or could in
the future be used for forestry. The environment is basic determinant of the
nature and productivity of the range ecosystem. Physical environmental factors,
which includes, climate, topography and soil determine the potential of the range
land to support certain types and levels of land use hence in the following sections
we will describe the dryland ecosystem in Ethiopia.
1.3.1 Temperature
Except at high altitude temperature is seldom a limiting factor to plant growth. In
the arid zones of Afar one of the hottest areas in the world mean annual maximum
and mean annual minimum temperatures are 35 - 27°C respectively. The
temperature on the hottest day reaches a maximum of 45°C. There is little
variation in the temperature regime either seasonally or annually.
1.3.2 Evaporation
Evaporative demand is another important environmental factor which determines
range productivity. Water vapor is formed by evaporation (from solid surface such
as water, soil, rocks and wet vegetation) and transpiration (mostly by plants).
Evapotranspiration is the combined effects of these two processes. However, as
actual evapotranspiration is often limited by the availability of water thepotential
evapotranspiration, which reflects conditions where water is not limiting, is a
better measure of evaporative demand on vegetation. In East Africa it is in the high
range of over 150 - 250mm/year. This high evaporative demand is an important
environmental factor for the region’s vegetation because the balance between it
and rainfall is strong determinant of the amount of water that eventually becomes
available for plant use. As with temperature, potential evapotranspiration varies
little on an annual basis although the regional differences are marked.
1.3.3 Potential Evapotranspiration
The ratio of annual rainfall to evapotranspiration p(R/Etp) is frequently used as
indicator of relative aridity. Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of water
vapor that would be transported into the atmosphere by evaporation and
transpiration when water is freely available, as at the surface of the ocean. The
greatest deficit between rainfall and evaporative demand occurs in eastern
Ethiopia, Northern Somalia and Eastern Eritrea where rainfall is lowest and
potential evapotranspiration is highest. The deficit is least in the highlands.

6
Table 1.1: Data on rainfall, evapotranspiration and aridity index for 250 stations in Ethiopia
(Hawando, 1995)
Figure 1.5: Dryland areas in
Ethiopia delinated on bases
of RR/PET ratio (Hawando,
1995)
Figure 1.6: Distribution of
rainfall seasons (Hurni,
1998)

7
Figure 1.7: Precipitation map
of Ethiopia (CSA, 2009)
Figure 1.8: Length of
growing period in (CSA,
2009)
Figure 1.9: Vegetation map
of Ethiopia (Compiled from
Mesfin Weldemariam, 1970
and Groombridge, 1992)

8
1.3.4 Rainfall
Unlike temperature and potential evapotranspiration, rainfall shows considerable
variability within the region in both space and time. Therefore it is closely
associated with rangeland vegetation pattern. Rainfall is highest in the highland
areas where up to 2000 mm/year of rain falls and lowest along the eastern border
with 250 mm/year. Rainfall is highly seasonal and either unimodal or bimodal. The
timing of the rainy season also varies. Mean annual rainfall is not considered in
itself to be the best climatological indicator of the influence of rainfall on plant
growth. Rainfall in eastern Africa is highly erratic and unreliable in terms of amount
in- time and space. For instance Ellis, et al 1993 found annual rainfall to have
varied from 85% to 12% of the long term mean over 63 years. Dry years were more
common than wet periods. Arid regions differ from wet regions only in having
more evapotranspiration per year.
High intensity rainfall causes significant increase in surface runoff, which results in
large amount of water becoming inaccessible to plants. The greater the loss by run
off the less effective rainfall is in supporting plant growth. Tropical regions tend to
have higher intensity rainfall than temperate regions. Rainfall events as high as
279-381 mm/day have been recorded in eastern Africa (Pratt and Gwynne, 1977).
Minimal requirements regarding the amount of rainfall, the period of time over
which it occurs and the ratio of rainfall to potential evapotranspiration must be
met to initiate and maintain growth of range land plants. In order to initiate
effective growth (of annual grasses) in arid areas a minimum of 15 mm of rainfall
must fall within a week, the first rain must wet the seed for at least 3 days, and
enough rain must fall to compensate for evaporation. However, under the high
potential evapotraspiration typical of arid eastern Ethiopia, growth is still
insignificant with rainfall of 25 mm over a 10 day period which exceeds a quarter
of the potential evapotranspiration that is usually enough to initiate growth in
semi arid range lands. King (1993) reported that, about 25 mm of precipitation is
needed for growth of perennial grasses and shrubs and 40-60 mm for seed
germination of annual grassland.
1.3.5 Soil
Soils reflect the influence of climate, parent material, topography, time and living
organisms (principally vegetation). The stronger influence of climate, in this case
rainfall, is seen in the broad regional soil units of Eastern Africa. The specific nature
of local soil types as reflected in their depth, horizonation, texture, color, fertility,
etc which results from the degree to which the parent material, topography and
time (in particular) combine to interact with and modify the effects of climate on
soil development. Thus rangeland areas which share the same climate but which
differ in terms of topography, underlying parent material or geological age are apt
to have different soils.

9
Usually land units demonstrated by a particular kind of topography and or/parent
material are smaller in area than those primarily due to regional climate.
Therefore, soil units tend to be relatively small and thus have more a localized
effect on the nature and distribution of vegetation. This is especially true in drier
areas where rainfall and leaching, the major operational climatic factor in East
Africa, are less influential. Even in those areas of eastern Africa where rainfall
exceeds 1500 mm/year and climate is the overriding factor determining soil
characteristics, the abundant latosols/red soils tend to differentiate locally into
topographically related Catenas (associations of topographically differentiated
soils). Soil fertility and available soil moisture are the major determinants of plant
growth and production in tropical regions. Soil fertility is more likely to be the
principal limiting factors in sub humid and humid regions because of the leaching
effect of rainfall. In semiarid and arid regions available soil moisture is limiting
factor.
At lower rainfall soil parent material becomes an increasingly important influence
on soil texture, structure and soil depth which are primary determinants of soil
moisture availability to plant roots and there is strong correlation between soil
texture and total soil nutrients. Sandy soils tend to be infertile and have very low
water holding capacities, although at the same time virtually all water is available
to plants. Thus sandy soils provide a better soil-moisture regime than clays. The
deeper sandy soils tend to support more deep-rooted woody vegetation than
herbs and grasses. Grass roots usually do not extend much beyond one meter in
depth. Heavy textured clay soils hold more water than sandy soils but do not give it
up to plant use as easily. They also tend to be more fertile and, when adequate
moisture is available, produce more palatable and nutritious fodder. However,
unpalatable and highly drought resistant grasses may also dominate clay soils.
1.3.6 Vegetation
Rangeland vegetation not only changes over time but also strongly varies from one
region to another. These differences, which reflect the influence of climate and
soil, have important implications for potential rangeland production and therefore,
for the management of rangeland resources.
With increasing aridity (generally expressed by increasing temperatures, decreased
rainfall and increasing number of dry months per year), grass height decreases,
botanical composition changes, annual grasses replace perennial grasses in
dominance and livestock and human carrying capacities decreases. Short annual
grasses and mid-height perennial grasses dominate the arid and hyper-arid zones.
Annuals dominate in areas where the original perennial grasses have been lost to
drought. The nature of the vegetation is sometimes influenced by the
predominance of certain types of soils. For instance, an abundance of sands, which
improve the availability of soil moisture, allows the growth of perennial grasses in
arid and hyper arid climates. Woody plants also abundant and important
contributors to rangeland value. As rainfall decreases the probable physiognomic
climax vegetation type becomes lower in height and more open. Across the same

10
rainfall gradient the major woody growth changes from tree to shrub to dwarf
shrub. Forage produced by trees, shrubs and dwarf shrubs is especially important
in arid and hyper-arid environments where herbaceous productivity is low and
highly erratic
1.4 Geology of the Afar Depression
The Afar Depression is an area of lowland plains dotted with shield volcanoes. It is
cut by faults which separate areas of higher ground (or fault blocks) from the rest
of the plain. It is bound to the west by the Ethiopian Plateau and escarpment, to
the northeast by the Danakil block, to the southeast by the Ali-Sabieh block and to
the south by the Somalian Plateau and escarpment.
To the north, the southern Red Sea rift is extending down through the Gulf of Zula
into the northern Afar Depression. To the east, the Gulf of Aden rift, is spreading
through the Gulf of Tajura into the eastern Afar Depression, and to the southwest,
extension continues through the Main Ethiopian Rift to the East African Rift System
(Figure 1.10).
Along the edges of the Afar Depression are large faults up to 60km long. These
developed during the Oligo-Miocene (29-26 million years ago) as the Earth’s crust
in the region began to be pulled apart by the movement of the plates. The faults
led to the centre of the Depression dropping down relative to the Ethiopian and
Somalian Plateaux and the formation of the rift valley. The area is now close to or,
in parts, below sea level.
Between about 6 and 7 million years ago, as the plates continued to separate and
extension increased across the region, magma from deep in the Earth rose through
the crust warming and weakening it. Movement on the border faults ceased,
although they still command the landscape, and smaller faults developed along
narrow bands in the centre of the rift valley. These narrow bands have continued
to develop with thin vertical sheets of magma (dykes) being injected along them
and erupting at the surface as volcanoes.
In simple terms, a rift can be thought of as a fracture in the earth's surface that
widens over time, or more technically, as an elongate basin bounded by opposed
steeply dipping normal faults. Geologists are still debating exactly how rifting
comes about, but the process is so well displayed in East Africa (Ethiopia-Kenya-
Uganda-Tanzania) that geologists have attached a name to the new plate-to-be;
the Nubian Plate makes up most of Africa, while the smaller plate that is pulling
away has been named the Somalian Plate (Figure 1). These two plates are moving
away from each other and also away from the Arabian plate to the north. The
point where these three plates meet in the Afar region of Ethiopia forms what is
called a triple-junction. However, all the rifting in East Africa is not confined to the

11
Horn of Africa; there is a lot of rifting activity further south as well, extending into
Kenya and Tanzania and Great Lakes region of Africa.
Figure 1.10 Rift segment names for the East African Rift System. Smaller segments are
sometimes given their own names, and the names given to the main rift segments change
depending on the source. (Makris & Ginzburg, 1987, Simon, 2010)

12
Summary
Many arid and semi-arid grazing ecosystems are not at equilibrium and external
factors (e.g. rainfall) determine livestock numbers and vegetation status. The
productivity of rangelands is heterogeneous in space and variable overtime;
therefore it is critical that the livestock movement must respond to spatial
changes in feed availability. In uncertain environments fodder availability
fluctuates widely over time and space. Grass production may range from zero to
several tons per hectare, depending on rainfall. Such variation is spatially
differentiated with same areas showing more stable patterns of primary
production while others are highly unstable. Making use of such variable fodder
resource requires tracking. Tracking involves the matching of available feed
supply with animal numbers at a particular site. This is opportunistic
management. Opportunistic management involves seizing opportunities when
and where they exist and thus highly flexible and responsive. Effective tracking
may be achieved in four ways: Increasing locally available fodder by importing
feed from elsewhere or by enhancing fodder production, especially drought feed
through investment in key resource site. Moving animals to areas where fodder is
available, reducing animal feed intake during drought, reducing parasite burdens
or breeding for animals with low basal metabolic (Larege animals) rates.
Destocking animals through sales during drought and then restocking when
fodder is available after drought.
Ethiopia has sufficient water in the western part and rivers in the vast lands of
the east, thus an alternative is the use of irrigated agriculture to boost crop or
fodder production. However, most of the range land soil is salt affected, 11
million hectares of land in Ethiopia are salt affected (saline, saline sodic and
sodic). The salt affected soils are a challenge to agricultural production. In the
Middle Awash Valley eight years after an irrigation project was commenced
salinity became very severe. Many productive agricultural lands were abandoned
and became barren land due to lack of appropriate irrigation water management
facilitated secondary salinization.
The drylands are rich in energy sources such as uranium, oil, gas and geothermal
power which are an as yet untapped potential treasure of wealth. Will these
bonanzas sustain the camel to be the king of the desert?

13
1.5 Pastoralism and pastoralists / Biocultural diversity
Pastoralism is defined as socioeconomic entity, which is based on subsistence
production by making use of available rangeland resource through appropriate
livestock production system identified as energy extraction pathways a) the
reliable pathway represented by shrubs-camel-milk-human b) the opportunistic
pathway grass-cattle-milk –human and c) the contingency pathway grass-small
stock-market-human.
Today there are three main livestock production systems in Ethiopia: a draught
oriented system in the highlands, a milk oriented system in the lowlands
(subsistence) and a minor commercial dairy system in periurban areas. However,
farming systems are not static and change overtime and between locations owing
to changes in resource availability and demand patterns.
Traditionally the highlands and lowlands are linked economically in the form of
trade. The highlands supply the cereal requirement of the pastoralists. In return
the pastoralist supply livestock to the sedentary farmers, which they use them as
plough oxen, see Figure 1
Figure 1.13 Livestock and cereal rotation in sedentary and pastoral interface
In all pastoral systems the consumption of milk or blood seems to be most
important diet although nowadays it is steadily dropping, and there are few, if any,
which rely almost totally on milk or milk products. In some communities the
reliance is still fairly high. The Borana of the southern rangelands of Ethiopia for

14
example, with some seasonal variations, still consume up to 59% of their diet as
milk or milk products with the balance of the diet being increasingly made up of
grain. For the Afar, milk probably constitutes less than 60% of total energy
requirements, and grain again is increasingly the main food substitute. This
increase of grain and decrease of milk consumption is in fact more and more the
pattern in pastoral Africa. Nevertheless the African pastoralist is still firmly
oriented towards a milk production mode as far as circumstances will allow and
has not yet dramatically changed this in favor of selling meat or growing crops.
Pastoralism relies on livestock diversity to exploit and make use of the diverse
rangeland resources, and typical pastoral herds and flocks include grazing cattle,
donkeys and sheep and browsing camels and goats. Pastoralism also relies on
diverse livestock products including milk, hides, meat, blood and draft power.
Camel pastoralism is most sustainable livestock production system in the drylands,
as the dromedary is a livestock species uniquely adapted to hot and arid
environments. It is also highly versatile; it produces milk, meat, and work, in an
environment where no other livestock can survive.
Camel pastoralists are those populations whose livelihood is based largely on
camel production. Camel keeping is their major occupation although at times they
diversify into keeping other livestock mainly sheep goat, cattle and sometimes
engage in agricultural operations. Their vocation is suited to exploitation of natural
resources. The main Ethnic groups and their herd composition are shown in Table
1.2
Table 1.2 Location and size of livestock in pastoral areas of Ethiopia (,000)*
Pastoral region (Location in
Ethiopia)
Sheep Goat Cattle donkeys Camel Horses
and
mules
1 Afar (North Eastern ) 2000 3000 3600 200 900 0
2 Somali (Eastern) 6600 3300 5200 360 1100 0
3 Oromo/Borena (South
Eastern)
1000 500 1400 60 530 0
Oromo/Kereyou(South
Eastern)
200 300 300 20 10 0
4 Benshangul and Gambella
( western)
100 100 100 20 0 0
5 Southern nations and
nationalities(Southern
340 500 450 40 0 0
6 Kunama (Northwestern) 100 150 200 10 0 0
* Central Statistical Agency, 2009 (population in thousands)

15
Figure1.14:CamelBeltareaofEthiopia(TeferaandGebreab2001)

16
Figure1.15MajorriverbasinsinEthiopia(UNOCHA-Ethiopia.2005)

17
1.6 Camel complex
The camel is considered as a form of productive capital and also investment capital
of herders. It is well known fact that livestock reproduce themselves even without
market forces. The survival strategies of pure pastoralists are very much tied to
the desire to reproduce and preserve the camel from which they also derive social
capital. In the latter case, wealth and prestige are conceptualized with reference to
camel.
The camel herders are extremely affectionate to their camels expressed through a
culture of complex customs which has developed as a form of ecological
adaptation from an emotional attachment to the camel and expressed through
affection and naming, collectively known as the camel complex. The Afar names
each individual camel, and camels were involved in rituals such as birth. The Afar
had a tradition called Budubta under which when a child is born it was given one
female animal from each species. With good fortune the female animal will
reproduce and become plenty. Apiece of the child’s umbilicus was put in small
pocket and is tied to the neck of the animal as a talisman. The camel is also the
store of value and the conventional medium for exchange of pastoralists’ bride
wealth and payment. Camels are appreciated as dowry in marriage, and for social
and religious ceremonies particularly during Eid al-Adha when camels are
sacrificed. Camels are also used as compensation for crimes or inflicted wounds: if
a young man is killed the cost is 20 camels, if an eye is wounded about two camels,
each body part had a price and each crime had to be paid in terms of camels.
Camels are never ridden, except by sick or tired women and children during
migration. There are a number of sayings about the camel “A father without a
camel is not a father”. Large number of camel stock signified high social status.
Each pastoral group has its own territories. The Kunama reside in Tekeze valley,
Irobe/Saho in Alitena valley, Raya –Kobo in Raya valley, the Afar in the Awash
Valley, Somali in the Wabishebele valley and the Borena in Genalle valley. The
Afars and Somalis are predominantly herders and are true pastoralists in the sense
that they do not practice agriculture besides animals.
1.7 Risk spreading
In the arid and semi arid lands crop farming through rain fed agriculture is
unpredictable and least productive. In an effort to reduce risk pastoralist have
developed various coping strategies. Herd diversification, involving multi species of
livestock with different products, growth rate and functions allows exploitation of
different niches. Mobility is a key strategy to the survival of pastoralists. With
highly variable rainfall, the pastoral economy is typically of the “bust and boom”
type. It booms when rainfall is plentiful and herds and flocks grow and are
productive. It is bust when extended dry periods and drought occur. During this
period livestock production and productivity rapidly decline to the extent of
causing mortality. Local climatic, topographic, soil and vegetation variations
necessitate the movement of people and livestock.

18
1.7.1 Conservation of resource
In uncertain environments, livestock populations are limited by mortality
associated with frequent droughts, disease and the like and cause degradation
when purposely allowed to concentrate in one area. In order to minimize the risk
of resource degradation pastoralists employ resource conservation strategies as
listed below
Traditional rotational uses of resource, allows regeneration of vegetation and
avoids over utilization of the range lands. During feed scarcity in particular area,
pastoralists keep livestock densities low by spreading out into other areas in order
to avoid pressure on the grazing and water resources and pastoral traditional
decision making processes reinforce regulation in determining the degree of
concentration and dispersion of animals with respect to sustainable range
resource utilization
1.7.2 Mobility
Tracking rainfall, by moving herds oportunistically to follow the rains is a coping
strategy of pastoralists to drought. Sometimes tracking rain-fed forage did not
follow a regular pattern. For example the Afar pastoralists had a flexible migration
pattern which could take the form of oscillatory type of movement up and down
the Awash valley and into new territories in periods of severe drought. In the
recent past many pastoralists became sedentarized either practicing farming,
trade or taking employment thus breaking former traditional values as well as the
value of the camel. Movement to key resources is also an option. During the dry
season livestock concentrate around water points and during wet season they
graze far from flooding rivers near to the permanent village sites.
Figure 1.16: Altitudinal zonation of Livestock in East Africa (Gulliver, 1955)

19
Given altitude/rainfall correlation, pastoralists adjust their annual cycle to put
herds in lowest (driest) part of range in the rainy season, gradually moving to
higher elevations so as to end up at highest elevation at end of the dry season.
Movement decisions are very complex, as they must plan for whole year but have
many contingency plans, taking many variables into account; hence pastoralists
have great need for up-to-date information. The information flow is channeled via
kinship ties and sodalities (age-sets). Each household has large variety of stock,
with minimal number of each (in traditional subsistence regime) being 25-30
cattle, 10 camels, 100 small stock (goats & sheep), and 10-12 donkeys (Note:
household = women + children associated with a single adult male; homestead =
group of related men + families). Each species has to be handled in certain way:
e.g., cattle can be watered every other day, small stock need water every day, and
camels every 3 days. Hence, in the dry season several herds and herding parties
are required, which is a very labor intensive system.
Table 1.3 Livestock movement pattern of Afar community
Name of
Zone/Sub zone
Majour areas of mobility
Wet season Dry season Drought time
Zone 1:
Dubti,
Asayta and
Afambo
Subzones
Doka: Chifra and Aura
subzones between Hida
and Uwa rivers
Awassa: close to
Awash river
Close to Awash
river
Zone 2 Herders move eastwards
in to Erebti and Afdera
Woredas
Retreat areas are in
the eastern parts of
Dalol, Koneba,
Berehale, Aba-Ala
and Megale
subzones
Zone 3 and 5
East and west of
the Awash river
south of the
Kombolcha –Mile
road
Herders move east to
Gewane and Alledege
plains and west to the
foothills below the Manin
escarpment
Most retreat areas
are next to, or near
to, the Awash river
Amhara region
(Cheffa valley)
and Argoba
Zone 4 and chifra Herders move eastwards
into Teru and Aura
subzones and the eastern
parts of Yallo, Gulina, Ewa,
Chifra and Mille Woredas
Western parts of
Yallo, Gulina, Ewa
and Mille subzones
Oromia Zone of
Amhara region
close to Awash
river and Teru
(Source: PFE, IIRR and DF. 2010)

20
Table 1.4: Wet and dry season grazing pattern in Somali Region
Zone Wet Season Dry Season
Gode Foot hills and uplands Along the Wabishebele river
Afder Cheerti, Dolloban, Baren, Hargelle,
Gorobagagsa
Along Genale, Web,
Wabishebelle rivers, El Har,
Yabow, Dhan Adir, Shakissa,
Budhi, Bali Baako, Qorsadula,
Gerar Elgojo, Qundi, Goroba,
Gagsa
Fiq Qubi, Dooya, Dargamo, Qaruaqod and
Maymuliqa
Gebre Abood, Digiweyne, Jajale,
Afmeer, Birqod, Malayko, Sulul,
Ela Sibi, Qarri
Deghabur Jig, Boholole, Dayr, Dig, Sibi Fafan, Jerer, Galaisha, Dakhata,
Sibi
Jijiga Babile, Gursum, Karamara Jerer, Fafan Dakhata Valley
Qorehey Jool Jeeh, Nusdaaring, Handheer, Bank,
Dhobweyn , Kalajeen, Hannan, Har-Ano,
Jiracle, El-Ogaden, Melka Afweyn,
Qorjeeh, Mario Ado, Elhaar, Banka
Qoraheey, Banka Shaykosh
Gabagabo, Mariaado, Subaarco,
El Har, Giid, Guoglo, Subauke,
Shey Hoosn, Alla Gadwene,
Higloley, Quruh, Jeehdin,
Herweyn
Liben Ayinile, Gunway, Walenso, Moyale,
Wayamo,Chianqo, Biyoley,Biyaoley,
Boqolmayo, Triyangolo, Jarso
Dhafabulaale extensive grazing areas far
away from rivers birkas and ellas
Seru, Sora, Dinbi, and along
Dawa and Genale rivers
Shinile Hils and uplands Araq, Bisiq, Muli, Qandaras, Erer
river and Somaliland
Warder Laheelow, Dhurwa, Hararaf, Aado,Qorile,
Darafole, Markha, Lifo, Agaarweywe,
Danod, Burawo and Las Anod in Somali
land
Wasdhug, Garlogubay, Yuub,
Uband Taale, Warder, Galadi,
Walwal
(Source: PFE, IIRR and DF. 2010)
1.8 The dynamism of pastoralism
Nintheenth century social evolutionists Morgan and Engles believed nomadic
pastoralism was an evolutionary stage between foraging and settled agriculture.
The current consensus is that pastoralists probably arose from marginalized
surplus population of agriculturalists who for one reason or another lost their land
base or abandoned farming and turned to full time herding
Pastoralism is a dynamic system; pastoral societies pursue multiple resource
economies in which the balance between pastoral and non pastoral activities is
constantly changing in response to changing circumstances. The pastoralists do not
by any chance discriminate against other forms of production. Based on their many
years of experience they value livestock raising as the most valuable mode of

21
production. Otherwise the pastoralists do practice mixed socioeconomic (pastoral
and off-pastoral, like trade etc.) changes that determine the growth or decline
of the system. The impact of change on viability of camel raising within pastoral
system is increasing its fragile or is destroyed it all together as the system itself is
subject to pressure.
Pastoralism is a subsistence system based primarily on domesticated animal
production and excludes groups specializing in wild animals. The term subsisting is
intended to exclude those who raise animals strictly for exchange value rather
than direct consumption (e.g., commercial ranchers and dairy farmers, though as
we will see most subsistence pastoralists rely on trade.
Pastoralists can be categorized in terms of frequency of movement into three
groups:
a) Settled pastoralism: Animals are kept in one place most of all year
b) Transhumance requires round trips from the home base to pastures on
seasonal or emergency movements , without any major dwellings or barns
in any location
c) Nomadic: Moving herds to any available pasture, often on opportunistic
basis over long distances with no fixed pattern
1.9 Pastoralists and climate change
Droughts are inevitable in the drylands, they may occur frequently or less
frequently depending on climatic conditions. Drought is one of the most limiting
factors and a predicament for pastoralist communities. In order to understand how
droughts affect pastoralism it is important to ask how pastoralists livelihoods are
affected by drought? The most direct impact of a shortage in rainfall on
pastoralist’s livelihood is the drying up of water sources and declining forage
resources for livestock. Water and forage are the most important resources for
pastoralism and changes in their availability greately influence livestock conditions,
milk production and ultimately pastoralists’ livelihood. The experiences of major
droughts during the last four decade in the horn of Africa show that pastoralists
have been affected more than other groups. Climate variability is very high in the
pastoral areas of this sub-region and often people have to cope with long periods
without rainfall. Sommer 1998 argues that metrological drought cannot be avoided
but its impact such as famine, disease outbreak and destitution can be greately
influenced by timely and effective intervention. Droughts are not the only disaster
that hit people in the drylands as conflict, disase and floods also create havoc.
Disasters can be managed as the drought model shown in Figure 1:17 illustrates:
A drought cycle consists of four stages:
1) Normal stage: Rainfall is adequate and there are no major problems. The
danger of drought is always present and one should prepare for the worst.

22
During this normal stage pastoralists try to build up their herds, vary the
composition of their herds, and build up social networks. Strong ties mean
they can rely on others to help them during time of trouble. Crops can be
grown to supplement their diet.
2) Alert or Alarm stage: The rains fail and the early signs of drought appear.
During this time efforts concentrate on mitigating the effects of drought by
migrating to distant grazing reserves, concentrating around water sources,
selling extra animals, and giving gifts to relatives.
3) Emergency stage: Food and water run short causing severe malnutrition and
high death toll of livestock and the peoples’ efforts shift to relief measures. At
this stage people skip meals to reduce amount of food consumed, they
harvest wild plants, hunt wild animals, sell fuel wood and appeal to
government and donors for help.
4) Recovery stage: The rains return and people and animals can begin recovery.
Reconstruction activities are set in motion. During this period they rebuild
their herds.
There is overlap between these stages. Some particularly vulunerable people feel
the effects of drought sooner than others. Not all droughts go through all four
stages. Adequate preparations during normal and alert stages may prevent the
worst effect. Clearly, these droughts also affect natural resources. The amount of
available food decreases and water points dry up. But in most of the drylands the
vegetation shows a remarkable capacity for regeneration once rains return. Herds
can build up rapidly by grazing on fresh vegetation.
Pastoralist and crop farmers do different things at aach stage in the cycle and in
different places. What they do depends on the availability of other sources of food
and income, local traditions and the skills of individuals and households.
In general pastoralism can respond more easily and quickly to drought than can
crop farmers. They can buy or sell animals or move to new areas in search of water
and grazing. Crop farmers are tied to their land and must wait for several months
before crop is ready for harvesting.

23
Cereal price increase Livestock price fall
Drought
Forced to sell off livestock
Smaller herd size unable to restock during recovery
Abandon Pastoralism
Figure 1.17: Extream consequence of climate change on pastoral livelihood
1.10 The camel people: clans and tribes
A clan is a group of people related by blood and marriage and consists of a group
of families of a patrilinear or matrilinear culture united by actual kinship and
descent. Clan members may be organized around a founding member or apical
ancestor. The kinship-based bonds may be symbolical, whereby the clan shares a
"stipulated" common ancestor that is a symbol of the clan's unity. A tribe is a
sociopolitical organization consisting of a number of families, clans, or other
groups who share a common ancestry or perceived kinship descending from the
same progenitor kept distinct culture, and also linked by social, economic, religious
ideological belief.
1.10.1 Kunama
The Kunama clan lives in north western Ethiopia around the town of Barentu and
close to the border of Eritrea. The Kunama, thought to be among the aboriginal
inhabitants of the region some are Christian, some Muslim, but many follow their
own faith, centered on worship of the creator, and veneration of ancestral heroes.
Their society is strongly egalitarian with distinctive matrilineal elements. The
Kunama speak a Nilo-Saharan language unrelated to the dominant languages in
Ethiopia and Eritrea. Formerly nomadic, today they are Agro-pastoralists whose
cattle are also important sources of wealth and prestige. The Kunamas keep

24
camels which they ride and use as work animals in mills and for ploughing. Such
traditional use is absent in the eastern part of Ethiopia.
Figure 1.19
Kunama men
Figure 1.18:
Kunama women

25
Figure 1.20 Kunama women leading a camel

26
1.10.2 Irob
The Irob people also spelled Erob are an ethnic group who occupy a predominantly
highland, mountainous area in northeastern Tigray Region, Ethiopia. In general,
the Irob are a bi-cultural community, they are Christians and Muslim. Their
language is Saho and Tigrigna. The Irob economy is primarily based on agriculture,
including animal husbandry. The region is also renowned for its excellent honey.
Irobs raise camels; mainly male camel acquired from the Afar which they use in
trade such as wood and charcoal.
Figure 1.21 Irob town women

27
1.10. 3 Raya –Kobo
The Raya Valley lies in Alamata, Raya Azebo and Hintalo Wajirat woredas in Tigray.
It shares a border with Kobo of north Wollo to the south, Afar region to the east.
The area is multicultural Christan and Muslim mix and the main languages are
Tigrigna, Amharic and Afan oromo. The Raya -Kobo is known for cultivation of
sorghum and teff. Other important economic activities in the zone are salt trading,
cow’s milk and hiring of donkeys and camel for transport purposes. Camels
generate income from transporting salt in Afar region.
Figure 1.22 The people of Raya kobo
1.10.4 Afar
The Afars are located in the East Ethiopia and in Djibouti, and Eritrea. Most of the
Afars are nomads who herd composed of sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. A man's
wealth is measured by the size of his herds. Meat and milk are the major
components of the Afar diet. Milk is also an important social "offering", for
instance, when aguest is given fresh warm milk to drink, the host is implying that
he will provide immediate protection for the guest. Afar pastoral communities
have indigenous institutions that govern the behaviour of each individual member.
The traditional mutual support system is locally known as Hatota, which is
practiced through clan ties. Afar society has its own information communication
system, locally called Dagu system. The Dagu involves exchange of information

28
about daily life and general situations they observe, listen, or see on their ways or
from their areas of residence or from markets.
Figure 1.23 Afar man andFossil of Lucy
Figure 1.24 Afar Girls and Boys

29
1.10.5 Somali
Somali: are ethnic groups located in the Horn of Africa, also known as the Somali
Peninsula. The Somalis speak the Somali language, which is part of the Cushitic
branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Ethnic Somalis number around 15-17
million and are principally concentrated in Somalia (more than 9 million) and in
Ethiopia (4.6 million) The name "Somali" is, derived from the words soo and maal,
which together mean "go and milk" a reference to the ubiquitous pastoralism of
the Somali people.
Figure 1.25 Somali men and women
1.10.6 Borana
The Borana or Borena are part of a very much larger group of the Oromo culture
group. The Borana predominantly live in Ethiopia and Kenya. The economy and
life style are organized around cattle, though the formerly taboo camels are
becoming more important, and they now herd sheep and goats. Young men do
the daily herding while the women do all family nurturing. The homestead groups
may be required to move three or four times each year, often as far as 100 km,
because of the low rainfall and poor land.
Figure 1.26 Borana women

30
Figure 1.27 Borana man
1.10.7 Kereyou
The Kereyou are pastoralist nomads. Their tribe plies the arid lands around the
Awash River down in the rift valley for pasture for their cattle, goats and camels.
Their range area is located in the rift valley and Eastern Showa areas. They are
camel breeders, in addition they keep other livestock and recently they are shifting
to cultivate cereals and vegetables.
Figure 1.28 Kereyou man

31
Figure 1.30 Kerayou camel caravan

32
CHAPTER TWO: FEED, FEEDING AND NUTRITION OF CAMELS IN ETHIOPIA
Gijs van’t Klooster1
, Solomon Nega1
and Melaku Tefera2
1
FAO Ethiopia, Addis Ababa
2
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University. P.O. Box 144 Haramaya
Campus. Ethiopia. 251-0914722459, <melaku22@yahoo.com>
ver large tracts of the Ethiopian rangelands, trees and shrubs are at least as
important as grass forage, and over large areas provide the only feed for livestock.
They are the dominant vegetation over vast areas of rangeland and support large
livestock populations, especially of camel and goat, both of which are primarily
browsers. Most likely due to the fact that camels are raised under traditional
management systems, there is not much literature available about the feed,
feeding and nutrition of camels in Ethiopia.
Changing socio-economic and environmental conditions will lead to a change in
pastoral production systems from mainly subsistence towards a more market
orientated livestock production system and this will require an improved
understanding of supplementary feeding
This chapter provides an overview of the current knowledge on the quality of feeds
selected by camels and feed preferences in order to understand the relationship
between the forage availability and camel production. Understanding the
browsing/grazing behavior of the camel, dietary preferences and their nutritive
value together with a thorough knowledge of the environment is important to
develop sound husbandry practices. Improved understanding may ultimately
facilitate sustainable utilization of arid and semi-arid ecosystems.
According to the pastoral area development study of 2004, browsing resources are
under-exploited, leaving ample space for the further expansion of camel rearing.
The study also mentioned that browsing animals have a much more environment-
friendly impact than grazing animals like cattle, sheep and donkeys.
2.1 Feed and Feeding of Camels
Camels are very versatile and opportunistic feeders, they accept a wide range of
browse species that are often avoided by other species, but also some grasses.
Foraging camels normally spread over a large area thus minimizing pressure on a
particular area. Their long legs and neck enables them to browse up to 3-3.5m
above the ground, a height that is not reached by other livestock. Due to their
specific forage preferences and feeding at higher levels, camels are rarely in direct
competition with other animals (notably cattle and sheep) for grazing and
O

33
therefore a combination of these species results in increased productivity per unit
of land.
Some other adaptive features include the ability to select a high-quality diet that
provides all the nutrients required by the body and the ability to survive on low
quality fibrous roughages. They adapt well to different diets and dietary
conditions. During the dry season, when other forages are scarce, camels can
browse on the green tips of trees (e.g. Acacia sp.) that other livestock species do
not, enabling them to survive droughts
To avoid damaging the rangelands the Afar uses an elaborate herd splitting
strategy (IIRR, 2004). Camel herds are split into five groups. Very young camels
(dayna) are often kept in night camps and are handfed with browse, while the
slightly older camels (neriga) browse nearby on their own. Older boys and girls
herd the weaned camels (ekale) separately around the settlements. Lactating
camels (homa): those normally herded by men (gudgudo) and those that are not
herded but return to their settlement areas every night (areyu). Dry and pregnant
female and male camels (adi galla) are herded by strong men the furthest away
from settlements. After calving the lactating females are herded as homa. The
location of the base camp and satellite herd depend on the availability of feed,
water and labor. If drought is imminent, some of the base camp herd may be move
to the satellite herd.
A study conducted in Moyale, Kenya (Adan, 1995) shows that some of the specific
Somali (Garri) camel herding and range management practices include rotational
browsing, herd splitting, salt supplementation and watering. The Somali camel
herders divide their grazing habitat into four micro-categories based on plant cover
and soil type: i) thick bush, clay soil (Harqaan/gabiib), ii) thick bush, black soil
(agricultural Adable/dhoobey), iii) open bush, red soil with good water
conservation (dooy) and iv) open bush, mixed grey and red soil (Bay)
The intimate knowledge of the environment common to many of the pastoralists
allows a great flexibility in decision-making and enhanced ability to utilize all
resources available (Farah et al., 1996). The present study reveals that the Somali
camel herders of Moyale (Kenya) District adopt herd splitting as a risk spreading
strategy. They split their herds into home-based herds (usually lactating) and
nomadic herds (mostly dry). Home-based herds were kept close to settlements
with possible deficiency in forage supply, whereas nomadic herds utilized better
distant pastures. Herd splitting aims at reducing competition for forage and water
resources between herds, thereby optimizing pasture utilization. The strategy
appears to be a desirable and realistic attempt to utilize range resources more

34
evenly while maintaining the productivity of the animals. The strategy also
guarantees continued provision of milk for settled families. When surplus milk is
available, it is sold in settlements to provide cash income for other family needs.
Thus, the strategy responds to both the needs of the camel and those of the
family. In this way the management of the herd ensures a sustainable flow of
benefits from the camels to the households while coping with production
constraints.
A study on the behavioral preference and quality selected forage by camels
(Dereje, 2005.) was conducted in the Erer valley of Somali region, with an altitude
of between 1300 and 1600m above sea level, to determine the behavior, dietary
preference and forage quality of free ranging dromedary. The vegetation cover
includes dwarf shrubs such as Indigofera species, large shrubs and trees such as
Acacia and Boscia species and is also highly populated by cacti. The annual
precipitation is between 400-500mm. The study was conducted both in the dry
and wet season and for different age and sex groups, i.e. young female, young
male, adult males and adult females.
Browsing and grazing was the dominant activity during the day (about 65% of the
10.5 to 12.5 hours per day they are outside the corral) in both seasons. During the
dry season the time devoted to browsing was significantly longer and in general
young animals spent more time browsing than adults. The study also looked at the
browsing preference of camels both in the dry and wet season. The camels
selected a total of 21 species of plants in the dry season and 30 in the wet season.
On average 79 and 83 percent of the camel’s diet was comprised of perennial
woody plants in the dry and wet season respectively. The difference in behavioral
activities within seasons seemed to be attributed to age differences. Young camels,
especially in the dry season, were observed facing difficulties eating thorny plants
such as Opunta and dry twigs, which leads them to spend more time on selecting
smaller and more delicate parts of plants to meet their nutritional requirements.
Camels were also seen to favor flowers and fruits when available. It was also
observed that camels did not eat from a single plant for a long time; instead they
moved around and took small portions from each plant, causing a low browsing
pressure on each plant.
The researchers recorded the ten most preferred plant species that occupied 87
percent and 80 percent of the total feeding time in the dry and wet season
respectively (Table 2.1.). Opuntia (18 percent) was the highest ranked plant in the
dry season, while Acacia brevispica (22 percent) was the highest ranked plant in
the wet season. The high water content of Opuntia may be the reason for its

35
popularity in the dry season. The A. brevispica had the highest CP content, both in
the wet and dry season.
Table 2.1 Forage plant species preferred by dromedary camels during the dry and wet
seasons.
Vernacular name
(Somali)
Scientific name Proportion of time
spent feeding
Category
Dry season
Tin Opuntia sp. 0.18 Shrub
Iswadh Acacia brevispica 0.15 Tree
Qudaahtol Plepharis Sponisa 0.11 Herb
Gidirmaan Indigofera
oblongifolia
0.09 Vine
Timirlog Canthium
bogosensis
0.07 Shrub
Adaad Acacia Senegal 0.06 Shrub
Keddi Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
0.06 Tree
Qalqalcha Boscia angustifolia 0.06 Tree
Dhigrii Becium
filamentosum
0.05 Shrub
Dhigriaas Becium sp. 0.05 Shrub
Merodimakaraan Acacia sp. 0.02 Shrub
Kalijog 0.02 Tree
Anannoo Euphorbia tirucalli 0.01 Shrub
Eriaad 0.01 Shrub
Others, unidentified. 0.01 Mixed
Karfaaweyn Lantana camara 0.01 Shrub
Je’ee Boscia cariaca 0.01 Shrub
Kediqus Balanitus glabra 0.01 Tree
Eriqurn Vepris glomerata 0.01 Shrub
Warsaames Dichrostochys
cinerea
0.01 Shrub
Awus Mixed grass sp 0.01 Grass
Wet Season
Iswadh Acacia brevispica 0.22 Tree
Qudaahtol Plepharis Sponisa 0.12 Herb
Galol Acacia bussei 0.09 Tree
Midhayoo Acacia melifera 0.08 Tree
Adaad Acacia Senegal 0.06 Shrub
Gob Ziziphus 0.05 Tree

36
mauritanea
Dhabi Grewia tembensis 0.05 Tree
Tin Opuntia sp. 0.04 Shrub
Maran Caucanthus edulis 0.04 Tree
oblongifolia
0.04 Vine
Others, unidentified. 0.02 Mixed
Keddi Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
0.02 Tree
Je’ee Boscia cariaca 0.02 Tree
Eriqurn Vepris glomerata 0.01 Shrub
Qalqalcha Boscia angustifolia 0.01 Tree
Dhigrii Becium
filamentosum
0.01 Shrub
Merodimakaraan Acacia sp. 0.01 Shrub
Anannoo Euphorbia tirucalli 0.01 Shrub
Awus Mixed grass sp 0.01 Grass
Cekaa Calpurnia aurea 0.01 Shrub
Kabbaw Commiphora
africana
0.01 Tree
Futawadher 0.01 Shrub
Timirlog Canthium
bogosensis
0.01 Shrub
Hiil Vernonia
cinerances
0.01 Shrub
Warsaames Dichrostochys
cinaerea
0.01 Shrub
Kalojog 0.004 Tree
Qarfaawein Lantana camara 0.004 Shrub
Kediqus Balanitus glabra 0.004 Tree
Dhigriaas Becium sp. 0.004 Shrub
Eriaad 0.003 Shrub
(Adopted from Dereje, 2005)
Another publication (IIRR. 2004) mentioned common native trees in pastoral
rangelands that are useful to the pastoralists, these include: Acacia bussei, Acacia
millifera, Acacia seyal, Acacia tortilis, Balanites spp., Commiphora spp., Euclea
shimperi, Gewia tembensii and Grevia bicolor.
The livestock master plan study mentions the species mentioned below as major
browse species (Kuchar et al. 1995a). Camel feed is almost all browse: browse

37
provides 95-99% in dry season, 90-97 in wet season. The rest is grazing, except in
dry season, fallow and residues each contribute 0.5%.
Acacia senegal, depending on soils and rainfall varies from a bush to a 10m high
tree, especially if heavily browsed by camels becomes a dwarf tree. Cactus
(Opuntia), O. ficusindica is especially in the dry season regarded outstanding dry-
season camel fodder by the Somali. Cordia sinensis was rated by camel owners the
no.2 camel browse in Turkana District of Kenya.
Probably all Acacia spp. are browsed at one time or other by stock; Studies have
found, however, that in some regions even the camel, an animal with a reputation
for eating almost any plant, will shun some acacias. In Ethiopia, the species most
valuable for livestock are A. nilotica, A. senegal, A. seyal, A. sieberiana, A. tortilis
and perhaps A. mellifera and Faidherbia albida. All have palatable browse and
moreover nutritious pods that can be very important for camels. Singled out as
preferred or important camel food in the literature are A. drepanolobium, A.
oerfota and perhaps A. reficiens. In NE Ethiopia, Kahurananga (n.d.) found that
acacias formed the largest part of the camel diet; all species were browsed but the
most important were A. asak, A. mellifera, A. oerfota and A. Senegal, and A. tortilis
pods were considered excellent in camel milk production. The importance of A.
tortilis as a forage resource has been recognized by the Southern Ranehland
Development Unit (SORDU) project, and it encourages multiplication, and fencing
of seedlings.
Studies in the Borana rangelands indicated that there are about 15 woody plant
spp considered to be encroachers (OWWDSE, 2010). The major spp include
Commiphora afiricana, Acacia brevispica, Acacia nilotica, Acacia drepanolobium,
Acacia bussei and Acacia horida. A recent estimate indicated that about 52% of the
Borana rangeland is encroached by bushes and shrubs (Gemedo, 2004).
Livestock diet and palatability studies have recognized the importance of
commiphoras in camel and goat diets. The majority of the rangeland Burseraceae
is palatable to especially camel and shoats, even some of the sap-spraying species
appear to be good browse. Another obviously hedged species in this section is C.
truncata. It is an outstanding browse, the no.1 camel food plant according to
some Somali pastoralists. C. sphaerophylla (sec. Hemprichia) with its distinctly
sweet-smelling sap is almost its equal. Many members of sec. Opobalsameae are
highly rated but exhibit little or no browse impact. Among the boswellias, B.
microphylla and B. neglecta, both relatively large trees, are palatable and
outstanding feed sources for camel.

38
According to the pastoral area development study of 2004, browsing resources are
under-exploited, leaving ample space for the further expansion of camel rearing.
The study also mentioned that browsing animals have a much more environment-
friendly impact than grazing animals like cattle, sheep and donkeys.
Acacia brevispica: a Weed or a Browse?
Browse: Although called a common
encroacher in a southern Ethiopia
rangeland study (GRM 1989), Acacia
brevispica is regarded as an outstanding
browse of livestock in another study
conducted in southern Ethiopia (Woodward
& Coppock 1995), particularly in the wet
season when it constitutes 76% of the
camel’s diet, 56% of the goat’s and 23% of
the sheep’s; also a major dry-season
browse of camel (22%) and goat (30%)
though apparently not browsed by sheep in
the dry season. This is in line with the study done by Dereje, M., 2005, that found Acacia
brevispica was the number one browse in the wet and the number two browse in the dry
season.
Weed: Impenetrable Acacia brevispica thickets of this prickly shrub have replaced
normal evergreen bush land toward its lower altitudinal limits in Samburu District,
Kenya (FAO 1970). It forms fast-growing thickets difficult to eradicate (Pratt & Gwynne
1977), and considered one of the most undesirable components of thickets that have
invaded woodland (Thomas & Pratt 1967). When cut or burnt it regenerates more
rapidly than any other acacia and can easily produce 2 m of growth in one season. "It is
perhaps the most difficult of our acacias to eradicate." (Bogdan & Pratt 1974) In his
book on East African weeds, Ivens (1968) singles out this plant as the worst of the
acacias as a bush-encroachment species. Pratt & Gwynne (1977) rank it among the 4
most troublesome woody species in East African rangelands.
The study on the behavioral preference and quality of selected forage by camels
(Moges, 2005) also collected feed samples of the ten most preferred species (Table
2.2.) in the dry season as well as the wet season were collected, dried and
analyzed using standard methods. All chemically analyzed samples had relatively
high crude protein levels. In both seasons, based on analysis of the ten most

39
consumed plants, the average diet consisted of 170g CP/kg dry matter, which is
similar to the amount required by high producing dairy cows. The range and
composition of the ten most preferred species (g/kg dry matter (DM)) were for
crude protein (CP) 88-228, P 1.3-3.3, Ca 12-48, soluble tannins 29-216 and
condensed tannins 9.4-129 absorbance unit/g. In vitro dry matter digestibility
(IVDMD) varied between 0.41 and 0.65.
The Ca: P ratios in the plant species are all very high, ranging from 6 to 16 in the
dry season and from 4 to 29g/kg DM in the wet season. Based on the chemical
analysis A. brevispica has the highest CP level in both seasons, while Opuntia has
the highest IVDMD level in both seasons. The results also indicate the high level of
tolerance of camels to the ingestion of tanniniferous plants
2.2 Feeding of Camels
Lactating dromedary camels on range in the Erer valley of eastern Ethiopia
substantially increased milk yield when supplemented with protein or energy feeds
(Dereje, 2005). Their experiment revealed that camels showed a good response to
supplementation with both CP (groundnut cake) and energy (maize), but with a
higher response to protein.
Feeding 4kg of groundnut cake daily per head improved not only the milk yield, but
also the net income by 88% in the dry season and 71% in the wet season. A higher
milk yield could reduce the competition between the calves and the family for milk
and thus increase calf survival. In turn this will have a positive effect on overall
herd productivity. Oil seed by-products in the region may thus have an important
role to play in improving the economic base of sedentary camel herders.
It is well known that anti-nutritional factors such as tannins from range plants have
a negative effect on nutrient availability, particular proteins (Kumar and
Vaithiyanathan, 1990) and therefore in this experiment it is possible that there was
a substantial increase in amino-acid uptake by the camels from protein
supplementation (groundnut cake).

Camel in Ethiopia – 2012
40
Table 2.2: Composition (g/kg dry matter) and in vitro dry matter digestibility of the ten
most preferred plant species by camels
Tc= tannins condensed ts = tanisis soluble
Vernacular
name
(Somali)
Scientific
name
DM Ash OM CP P Ca IVDMD TS TC
Dry season
Tin Opuntia sp. 213 173 827 133 2.6 38 0.654 144 9.4
Iswadh Acacia
brevispica
725 80 920 214 2.3 21 0.486 110 28.9
Qudaahtol Plepharis
Sponisa
777 127 873 126 2.4 39 0.453 55 13.8
oblongifolia
207 157 843 150 2.1 28 0.498 51 12.7
Timirlog Canthium
bogosensis
666 72 928 165 2.2 18 0.469 146 83.1
Adaad Acacia
Senegal
517 111 889 191 2.2 25 0.491 80 22.2
Keddi Balanitus
Aegyptiaca
263 81 919 200 2.4 15 0.497 78 17.7
Qalqalcha Boscia
angustifolia
405 115 885 206 2.4 22 0.507 110 22.7
Dhigrii Becium
filamentosum
646 86 914 160 2.6 25 0.457 113 30.8
Dhigriaas Becium sp. 713 80 920 165 2.4 25 0.450 110 26.7
Dry season
Iswadh Acacia
brevispica
420 77 923 228 2.3 23 0.512 128 29.9
Qudaahtol Plepharis
Sponisa
256 153 847 131 1.6 46 0.484 46 14.8
Galol Acacia bussei 344 65 935 199 2.4 12 0.481 216 56.9
Midhayoo Acacia
melifera
261 70 930 116 1.7 21 0.467 76 29.2
Adaad Acacia
Senegal
374 58 942 180 2.1 14 0.538 147 27.4
Gob Ziziphus
mauritanea
172 64 936 189 3.3 14 0.599 44 39.2
Dhabi Grewia
tembensis
386 91 909 171 2.1 26 0.491 178 129.0
Tin Opuntia sp. 72 155 845 88 2.4 32 0.619 119 22.8
Maran Caucanthus
edulis
401 79 921 201 1.3 27 0.408 138 38.4
oblongifolia
138 198 802 218 2.4 48 0.610 29 11.4

41
DM: dry matter, OM: organic matter, CP crude protein, IVDMD: In vitro dry matter
digestibility, Tannins condensed: absorbance units/g dry matter.
Table adopted from M. Dereje, P.Uden / animal feed science and technology 121
(2005) 297-308.
Table 2.3 Effects of supplement treatment and season on milk yield and milk composition
and economic evaluation of diet supplementation.
Dry Season Wet Season
Contro
l
Energy
supplemen
t
Protein
supplemen
t
Contro
l
Energy
supplemen
t
Protein
supplemen
t
Production
Milk
(kg/Day)
6.9 8.6 12.2 8.2 9.5 13.6
Fat (g/l) 36 37 39 38 37 39
Protein (g/l) 26 27 26 28 27 28
Economic evaluation Costs
Supplement
s
n/a 6.2 3.4 n/a 6.2 3.4
Other/dc 6 6 6 6 6 6
Income
Milk 17.25 21.5 30.5 16.4 19.0 27.2
Net 11.25 9.3 21.1 10.4 6.8 17.8
2.3 Salt Lick and Water Resources and Management
In traditional systems the only supplement provided by the herders is a salt. It
could be common salt (NaCl) or a particular type of soil dug from a specific
location. Camels also forage on salty plants or are watered from salty wells if
available.
Camels have a higher salt requirement than other livestock (Wilson, 1994).
Supplementation is in the form of mineral salt, or allowing grazing on salty grasses
on saline soils for at least 5 days. Many Ethiopian Somalis offer ½ kg table salt per
head at 2 month intervals especially during wet season.
In general, ruminants in tropical regions do not receive mineral supplements other
than ordinary common salt (sodium chloride), but depend on pastures for their
mineral needs (Mcdowell et al., 1995). The observation of Macdowell (1995) that
such animals consume a considerable amount of earth was confirmed by the
present study. However, the mineral contents in soils are highly variable. The

42
importance of salt for camels is common knowledge among camel herders. In the
study area, camels depend on salt plants (halophytes), salty soils (kuro) and
sometimes commercial salt supplements for their mineral needs. Most herders
(70%) claim to follow a regular deficiency preventive routine. Camels kept in the
home-based herd were more frequently supplemented with purchased salt. This
was attributed to the fact that they had limited access to distant grazing areas with
salt plants. “Salt deficiency symptoms” revealed by the herders included chewing
bones, eating soils from anthills, reduced milk yield, reduced water intake, and
increased straying in search of salty plants.
Periodic salt supplementation was reportedly done once or twice a year in Somalia
(Elmi, 1989) and six to seven times in Kenya (Ayuko, 1985). Mineral deficiency can
cause a high susceptibility to skin disease (Dioli and Stimmelmayr, 1992; Bornstein,
1995) and consequently affects production. In addition, there are risks of loss or
predation when animals stray or break out of night enclosures in search of salty
plants. Camels manifesting bone chewing (pica), an indication of poor mineral
nutrition, was reported by 98% of the respondents. Further, 81% of the
respondents claimed to have seen their calves born with bent or weak legs, which
recovered later in life. A possible reason for the calf-hood defects is the insufficient
concentration of calcium and phosphorus in the bone matrices (rickets) in calves
from deficient dams. This suggests that mineral deficiency is widespread, posing
constraints to the performance of camels.
In the Afar Aba-Ala there is salt feeding proactice to lactating camels. The camels
respond to salt feeding calls from about 500 meters, they voraciously consume the
salt each camel was supplemented about 100g/camel/ day. Also seasonally
camels were sent to a place called Dergha a sort of special soil where animals were
able to lick mineral on voluntary basis. Its content was not dermined. Salt
supplementation was known to increase milk production. Sodium facilitates the
absorbtion of propionate a precursor of lactose in the rumen and also increases
water intake which inturn increases milk yield. Animals had access to water based
on groups, pregnant camels and males were watered every eight days. Lactating
came every other day and those at the end of lactation everty 5 days.
2.4 Water supply to camels
Water is by far the most important nutrient and an indispensable necessity for the
camel and livestock. The camel is highly resistant to water deprivation it can loose
upto 20% of its body weight and drink upto 200 liters in 20 min. However, the
ablity of the camel to withsand water deprivation should not be over exploited for
production puropses. It is necessity and must be provided on daily basis if water is

43
available. Water requirement is influenced by ditary and environmental factors
such as dry matter, minerals and ambient temperature, physiological condition
such as lactation.
The watering interval for the camels was generally in agreement with that of Evans
et al. (1995) who reported an interval of between 7– 10 days among the Somalis. It
was also close to the range of 8–14 days given by Cossins and Upton (1987) for the
Borana tribesmen. In Somalia, the watering interval for camels is 14– 21 days,
decreasing to 6–7 days during severe dry seasons (Elmi, 1989). The overall picture
in the current study is that the home-based herds were more frequently watered
than the nomadic herds (after 6 and 10 days respectively) This may be explained
by differences in forage availability, the water content in the forage, and distance
to water sources. The nomadic herds are less frequently watered because they
feed in areas with good and relatively plentiful forage, usually far from watering
points. Watering intervals are particularly important in lactating camels. This is
because water deprivation has been reported to influence milk yield and milk
quality. For example, in an experimental study in northern Kenya, Simpkin (1983)
reported that dehydration affected daily milk yield, with yields being significantly
higher on the day after watering than the day before watering.
Lack of water is generally a limiting factor to pasture utilisation in pastoral areas. In
these areas, the challenge associated with water scarcity is compounded by high
ambient temperatures and high solar radiation, in addition to poor nutrition.
Additionally, watering interval determines the foraging radius around water
sources. Thus, watering management is closely related to grazing management.
Upton (1986) reported that inappropriate distribution of water points for livestock
could limit rangeland use, leading to partial overgrazing and partial under-
utilisation of the rangeland. Long watering intervals reported in the present study
are part of grazing management. They take into account the available forage
quality and distribution of water points. The herders, therefore, seem to
compensate for low water intake through forage by reducing watering intervals
during the dry seasons. The distance to the nearest watering point and the labour
required to water herds may also constitute major constraints to watering
frequency in camels. Better utilisation of rangelands could, thus, be achieved by
improving water supply and distribution, security, and predator control.

44
Water Conservation Mechanisms in Camel
Their ability to withstand long periods without water is due to a series of physiological
adaptations.
Camels do not store water in their humps as is commonly believed. The humps are
actually a reservoir of fatty tissue. Concentrating body fat in their humps minimizes
heat-trapping insulation throughout the rest of their body, which may be an
adaptation to living in hot climates. When this tissue is metabolized, it acts as a
source of energy, and yields more than 1 g of water for each 1 g of fat converted
through reaction with oxygen from air. This process of fat metabolization generates a
net loss of water lost through respiration for the oxygen required to convert the fat.
A camel's thick coat is one of their many adaptations that aid them in desert-like
conditions.It is whitish in color and the skin has few sweat glands.
Their red blood cells are highly elastic resist high osmotic variation without rupturing
when drinking large amounts of water ranging from 100 litres to 150 litres.
Camels are able to withstand changes in body temperature and water consumption
that would kill most other animals. Their temperature ranges from 34 °C (93 °F) at
night and up to 41 °C (106 °F) during the day, and only above this threshold will they
begin to sweat. The upper body temperature range is often not reached during the
day in milder climatic conditions, and therefore, the camel may not sweat at all during
the day. Evaporation of their sweat takes place at the skin level, not at the surface of
their coat, thereby being very efficient at cooling the body compared to the amount of
water lost through perspiration. They accumulate heat during the day and lose it at
night though conduction and convection instead of by sweating.
They can withstand at least 20–25% weight loss due to dehydration (most mammals
can only withstand about 15%). A camel's blood remains hydrated, even though the
body fluids are lost, until this 25% limit is reached
Camel’s water requirement is 1 litter of water for 1 kg of dry matter consumed. If the
plant eaten by camel contains 50% dry mater then the camel does not need to drink
water.
The kidneys and intestines of a camel are very efficient at retaining water. Urine
comes out as thick syrup, and their feces are so dry that they can fuel fires. The camel
has long loops of Henle in the nephron and an ADH (Anti Diurtic Hormone) hormone
regulates the reabsorbtion of water meaning that they can concentrate their urine ten
times more than cattle.

45
Figure 2.1 Drinking
water in pond
shoats first, cattle
second and camels
third depending on
the time required to
consume water.
Figure 2.2 Water
troughs in Somali
Regional State
Appendix Table 21: Palatability of the different woody species for livestock species
Plant species Vernacular name Palatability Livestock species
Grewia bicolor Haroressa Highly palatable Goat and camel
Commiphora
Africana
Hamessa Intermediate Goat and camel
Vernonia
phillipsiae
Qexxee Highly palatable Camel and goat
Dobera glabra Adee Unpalatable Camel and goat
Dichrostachys
cinerea
Germie Intermediate Goat and camel
Solanum unpalatable Goat and camel
Serritee unpalatable Goat and camel
Acacia horrida Intermediate Goat and camel
Acacia reficens Intermediate Goat and camel
Allophylus Chirree unpalatable Goat and camel

46
abyssinicus
Borassus
aethiopum
Qalqalcha Unpalatable Goat and camel
Rhus natalensis Xaxeessa Highly palatable Goat and camel
Dodonia viscosa Itacha Unpalatable Goat and camel
Rukessa Intermediate Goat and camel
Acokathera
schimperi
Qararuu Unpalatable Goat and camel
Acacia
drepanolobium
Intermediate Goat and camel
Acacia bussi Highly palatable Goat and camel
Olea Africana Ejersa Intermediate Goat and camel
Cordia gharaf Menayera Intermediate Goat and camel
Cocumis ficifolius Guurbi hola Highly palatable Goat and camel
Grewia ferruginea Dhogonuu Intermediate Goat and camel
Grewia tembensis Deeka Highly palatable Goat and camel
Premna resinosa Urgessa Highly palatable Goat and camel
Rytigynia neglecta Mudduguree Intermediate Goat and camel
Lennae triphylla Andrakaa Unpalatable Goat and camel
Acacia albida Intermediate Goat and camel
Borassus
aethiopium
Qachachluu Intermediate Goat and camel
Dabobessa Highly palatable Goat and camel
Biqqa Highly palatable Goat and camel
Heeria reticulala Garri Intermediate Goat and camel
Ficus ovata Dembii Highly palatable Goat and camel
Croton
macrostachys
Mokonessa Unpalatable Goat and camel
Garbicha Intermediate Goat and camel
Commiphora
species
Caalanqaa (sanga
ajii
Intermediate Goat and camel
Ipomoe
hildebrandtii
Omboorkeee Intermediate Goat and camel
(Commiphora) Sanaejo Intermediate Goat and camel
Duranta repens Fonqolcha Unpalatable Goat and camel
Hammerrssa Unpalatable Goat and camel
Calpurnia
subdecandra
Cheekata Unpalatable Goat and camel
Miessa Intermediate Goat and camel
(Source: Field survey result)

47
Figure 2.3 Water wells in Somali Regional state
2.5 Sources of water for the camel
Plants are the main source of water for the camel, the water requirement of the
camel is 50% of total intake, that is for each kilogram of dry matter one litter of
water is required. Thus if a camel subsists on 50% dry matter the water
requirements are fulfilled. There are ancedotes that camels living without water
for months. Most of the shoots of browse plants contain 50% DM as the camel
selects and feeds on these parts of the plant it can refrain from drinking water for
long periods.
Other sources are Rain water; in ponds, pools, rivers, streams, canals and rivers.

48
Source of water
Rain water
Ponds
Lake
Reservoir
River
Ground water
Spring
Shallw well
Deep well
Tube well
Figure 2.4 Water sources for the camel

49
CHAPTER THREE: CAMEL BREEDS AND BREEDING
Melaku Tefera,
College of Veterinary Medicine, Haramaya University, P. O. Box 144, Haramaya
Campus, Ethiopia, melaku22@yahoo.com
reed characterization is a primary step to design of appropriate management and
conservation programs of livestock in developing countries. Relative genetic
diversity can be determined using phenotypic characteristics and/or molecular
markers. Phenotypic characteristics of livestock breeds as well as their adaptive
characteristics are important in identifying breed attributes for immediate use by
farming communities In Ethiopia camel breed studies are very scanty. The genetic
diversity and relationship among the dromedary populations is poorly
documented. Data on camel productivity under pastoralists condition are limited,
and this is true of the Ethiopian camel (Schwartz et al., 1992), even though the
country has about two million camels. There is no conceptual classification of
camel breeds or strains or categorization using breed descriptors. Production wise,
there are wide differences between individual camels. Despite researchers
attempts classify camels, the phenotypic and morphometric disparity is not as
wide as found in other domestic livestock and the variation noted appears more
physiologic than anatomic.
Although there are several definitions of breed we have adapted the combined
definitions of FAO (2000) and Köhler-Rollefson, (1997): A breed is a homogenous,
sub-specific group of domestic livestock with definable and identifiable external
characteristics that enable it to be separated by visual appraisal from other
similarly defined groups within the same species, or a homologous group fulfilling
the criteria of (i) being subjected to a common utilization pattern, (ii) sharing a
common habitat/ distribution area, (iii) representing largely a closed gene pool,
and (iv) being regarded as distinct by their breeders. Reproductive indices can be
used as indicators of health, to measure responses to treatment or control
measures and are used as guide to husbandry and management question.t This
section summarizes the various works on breed and reproductive performance of
Camels in Ethiopia
3.1 Breeds
Most of the breed studies in Ethiopia are Marco level studies similar to a survey
methodology developed about a decade ago by IEMVT/CIRAD (ILCA, 1992). The
macro study based on a stratified sampling procedure collects information about
herds and animals. It asks basic information about the animal and takes some
measurements. Additional historical information about the farming system and
herd production can be collected on direct questioning of the farmer. An analysis
from this kind of survey will give information about the general composition of the
B

50
herds specifying the animal breed, age, sex and usage. Reproduction and
production parameters are also available from the analysis (ILCA 1992).
The following list of six broad categories of breed descriptors were used
1. General identification consisting of country (region) species, breed or
population and location within the country the where breed is found.
2. Physical characteristics including coat color, giving details of special colors and
color combinations.
3. Measures of adult size and weight including wither height, live weight, and
body length (for each sex) with anindication of the precision of records, and
their standard deviation and range.
4. Current uses (purposes) as indicated by producers and ranked by priority.
Possession of special or unique adaptive traits such as resistance to major
diseases and to climate
5. Qualitative description of the predominant management system (stationary,
transhumant, nomadic, housing, feeding etc)
6. Biological performance – important traits applicable to dairy, meat or dual-
purpose breeds, giving an indication of variation.
3.1.1 Breed classification based on location
Each tribe and clan is a closed system of relationship all social activity takes within
the clan. Similarly for the camel as a clan may share a camel bull for breeding and
herds of camels may be exchanged and given as gifts. Although the external
features of the camel are not distinct, sometimes camels are classified by their
locality (See Fig. 3.1-3.3), for example the Kunama camel, the Afar camel,
theSomali Camel, the Borena camel, and the Kereyou camel. However, the Irob,
Kunama and Raya obtain camels from the Afar, usually males that are used for
transporting merchandise.
3.1.2 Breed classification based on color
The Kunama camel has a distinct whitish colouration unlike that of Afar and Somali
camels which is robably due to its origin from North Africa via Egypt. The Afar
camels are darker while the Somali camels are an intermediate golden brown.
However a mix of lighter and darker animals may occur in tribal herds. Color is
affected by age and younger animals tend to be darker. Classification based on
color is misleading. Darker camels are considered low producing but they may
possess other beneficial traits of survival.
3.1.3 Breed classification based on size
The Kunama camels are larger and taller while the Afar camels are lighter and
Somali camels are intermediate. Size is affected by age, sex, and plane of nutrition.
As there has never been an on-station evaluation, size can be misleading. In the

51
same herd it is possible to see different sizes of animals and seasonal body
condition fluctuations.
3.1.4 Morphometric measurement
Some relevant measurements were used to assess the phenotypic appearance of
the Afar and Somali camels. The mean heights of male and female camels were
1.89m, and 1.82m, respectively. The average mature weight of male camels ranged
between 350-500 kg and of females between 350-450kg under traditional system
of management. The mean weight of newly-born calves was 33.69 kg. Somali
camels were taller as shown on Table 3.1 with ashoulder height of 1.96 m. and
weight of 486 kg.
3.1.5 Breed classification based on production performance
Milk, meat and work performances are used for selection of breeding animals. The
trait most selected for is milk production and related characteristics are posture
and size of udder and mammary gland and pedigree. Three types of camels are
identified based on milk production, high yielding up to 10 litres, intermediate 7-5
litres and low yielding 4-3 litres per day. Female animals are never used for work as
the associated stress may hinder reproduction. Except for breeding bulls all males
are used as pack animals after they are trained to fit into a line caravan at age 5.
As it is difficult to differentiate camel breed based on external appearance, a tribal
herd of camels may be branded with an identification mark to show to which tribe
they belong. Moreover, variation in breeding success between males is a main
source of phenotypic selection pressure. No female is culled. In camel only the bull
is selected for breeding and practically any female camel is bread.
Over the last decades, advances in DNA-based marker technology make it possible
to identify genome regions, namely quantitative trait loci (QTL) underlying complex
traits such as milk yield in dairy cattle. Instead of traditional animal breeding
programmes solely relying on phenotype and pedigree information, the
incorporation of detected QTL into genetic evaluation provides a great potential to
enhance selection accuracies, hence expediting the genetic improvement of
animal productivity. The most important traits of dairy cattle are expressed only in
females, but the main opportunity for selection is in males. Intense selection of the
best bulls, combined with the worldwide use of these bulls through artificial
insemination and frozen semen, has created a global population and caused
concern that the genetic variation available in the future will be reduced.

52
Figure 3.1 Afar camel the reddish brown, lighter in color above and the
darker colored below

53
Figure 3.2: A herd of afar camels above and a Somali camel below

54
Figure 3.3: A female Somali camel, suckling its new born with
prominent mammary vein (above) and a two year old kunama
camel (below)

55
Table 3.1 Morphometric variables for Male Afar and Somali camels under pastoral
husbandry.
Morphometric
variables Mean (cm)
Afar* Somali**
male female Male female
Neck length 114.95 118
Neck width 29.65 26
Hump height 21.8 26.9
Hump circumference 102.3 110.5
Tail length 54.6 53.5
Ear length 10.5 10.4
Chest width 36.4 32.8
Forelimb length 136.8 133.4
Hind limb length 175.5 171.1
Shoulder height 189.65 182.4 1.96
Thoracic girth 194.5 189.3 2.04
Abdominal girth 216 212.2 2.52
* (Tefera, 2004 unpublished), ** (Getahun, 1998)
Using the barymetric weight determination formula of Schwartz et al (1983), the
calculated weight of mature male camels ranged between 350-500 kg and of
females between 350-450 kg under traditional system. The calculated average of
weight of 5 calves (newly born to one week age) was around 33-69kg. To estimate
the weight again of the afar camel, camels were grouped according to their age,
fed on natural vegetation and measured to calculate their body weight based on
their age (Table 3.2)
Table 3.2 Age and average weight of the afar camels, which are kept under natural
vegetation.
Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Weight 34 139 249. 273. 336. 376. 388. 421 470 500

56
Breeds of Racing Camels
The camel occupies an important place among the pastoralist in Ethiopia; it is mentioned in
myths legends and folktales. It is considered sacred animal although not worshiped. The
camel is never ridden or slaughtered unless a very demanding situation compel. Camels are
customarily used for milk, meat and as baggage and m and are bred for their milk. The
female camel is never used for transportation only males are set in a line caravan.
However camel-racing, a traditional sport, is extremely popular in the United Arab Emirates
(UAE) and has come to be recognized as a serious international sport and a great tourist
attraction. Events draw participants from throughout the world, and winners of races
receive handsome prizes, including large cash awards. Camels are now specially raised for
the track, using carefully controlled methods of breeding, training, and feeding. Special
artificial insemination and embryo transfer techniques are used for crossbreeding select
lineages. In the UAE) which is the centre of camel racing in the Middle East, sophisticated
training methods, such as working animals on treadmills and in swimming pools, are used
to prepare racing camels for competition, and the local government encourages breeding
programs and provides subsidies to camel owners and breeders. A well-bred racing camel
with an excellent track record can sell for a high price.
There are two main breeds being raced, the Omani and Sudania which differ in color - the
Omani being very light and the Sudania more of a tan color. Traditionally, a racing camel
was fed on dates, honey, alfalfa, milk and seeds. They were never allowed to drink the day
before a race and were prevented from feeding for the 12 hour prior to a race. With
racingtype of saddle the jockey sits behind the camel's hump.
In Ethiopia it is important to add value to the camels in Ethiopia by introducing camel
racing and attracting tourists from the Middle East.

57
Figure 3.4: Pastoralist breed selection criteria include a prominent mammary
vein and good conformation of male calves

Camel in ethiopia

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