Running head SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING STUDENTS WITH DISABILITIE

Running head: SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING STUDENTS
WITH DISABILITIES 1
SELF-EFFICACY AND TEACHING STUDENTS WITH
DISABILITIES 10
Self-Efficacy and Teaching Students with Disabilities: An
Annotated Bibliography
Student Name
EDUC 850
Liberty University
Abstract
The field of special education is consistently plagued with
staffing shortages due to high attrition. Identifiably, burnout
leads to many teachers’ decisions to seek career opportunities
outside of special education. Research indicates that teacher
burnout is derived from low levels of self-efficacy. In efforts to

increase job-satisfaction and competency within the many
specializations which make up special education, research
supports that teacher education programs should be all-inclusive
of the various disabilities and settings which teacher candidates
may service following graduation. Additionally, continual and
applicable professional development opportunities, for both
special education teachers and general education teachers, can
support greater perceived self-efficacy in teaching students with
disabilities.
Keywords: self-efficacy, special education, burnout
Preparation of Teachers of Students with Autism
Busby, Ingram, Bowron, Oliver, and Lyons (2012) indicated
that the ineffective teaching of children with autism stems from
a lack of motivation and low self-efficacy. Based upon this, the
authors sought participation from graduate education students
who reported no experience with teaching students with autism.
Using a Nominal Group Technique, participants were shown
video clips of instruction of a child with autism. Following the
video viewing, participants were then asked what challenges
they perceived would be experienced as a teacher of a student
with autism. From this, the following five challenges were
identified: highly individualized instruction, time-consuming
parent-teacher collaboration, disruption in the general education
setting, extensive data collection for students’ IEPs, and general

education teachers’ lack of knowledge for inclusion. From these
challenges, perceived needs were derived. Overall, the findings
from this study represent that there are barriers to the effective
inclusion of students with autism. In order to enhance the self-
efficacy of teachers providing inclusion to students with autism
in the inclusion setting, the authors offered curriculum
recommendations for pre-service teaching curriculums. As the
authors indicate, a limitation of this study is the popul ation
being comprised of only Troy University students. Special
education preparation programs could utilize the design of this
study to determine whether or not their students feel equipped
for serving students with autism following graduation.
Self-Efficacy and Special Education Referrals
Identifying the referral for assessment as the first step in
providing students with special education services, Egyed and
Short (2006) investigated the relationship between teaching
efficacy and referring student for assessment. Since teacher
burnout is a derivative of low levels of self-efficacy, the
authors also investigated the influence of burnout on the
likelihood to refer. Overall, the study evidenced that teachers,
who were uncertain about whether to refer a student, reported
higher levels of burnout, whereas teachers who reported lower
levels of burnout reported greater certainty about when to refer
a student. Lastly, the authors were unable to identify a
relationship between self-efficacy and likelihood to refer. The
authors provide the implication that further training and
professional development on behavior management could
increase teachers’ self-efficacy and allow for more perceived
confidence when determining the true need for a referral.
Teachers’ Learned Helplessness
Gotshall and Stefanou (2011) investigated teachers’ self-
perceptions on their abilities to teach students with disabilities.
The sample included 33 elementary and middle school teachers,
and four student teachers. Participants completed four separate
questionnaires. Overall, this study revealed that a relationship
does exist between self-efficacy and learned helplessness.

Based upon this relationship, working environments need to
support the self-perceived empowerment of teachers in the
presence of difficulty. Also, teachers who receive more
support/consultation reported lower levels of learned
helplessness, whereas teachers who reported less
support/consultation demonstrated greater degrees of learned
helplessness. This study does provide evidence that continual
and on-going support for teachers of students with disabilities
can have beneficial impressions.
Response to Challenging Behaviors
Hastings and Brown (2002) provided questionnaires to 70
school staff members who work with students with either
intellectual disabilities or autism. The questionnaires were
aimed at measuring behavioral knowledge, behavioral causes,
efficacy in managing challenging behaviors, and emotional
consequences to challenging behavior. The authors identify a
relationship between their emotional reactions to challenging
behavior and perceived behavioral causes. Additionally,
increased behavioral knowledge related to emotional reactions
to challenging behavior. Also, teachers’ low levels of self-
efficacy did predict the emotions of fear, anxiety, depression,
and anger. The authors imply that future research should
highlight the change of teachers’ self-efficacy over time and the
impact of teachers’ self-efficacy on challenging behaviors.
Students with Self-Injurious Behaviors
Jasper and Morris (2012) specifically investigated the self-
efficacy of special educators who teach students who display
non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors. Using a 3-point Likert
scale, the authors collected data from 390 special educators. Of
the 390 sampled, 305 participants agreed that they work, or
have worked, with students with non-suicidal self-injurious
behaviors. Additionally, 276 participants reported that they
were untrained to manage the non-suicidal self-injurious
behaviors of students. Teachers who had been trained to manage
these behaviors reported higher levels of self-efficacy.
Profoundly, many educators who work with students who

display non-suicidal self-injurious behaviors have received no
training. Overall, the authors imply that there is a great need for
further specialized training for special education teachers. As
this article depicts, an increase in training relates to an increase
in self-efficacy for special education teachers.
Skill Ratings for Teaching Students with Disabilities
King-Sears, Carran, Dammann, and Arter (2012) took a sample
of teacher education students from four colleges and
universities. The researchers developed a survey tool, which
was derived from a tool included content produced by the
Council for Exceptional Children for preparing special
educators. Each survey was completed by a student had
completed student teaching. The survey encompassed the
following six domains: instructional strategies, learning
environment, instructional practice, assessment, professional
practice, and behavior. When compared, special education
students rated their self-efficacy of working with students with
disabilities higher than the general education students.
Additionally, the researchers sought to investigate the influence
of traditional student teaching on the self-efficacy ratings of
general and special education teachers. Overall, the authors
found that traditional student teaching promotes higher self-
ratings in all domains, except behavior. Thus, the authors imply
that new teacher mentorships/orientations could benefit from
these findings in order to prepare all teachers to work with
students with disabilities. Also, the rating scores provide
evidence for the benefit of traditional student teaching
placements.
Intern Teachers and Teacher Preparation
Lee, Patterson, and Vega (2011) discuss the increased
likelihood, when compared to general educators, of special
education teachers leaving the profession after the first year.
Based upon this, the authors collected data, using a survey-
method, from 154 special education intern teachers in
California. In California, the intern teacher is provided special
education licensure for a 2 year period, while they complete the

required coursework for full licensure. The surveys provided
included items based upon personal teaching efficacy and
general teaching efficacy. The authors found that the quality of
support received is related to personal teaching efficacy. They
also concluded that heavy workloads do affect the self-efficacy
of special education teachers. The authors provide the
implication that school districts must work to implement
effective supports, to include supportive and healthy
relationships, for intern teachers. Lastly, the authors discuss the
importance of quality traditional teacher education programs,
including student teaching, to the overall self-efficacy of new
teachers.
Teaching Students with Autism and Coping
Ruble, Usher, and McGrew (2011) surveyed 35 special
education teachers who teach students with autism. The surveys
completed represented the following three areas of self-
efficacy: sense of mastery, social persuasion, and
physiological/affective state. The authors found no impact of
years of teaching experience on self-efficacy ratings. Secondly,
the authors found that social persuasions from administrators
had no impact on self-efficacy ratings. The authors provide the
possible explanation that teachers of students with autism
consult more consistently with autism specialists and not their
administrators. Lastly, teachers who reported higher levels of
confidence reported lower levels of burnout. Burnout was only
significant with the classroom management subscale. However,
due to the design of this study, the authors are unable to
conclude if the significance is derived from poor classroom
management skills or teachers’ lack of belief in their in their
management skills. Overall, the authors provide the implication
that the inclusion of autism coursework in teacher preparation
could assist in raising the self-efficacy of teachers of students
with autism.
Classroom Structure and Teacher Efficacy
Using a sample size of 774 general and special educators,
Shippen et al. (2011) investigated the impact of classroom

structure on the efficacy reported at the secondary and
elementary grade levels. Participants completed two
questionnaires (Bender Classsroom Structure Questionnaire and
Teacher Efficacy Scale). Overall, this study demonstrated that
special educators are more effective at individualizing
instruction for students with disabilities, than general education
teachers do. Since the findings of this study demonstrate a
difference in the instructional practices between special
education teachers and general education teachers when
teaching students with disabilities, the authors provide the
implication that general education preservice coursework
provide additional content related to teaching students with
disabilities to enhance teacher confidence with regards to
teaching students with disabilities. Also, the authors emphasize
the need for continual professional development regarding co-
teaching in the inclusion setting.
Autism, Treatment Orientation, and Self-Efficacy
Siu and Ho (2010) investigated the impact of treatment
orientation on the self-efficacy of teachers of students with
autism. The two primary treatment orientations when serving
students with autism are Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) and
Treatment and Education of Autistic and Communication-
related Handicapped Children (TEACCH). Teachers adhering to
one of these two orientations were compared with a group of
teachers who do not prescribe to a specific treatment
orientation. Overall, the researchers found that by teaching
according to a specific treatment orientation yields an increased
sense of personal teaching efficacy when working with students
with autism. Also, teachers who practice ABA demonstrate a
high sense of personal teaching efficacy. In addition to further
study, the authors provide the implication that continuous
training and development should be provided for professionals
who work with a specialized population of students, such as
students with autism, in order to enhance self-efficacy and
lessen teacher burnout.

References
Busby, R., Ingram, R., Bowron, R., Oliver, J., & Lyons, B.
(2012). Teaching elementary children
with autism: Addressing teacher challenges and preparation
needs. Rural Educator,
33(2), 27-35.
Egyed, C. J., & Short, R. J. (2006). Teacher self-efficacy,
burnout, experience, and decision to
refer a disruptive student. School Psychology International,
27(4), 462-474.
doi: 10.1177/0143034306070432
Gotshall, C., & Stefanou, C. (2011). The effects of on-going
consultation for accommodating
students with disabilities on teacher self-efficacy and learned
helplessness. Education,
132(2), 321-331.
Hastings, R. P., & Brown, T. (2002). Behavioural knowledge,
causal beliefs and self-efficacy as
predictors of special educators’ emotional reactions to
challenging behaviours. Journal of
Intellectual Disability Research, 46(2), 144-150.
doi:10.1046/j.1365-2788.2002.00378.x
Jasper, A. D., & Morris, C. W. (2012). Special educators and
non-suicidal self-injurious behavior: Self-injury training,
exposure, and self-efficacy. Teacher Education and Special
Education, 35(1), 64-76. doi: 10.1177/0888406411413144
King-Sears, M. E., Carran, D. T., Dammann, S. N., & Arter, P.
S. (2012). Multi-site analyses of
special education and general education student teachers’ skill
ratings for working with
students with disabilities. Teacher Education Quarterly, 39(2),

131-149.
Lee, Y., Patterson, P. P., & Vega, L. A. (2011). Perils to self-
efficacy perceptions and teacher-
preparation quality among special education intern teachers.
Teacher Education
Quarterly, 38(2), 61-76.
Ruble, L. A., Usher, E. L., & McGrew, J. H. (2011).
Preliminary investigation of the sources of
self-efficacy among teachers of students with autism. Focus on
Autism and Other
Developmental Disabilities, 26(2), 67-74. doi:
10.1177/1088357610397345
Shippen, M. E., Flores, M. M., Crites, S. A., Patterson, D.,
Ramsey, M. L., Houchins, D. D., &
Jolivette, K. (2011). Classroom structure and teacher efficacy in
serving students with
disabilities: Differences in elementary and secondary teachers.
International Journal of
Special Education, 26(3), 36-44.
Siu, A. F., & Hou, L. S. (2010). Relations between commitment
to a treatment orientation and
self-efficacy among teachers working with children with autism.
International Journal
of Early Childhood Special Education, 2(3), 180-192.
Week 2 Assignment
Requirements Management Plan (RMP)
Overview and Rationale
For this assignment you will create a Requirements Management
Plan (RMP.)
The Requirements Management Plan is a key document in
managing the scope of your project. The RMP
components describes how you will elicit, analyze, document

and manage the requirements of the project. Specifically, the
RMP will outline the up-front gathering of high-level project
and product requirements, as well as the more detailed product
requirements that you will collect during the project lifecycle.
Adhering to an effective requirements management process
helps the project focus on the requirements that have been
developed and maintains the integrity of the requirements
throughout the lifecycle of the project.
Program and Course Outcomes
This assignment is directly linked to the following key learning
outcomes for the course:
· Know the general requirements collection process steps and
become familiar with best practice requirements collection
techniques
· Practice techniques for eliciting stakeholder’s input to develop
effective and feasible requirements success criteria
· Distinguish between different types of requirements
(functional, Non-functional, technical, project, regulatory, etc.)
· Analyze techniques used to differentiate the needs /vs/ wants
of stakeholders for a project: MoSCoW technique
· Understand the purpose of an effective Requirements
Management Plan (RMP): Create an RMP
In addition to these key learning outcomes, you will also have
the opportunity to demonstrate the following skills through
completing this assignment:
· Critical thinking and analysis
· Problem solving
Your written assignment this week is to complete a
Requirements Management Plan for your chosen case study (the
SAME case study you used for your Scope Management Plan
last week.)
Please refer to the assignment instructions and outline below in
order to successfully complete the assignment.
Requirements Management Plan (RMP) Outline and Instructions
Use the following list to create the sections (components) that

should be included within your RMP:
1. Executive Summary – In 1 paragraph, write this Executive
Summary on the key components of your RMP.
2. Project Overview. In 2-3 paragraphs, briefly describe the
purpose of the project for the readers that have not seen your
Project Charter nor understands the project’s key business
objectives.
3. The Requirements Gathering Process. In this section,
describe the process that you will use to elicit, analyze and
document the project requirements. Identify and describe at
least 4 requirements collection tool(s) and techniques you
intend to use to collect project requirements from key
stakeholders. Moreover, please comment on the collection
method’s efficiency to collect necessary project requirements.
(Note: efficiency should focus on timeliness to collect
requirements vs. cost to collect requirements)
4. KeyRoles and Responsibilities. In this section, please list the
roles & responsibilities of at least 5 key project stakeholders
who will be involved with gathering, creating and managing the
project requirements throughout the project ‘s lifecycle.
(For example: Roles could include the project manager, project
sponsor, business analyst, customer(s) or project SMEs, or
other key stakeholders. Responsibilities could include
requirements elicitation, change management, requirements
creation, testing and approving requirements. etc.)
5. Requirements Collection Timetable - Using at least 3
requirements collection methods, briefly identify a requirements
collection schedule for your project. Please justify your
timeline based upon key resources availability, their assumed
skills and the collection method used.
6. Requirements Traceability. Please describe how you will
track and manage requirements from requirements elicitation to
identifying project deliverable, WBS / project schedule
development and scope change management. [Hint: Review
100% rule].
7. RMP Approval. Identify who will review and approve the

RMP. Please comment on how you will communicate the RMP
to project and key stakeholders.
Assignment Format
Below are some key guidelines you will want to ensure you
follow in creating this assignment. Think of this short list as a
quality control checklist, along with the attached grading rubric.
· Requirements Management Plan template must be complete,
please submit in MS Word (.doc, .docx) or .pdf format
· You should format the document professionally:
· Double line spacing between paragraphs but 1.5 spacing
within the paragraph
· 12-point Times Roman
· 1-inch margins
· Use footnotes or endnotes and citations
· 2-14-point font, bold headings and subheadings
· Adhere to APA 6th edition conventions
· Please carefully review the list of RMP document components
provided on the previous page and use it as a basis for creating
your RMP. The list contains specific guidelines on what is
required in each RMP section.
· Please ensure you remove all instructions (italicized) and any
examples provided within the RMP outline
Please be sure to review the attached rubric. Along with these
assignment instructions, the rubric will ensure you have a solid
understanding of the assignment requirements and how the
assignment will be graded. The rubric is provided on the next
page.
Requirements Management Plan Rubric
Assessment Element
Above Standards
Meets Standards
Approaching Standards

Below Standards
Not Evident
Overview and Requirements Process
(40%)
Overview of project and assessment of the project requirements
process is in depth, logical and effective in managing project
requirements.
At least 4 requirements elicitation processes were effectively
identified.
Demonstrated a high degree of understanding of the
requirements elicitation process and collection tools and
techniques.
process was mostly in depth, logical and effective in managing
project requirements.
At least 4 requirements elicitation processes were identified.
Demonstrated an adequate level of understanding the
requirements elicitation process and collection tools and
techniques.
process was not in depth, and somewhat effective in managing
project requirements.
At least 4 requirements elicitation processes were identified.
Demonstrated a minimally acceptable level of understanding the
requirements elicitation process & collection tools and
techniques.

process was not adequate
Less than 4 requirements elicitation processes were identified.
Demonstrated an unacceptable level of understanding the
techniques.
Demonstrated an unacceptable level of understanding the
techniques.
Key Roles and Responsibilities
(20%)
At least 5 key stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities were
clearly identified.
Demonstrated a superior level of understanding the key roles
and responsibilities in the requirements management processes.
mostly adequately identified.
Demonstrated an effective level of understanding the key roles
and responsibilities in the requirements management processes.
mostly adequately identified.
Demonstrated a minimally acceptable level of understanding the
key roles and responsibilities in the requirements management
processes.
Less than 5 key stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities were
identified.
Demonstrated a less than adequate level of understanding the
key roles and responsibilities in the requirements management

processes.
Less than 5 key stakeholders’ roles and responsibilities were
identified.
Demonstrated an unacceptable level of understanding the key
roles and responsibilities in the requirements management
processes.
Timetable and
Traceability Process
(20%)
Provided at least 3 timeline assessment for requirements
elicitation.
Requirements collection timeline was well developed and
logical.
Discussion on requirements traceability process was in depth
and logical.
Demonstrated a superior level of understanding requirements
collection timelines and effectiveness’ of the traceability
management process.
elicitation.
Requirements collection timeline was mostly well developed
and logical.
Discussion on requirements traceability process was mostly in
depth and logical.
Demonstrated an acceptable level of understanding requirements
collection timelines and effectiveness’ of the traceability
management process.
elicitation.

Requirements collection timeline was adequate - some were
vague.
Discussion on requirements traceability process was mostly not
in depth and logical.
Demonstrated a mostly acceptable level of understanding
requirements collection timelines and effectiveness’ of the
traceability management process. Improvement is needed to
meet standards.
Did not provide at least 3 timeline assessment for requirements
elicitation.
Requirements collection timeline was not adequate.
Discussion on requirements traceability process was not in
depth nor logical.
Demonstrated an unacceptable level of understanding
meet standards.
Demonstrated an unacceptable level of understanding
meet standards.
Critical Thinking
(10%)
Professional insights into depth and breadth of assignment -
goes WELL beyond assignment requirements to create an
effective RMP.
Showcases a comprehensive understanding of the requirements
management process, and the effectiveness of an RMP.
Showcases a base understanding of the requirements
management process, and the effectiveness of an RMP.

Does not evidence a base understanding of the requirements
management process, nor understands the effectiveness of an
RMP.
Evidences a very poor understanding of the requirements
management process, does not understands the effectiveness of
an RMP.
Grammar & Clarity
(10%)
All work grammatically correct with no misspellings or
grammatical mistakes. Expresses ideas and opinions clearly and
concisely in a manner appropriate to the assignment.
All work grammatically correct with rare misspellings.
Minimal errors in spelling, grammar, sentence structure and/or
other writing conventions but the reader is able to understand
what the writer meant.
Frequent errors in spelling, grammar, sentence structure, and/or
other writing conventions that distract the reader.
Writing contains numerous errors in spelling, grammar,
sentence structure, etc. that interfere with comprehension. The
reader is unable to understand some of the intended meaning.
ISBN: 0073403342
Author: Erik W. Larson, Clifford F. Gray
Title: Project Management
Front endsheets
Color: 2
Pages: 2,3
Chapter 1 Modern Project Management
1.2 Project defined

1.3 Project management defined
1.4 Projects and programs (.2)
2.1 The project life cycle (.2.3)
App. G.1 The project manager
App. G.7 Political and social environments
F.1 Integration of project management processes [3.1]
Chapter 2 Organization Strategy and Project Selection
1.4 Projects and programs (.2)
1.4.1 Managing the portfolio
1.4.3 Strategy and projects
2.3 Stakeholders and review boards
12.1 RFP’s and vendor selection (.3.4.5)
11.2.2.6 SWAT analysis
Chapter 3 Organization: Structure and Culture
2.4.1 Organization cultures [G.7]
2.4.2 Organization structure [9.1.3]
9.1.1 Organization charts
1.4.4 Project offices
Chapter 4 Defining the Project
4.1 Project charter
5.1 Gather requirements
5.2 Defining scope
5.3 Creating a WBS
5.4 Tools and techniques
6.1 Define activities
9.1.2. Responsibility matrixes
10.1 Communication planning (.2.3.4) [App. G-4]
Chapter 5 Estimating Times and Costs
6.4 Activity duration estimates (.3)
6.4.2 Estimating tools (.1.3.4)
6.3.1 Identifying resources
7.1 Activity cost estimates (.2.3.4.5)

5.1.2.4 Delphi method
Chapter 6 Developing a Project Plan
4.2.2 Planning tools
6.2 Sequence activities [1.2]
6.5.1 Bar and milestone charts
6.5.2 Critical path method (.2)
6.5.2.6 Lead and lag activities [6.2.3]
F.3 Project duration
Chapter 7 Managing Risk
11.1 Risk management process [F.8]
11.2 Identifying risks
11.3.2.2 Impact matrix
11.4 Risk assessment
11.5 Risk responses (.2–.1.2)
11.6 Risk register
7.1.2.5 PERT analysis
7.1.2.6.3 Contingency reserves
7.3.3.4 Change control management
Chapter 8 Scheduling resources and cost
6.5.2 Setting a schedule baseline [8.1.4]
6.5.3.1 Setting a resource schedule
6.5.2.4 Resource leveling
7.2 Setting a cost and time baseline schedule (1.3.5) [8.1.3]
6.5.2.3 Critical chain method
Chapter 9 Reducing Project Duration
6.5.2.7 Schedule compression
Chapter 10 Leadership
9.4.2.5 Leadership skills
G.1 Project leadership
10.1 Stakeholder management

Chapter 11 Teams
9.2 Building the team (.1.3) & [3.5.3] [App G.2 Building teams]
9.4 Managing the team
9.3.2 Team building activities
9.2.4 Virtual teams
9.3.3.1 Team performance [9.4.2.2]
9.4.2.3 Conflict management
9.3.2.6 Recognition and awards
Chapter 12 Outsourcing
12.1.1 Procurement requirements [G.8]
12.1.2.3 Contract types
9.4.2.3 Conflict management
12.2.7 The art of negotiating
12.2.3.5 Change requests
Chapter 13 Monitoring Progress
10.5.3 Cost/schedule system (.1)
6.6 .2.1 Time performance
7.2.3.1 Cost baseline development
7.3.2.1 Earned value system (F.4)
7.3.2.4 E.V., performance status report
7.3.2.2 E.V., forecasts
7.3.2.3 EV., to complete index (EAC)
7.3.2.5 Schedule and cost variance
Chapter 14 Project closure
Closure report
4.5.1.4 Organization processes (.5) & [4.5.3 & 4.6.3.2]
4.6.1 Administrative tasks (.3) & [3.7.1, & 12.4]
10.3.3.1 Lessons learned [8.3.3.4]
9.4.2.2 Individual performance appraisals
Chapter 15 International Projects
G.7 Culture awareness

Chapter 16 Oversight
1.4.4 Project offices
8.1.2 Continuous improvement
5.1 Requirements vs. actual [5.3]
Chapter 17 Agile PM
6.1.2.2 Rolling wave
Cross Reference of Project Management Body
of Knowledge (PMBOK) Concepts to Text Topics
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Project
Management
The Managerial Process
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Oregon State University
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PROJECT MANAGEMENT: THE MANAGERIAL PROCESS
Published by McGraw-Hill/Irwin, a business unit of The
McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue

of the Americas, New York, NY, 10020. Copyright © 2011 by
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights
reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
distributed in any form or by any means, or
stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior
written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies,
Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other
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Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components,
may not be available to customers outside the
United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 WVR/WVR 0 9 8 7
ISBN 978-0-07-340334-2
MHID 0-07-340334-2
Editorial director: Stewart Mattson
Publisher: Tim Vertovec
Executive editor: Richard T. Hercher, Jr.
Developmental editor: Gail Korosa
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Cover image: © Veer Images
Typeface: 10.5/12 Times Roman
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Larson, Erik W., 1952-
Project management: the managerial process / Erik W. Larson,
Clifford F. Gray. —5th ed.
p. cm. —(The McGraw-Hill/Irwin series, operations and
decision sciences)
Gray’s name appears first on the earlier editions.
Includes index.
ISBN-13: 978-0-07-340334-2 (alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 0-07-340334-2 (alk. paper)
1. Project management. 2. Time management. 3. Risk
management. I. Gray, Clifford F.
II. Gray, Clifford F. Project management. III. Title.
HD69.P75G72 2011
658.4904—dc22
2009054318
www.mhhe.com
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www.mhhe.com
v
About the Authors
Erik W. Larson
ERIK W. LARSON is professor of project management at the
College of Busi-
ness, Oregon State University. He teaches executive, graduate,
and undergraduate
courses on project management, organizational behavior, and

leadership. His
research and consulting activities focus on project
management. He has published
numerous articles on matrix management, product development,
and project part-
nering. He has been honored with teaching awards from both the
Oregon State
University MBA program and the University of Oregon
Executive MBA program.
He has been a member of the Portland, Oregon, chapter of the
Project Manage-
ment Institute since 1984. In 1995 he worked as a Fulbright
scholar with faculty at
the Krakow Academy of Economics on modernizing Polish
business education.
In 2005 he was a visiting professor at Chulalongkorn University
in Bangkok,
Thailand. He received a B.A. in psychology from Claremont
McKenna College
and a Ph.D. in management from State University of New York
at Buffalo. He is
a certified project management professional (PMP) and Scrum
Master.
Clifford F. Gray
CLIFFORD F. GRAY is professor emeritus of management at
the College of
Business, Oregon State University. He continues to teach
undergraduate and grad-
uate project management courses overseas and in the United
States; he has per-
sonally taught more than 100 executive development seminars
and workshops.
His research and consulting interests have been divided equally
between opera-
tions management and project management; he has published

numerous articles
in these areas, plus a text on project management. He has also
conducted research
with colleagues in the International Project Management
Association. Cliff has
been a member of the Project Management Institute since 1976
and was one of the
founders of the Portland, Oregon, chapter. He was a visiting
professor at Kasetsart
University in Bangkok, Thailand in 2005. He was the president
of Project Man-
agement International, Inc. (a training and consulting firm
specializing in project
management) 1977–2005. He received his B.A. in economics
and management
from Millikin University, M.B.A. from Indiana University, and
doctorate in oper-
ations management from the College of Business, University of
Oregon. He is
certified Scrum Master.
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“Man’s mind, once stretched by a new idea, never
regains its original dimensions.”
Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr.
To my family who have always encircled me with
love and encouragement—my parents (Samuel
and Charlotte), my wife (Mary), my sons and their
wives (Kevin and Dawn, Robert and Sally) and

their children (Ryan, Carly, Connor and Lauren).
C.F.G.
“We must not cease from exploration and the end of all
exploring will be to arrive where we begin and to know
the place for the first time.”
T. S. Eliot
To Ann whose love and support has brought out
the best in me. And, to our girls Mary, Rachel, and
Tor-Tor for the joy and pride they give me. Finally,
to my muse, Neil, for the faith and inspiration he
instills.
E.W.L
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vii
Preface
Since you are reading this text, you have made a decision that
learning more about
project management will have a positive impact for you. You
are absolutely right!
Project management has become an organization-wide core
competency; nearly
every manager, regardless of discipline is involved in managing
one or more proj-
ects. This text is designed to provide project managers and

prospective project
managers with the knowledge and skills that are transferable
across industries and
countries.
Our motivation for writing this text was to provide students
with a holistic,
integrative view of project management. A holistic view focuses
on how projects
contribute to the strategic goals of the organization. The
linkages for integration
include the process of selecting projects that best support the
strategy of a partic-
ular organization and that in turn can be supported by the
technical and manage-
rial processes made available by the organization to bring
projects to completion.
The goals for prospective project managers are to understand
the role of a project
in their organizations and to master the project management
tools, techniques,
and interpersonal skills necessary to orchestrate projects from
start to finish.
The role of projects in organizations is receiving increasing
attention. Projects
are the major tool for implementing and achieving the strategic
goals of the orga-
nization. In the face of intense, worldwide competition, many
organizations have
reorganized around a philosophy of innovation, renewal, and
organizational
learning to survive. This philosophy suggests an organization
that is flexible and
project driven. Project management has developed to the point
where it is a pro-
fessional discipline having its own body of knowledge and
skills. Today it is nearly

impossible to imagine anyone at any level in the organization
who would not ben-
efit from some degree of expertise in the process of managing
projects.
Audience
This text is written for a wide audience. It covers concepts and
skills that are used
by managers to propose, plan, secure resources, budget, and
lead project teams to
successful completions of their projects. The text should prove
useful to students
and prospective project managers in helping them understand
why organizations
have developed a formal project management process to gain a
competitive advan-
tage. Readers will find the concepts and techniques discussed in
enough detail to be
immediately useful in new-project situations. Practicing project
managers will find
the text to be a valuable guide and reference when dealing with
typical problems
that arise in the course of a project. Managers will also find the
text useful in
understanding the role of projects in the missions of their
organizations. Analysts
will find the text useful in helping to explain the data needed
for project implemen-
tation as well as the operations of inherited or purchased
software. Members of the
Project Management Institute will find the text is well
structured to meet the needs
of those wishing to prepare for PMP (Project Management
Professional) or CAPM
(Certified Associate in Project Management) certification

exams. The text has in-
depth coverage of the most critical topics found in PMI’s
Project Management
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Body of Knowledge (PMBOK). People at all levels in the
organization assigned to
work on projects will find the text useful not only in providing
them with a ratio-
nale for the use of project management tools and techniques but
also because of
the insights they will gain on how to enhance their contributions
to project
success.
Our emphasis is not only on how the management process
works, but more
importantly, on why it works. The concepts, principles, and
techniques are univer-
sally applicable. That is, the text does not specialize by industry
type or project
scope. Instead, the text is written for the individual who will be
required to man-
age a variety of projects in a variety of different
organizational settings. In the
case of some small projects, a few of the steps of the techniques
can be omitted,
but the conceptual framework applies to all organizations in
which projects are
important to survival. The approach can be used in pure project
organizations
such as construction, research organizations, and engineering

consultancy firms.
At the same time, this approach will benefit organizations that
carry out many
small projects while the daily effort of delivering products or
services continues.
Content
In this latest edition of the book, we have responded to
feedback received from
both students and teachers, which is deeply appreciated. As a
result of the this
feedback, the following changes have been made to the fifth
edition:
• Restructuring of text to include four supplemental chapters
that cover topics
beyond the project management core.
• Inclusion of a supplemental chapter on agile project
management which has
enjoyed success on new product and software development
projects.
• Terms and concepts have been updated to be consistent with
the fourth edition
of the Project Management Body of Knowledge (2008).
• Revised Chapter 14 to include project retrospectives. Chapters
2, 4, 6, 7, and 12,
have been updated.
• New student exercises and cases have been added to most
chapters.
• Answers to selected exercises are now available in Appendix 1
• A third major computer exercise has been added to the

Appendix 2;
• The “Snapshot from Practice” boxes feature a number of new
examples of
project management in action as well as new research highlights
that continue
to promote practical application of project management.
Overall the text addresses the major questions and issues the
authors have encoun-
tered over their 60 combined years of teaching project
management and consult-
ing with practicing project managers in domestic and foreign
environments. The
following questions represent the issues and problems
practicing project managers
find consuming most of their effort: What is the strategic role
of projects in con-
temporary organizations? How are projects prioritized? What
organizational and
managerial styles will improve chances of project success? How
do project manag-
ers orchestrate the complex network of relationships involving
vendors, subcon-
tractors, project team members, senior management, functional
managers, and
customers that affect project success? What factors contribute
to the development
of a high-performance project team? What project management
system can be set
viii Preface
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up to gain some measure of control? How do managers prepare
for a new interna-
tional project in a foreign culture? How does one pursue a
career in project
management?
Project managers must deal with all these concerns to be
effective. All of these
issues and problems represent linkages to an integrative project
management view.
The chapter content of the text has been placed within an
overall framework that
integrates these topics in a holistic manner. Cases and snapshots
are included from
the experiences of practicing managers. The future for project
managers appears
to be promising. Careers will be determined by success in
managing projects.
Student Learning Aids
The text Web site (www.mhhe.com/larsongray5e) includes study
outlines, online
quizzes, PowerPoint slides, videos, Microsoft Project Video
Tutorials and Web
links. The trial version of Microsoft Project software is
included on its own
CD-ROM free with the text.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank Richard Bruce, Ottawa University for
updating the Test
Bank and Online Quizzes; Charlie Cook, University of West

Alabama for revising
the PowerPoint slides; Oliver F. Lehmann for providing access
to PMBOK study
questions; and Mink for accuracy checking the text and
Instructor’s Resource
Manual content.
Next, it is important to note that the text includes contributions
from numerous
students, colleagues, friends, and managers gleaned from
professional conversa-
tions. We want them to know we sincerely appreciate their
counsel and suggestions.
Almost every exercise, case, and example in the text is drawn
from a real-world
project. Special thanks to managers who graciously shared their
current project as
ideas for exercises, subjects for cases, and examples for the
text. Shlomo Cohen,
John A. Drexler, Jim Moran, John Sloan, Pat Taylor, and John
Wold, whose work
is printed, are gratefully acknowledged. Special gratitude is due
Robert Breitbarth
of Interact Management, who shared invaluable insights on
prioritizing projects.
University students and managers deserve special accolades for
identifying prob-
lems with earlier drafts of the text and exercises.
We are indebted to the reviewers of past editions who shared
our commitment to
elevating the instruction of project management. The reviewers
include Paul S.
Allen, Rice University; Denis F. Cioffi, George Washington
University; Joseph
D. DeVoss, DeVry University; Edward J. Glantz, Pennsylvania
State University;
Michael Godfrey, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Robert

Key, University of
Phoenix; Dennis Krumwiede, Idaho State University; Nicholas
C. Petruzzi,
University of Illinois–Urbana/Champaign; William R. Sherrard,
San Diego State
University; S. Narayan Bodapati, Southern Illinois University
at Edwardsville;
Warren J. Boe, University of Iowa; Burton Dean, San Jose
State University;
Kwasi Amoako-Gyampah, University of North Carolina–
Greensboro; Owen P.
Hall, Pepperdine University; Bruce C. Hartman, University of
Arizona; Rich-
ard Irving, York University; Robert T. Jones, DePaul
University; Richard L.
Luebbe, Miami University of Ohio; William Moylan, Lawrence
Technological
College of Business; Edward Pascal, University of Ottawa;
James H. Patterson,
Indiana University; Art Rogers, City University; Christy
Strbiak, U.S. Air Force
Preface ix
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www.mhhe.com/larsongray5e
Academy; David A. Vaughan, City University; and Ronald W.
Witzel, Keller
Graduate School of Management. Nabil Bedewi, Georgetown
University; Scott
Bailey, Troy University; Michael Ensby, Clarkson University;

Eldon Larsen, Mar-
shall University; Steve Machon, DeVry University–Tinley Park;
William Mat-
thews, William Patterson University; Erin Sims, DeVry
University–Pomona;
Kenneth Solheim, DeVry University–Federal Way; and Oya
Tukel, Cleveland
State University.
In the fifth edition we continue to commit to improving the text
content and
improving instruction of project management. We are grateful
to those reviewers
who provided helpful critiques and insights on the fourth
edition, which helped us
prepare this revision. The reviewers for the fifth edition
include. Gregory Anderson,
Weber State University; Dana Bachman, Colorado Christian
University; Alan
Cannon, University of Texas, Arlington; Susan Cholette, San
Francisco State;
Michael Ensby, Clarkson University; Charles Franz, University
of Missouri,
Columbia; Raouf Ghattas, DeVry University; Robert Groff,
Westwood College;
Raffael Guidone, New York City College of Technology;
George Kenyon, Lamar
University; Elias Konwufine, Keiser University; Rafael
Landaeta, Old Dominion
University; Muhammad Obeidat, Southern Polytechnic State
University; Linda
Rose, Westwood College; Oya Tukel, Cleveland State
University; and Mahmoud
Watad, William Paterson University. We thank you for your
many thoughtful
suggestions and for making our book better. Of course we
accept responsibility

for the final version of the text.
In addition, we would like to thank our colleagues in the
College of Business at
Oregon State University for their support and help in
completing this project. In
particular, we recognize Ray Brooks, Jim Moran and Ping-Hung
Hsieh for their
helpful advice and suggestions. We also wish to thank the many
students who
helped us at different stages of this project, most notably Neil
Young, Rebecca
Keepers, Katherine Knox, Dat Nguyen, Lacey McNeely and
Amanda Bosworth.
Mary Gray deserves special credit for editing and working
under tight deadlines
on earlier editions. Special thanks go to Pinyarat
Sirisomboonsuk for her help in
preparing the last two editions.
Finally, we want to extend our thanks to all the people at
McGraw-Hill/Irwin
for their efforts and support. First, we would like to thank Dick
Hercher for con-
tinuing to champion and provide editorial direction and
guidance, and Gail
Korosa, who took over management of the book’s development
fifth edition. And
we would also like to thank Denise Showers, Carol Blelski,
Mary Sander, Jeremy
Cheshareck, Grey Bates, and Harvey Yep for managing the final
production,
design, supplement, and media phases of the fifth edition.
Erik W. Larson
Clifford F. Gray

x Preface
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Note to Student
You will find the content of this text highly practical, relevant,
and current. The
concepts discussed are relatively simple and intuitive. As you
study each chapter
we suggest you try to grasp not only how things work, but why
things work. You
are encouraged to use the text as a handbook as you move
through the three levels
of competency:
I know.
I can do.
I can adapt to new situations.
Project management is both people and technical oriented.
Project manage-
ment involves understanding the cause-effect relationships and
interactions among
the sociotechnical dimensions of projects. Improved
competency in these dimen-
sions will greatly enhance your competitive edge as a project
manager.
The field of project management is growing in importance and
at an exponen-
tial rate. It is nearly impossible to imagine a future management

career that does
not include management of projects. Résumés of managers will
soon be primarily
a description of the individual’s participation in and
contributions to projects.
Good luck on your journey through the text and on your future
projects.
xi
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Brief Contents
Preface vii
1. Modern Project Management 2
2. Organization Strategy and Project
Selection 22
3. Organization: Structure and Culture 64
4. Defining the Project 100
5. Estimating Project Times and
Costs 126
6. Developing a Project Plan 156
7. Managing Risk 210
8. Scheduling Resources and Costs 252

9. Reducing Project Duration 304
10. Leadership: Being an Effective Project
Manager 338
11. Managing Project Teams 374
12. Outsourcing: Managing
Interorganizational Relations 418
13. Progress and Performance
Measurement and Evaluation 452
14. Project Closure 504
15. International Projects 532
16. Oversight 564
17. An Introduction to Agile Project
Management 582
18. Project Management Career Paths 602
APPENDIX
One
Solution
s to Selected Exercises 611
Two Computer Project Exercises 625

GLOSSARY 642
ACRONYMS 651
PROJECT MANAGEMENT
EQUATIONS 652
INDEX 653
xii
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Contents
Preface vii
Chapter 1
Modern Project Management 2
What Is a Project? 5
The Project Life Cycle 7
The Project Manager 10

The Importance of Project Management 10
Project Management Today—An Integrative
Approach 13
Integration of Projects with Organizational Strategy 13
Integration of Projects through Portfolio
Management 14
Integration of the Process of Implementing Actual
Projects 15
Summary 16
Chapter 2
Organization Strategy and Project
Selection 22
The Strategic Management Process: An
Overview 24
Four Activities of the Strategic Management
Process 26
Scenario Planning: A Supplement to Traditional
Strategic Planning 30
The Need for an Effective Project Portfolio

Management System 32
Problem 1: The Implementation Gap 32
Problem 2: Organization Politics 33
Problem 3: Resource Conflicts and Multitasking 34
A Portfolio Management System 36
Classification of the Project 36
Financial Criteria 37
Nonfinancial Criteria 39
Applying a Selection Model 42
Sources and Solicitation of Project Proposals 43
Ranking Proposals and Selection of Projects 44
Managing the Portfolio System 47
Balancing the Portfolio for Risks and Types of
Projects 48
Summary 49
Appendix 2.1: Request for Proposal (RFP) 60

Industry: Industrial Machinery for the Oil & Gas and Power
Generation Markets
Services Provided: Project Management, Project Scheduling,
Vendor Management
Company: A provider of highly efficient turbine-driven gas
compression, oil pumping and
power generation packages for onshore and offshore
applications worldwide
Challenge: With increasing logistics and labor costs threatening
to seriously impact
profit margins, the company’s supply chain sectors in North
America saw a need for
improved material management to meet rising demands for
order accuracy while increasing
productivity and reducing costs. The major challenges they
faced were overhead control
issues such as inaccurate inventory counts, shipping errors,
receiving errors, and a need to

improve delivery speeds.
Analysis concluded that improvements would best be achieved
by substituting technology
for potentially error-prone human activities such as receiving,
putaway, picking, shipping and
inventory counting. Providing an automated means for data to
be conveyed directly from the
warehouse floor into SAP’s Supply Chain Manageme nt (SCM)
software rather than via a manual counting and recording
process
would improve accuracy, reduce overhead costs, and provide
real-time supply chain visibility.

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