Comparitive Study of Additives

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Comparative study of fuel additives
Report
Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for METI ZC 453 Project
by
Abhinav Chaudhary (200637TP160)
Dhiraj Singh (200637TP169)
Mahipal Singh (200637TP219)
Under the Supervision of
Dr.Sanjeet Kanungo
Assoc.Professor
TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE, INDURI, PUNE
July,2010

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TOLANI MARITIME INSTITUTE, INDURI, PUNE
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the cadets Abhinav Chaudhary (200637TP160)
Dhiraj Singh (200637TP169)
Mahipal Singh (200637TP219)
have successfully completed the Project (METIZC 453 ) entitled Comparative
study of fuel additives for the partial fulfilment for the award of degree
B.S. (Marine Engineering) of Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani, during
second semester 2009-2010.
Dr.Sanjeet Kanungo
Assoc.Professor
Name of Supervisor with Designation
Programme Chair (ME) Principal
Mr.I . K. Basu Dr. B. K. Saxena
Tolani Maritime Institute, Induri, Pune

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1. Chapter 1
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Aim
1.3 Scope
2. Literature survey
2.1 Abstract
2.2 Introduction
2.3 Types of additives
2.3.1 Engine and fuel delivery system performance
2.3.1.1 Cetane Number improvers (Diesel ignition improvers)
2.3.1.2 2-Ethylhexyl Nitrate (EHN)
2.3.1.3 Di-tertiary butyl peroxide (DTBT)
2.3.1.4 Injector cleanliness additives
2.3.1.5 Lubricity additives
2.3.1.6 Smoke Suppressants
2.3.2 Fuel handling additives
2.3.2.1 Anti-Foam additives
2.3.2.2 D/DE/Icing additives
2.3.2.3 Low-specific Temperature Operability Additives
2.3.2.4 Conductivity additives
2.3.2.5 Drag reducing additives
2.3.3 Fuel stability additives
2.3.3.1 Antioxidants
2.3.3.2 Stabilizers
2.3.3.3 Metal deactivators

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2.3.3.4 Dispersants
2.3.4 Contaminant control
2.3.4.1 Biocides
2.3.4.2 Demulsifiers
2.3.4.3 Corrosion Inhibitors
2.4 Working of an Additive
2.5 Nitrate based additives
2.5.1 Ethylhexyl Nitrate (EHN)
2.5.1.1 Disadvantage
2.5.1.2 Mechanism
2.5.2 Isopropyl nitrate
2.5.3 General
2.6 Peroxide based additives
3. Experimental methods and materials
3.1 Preparation of samples
3.2 Engine specification
3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
3.4 Determination of structure
4. Results and discussions
4.1.1 Theoretical analysis report of sample “A”
4.1.2 Practical observations on running the diesel engine test rig with
recommended dosage of fuel “A”
4.1.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “A”
4.2.1 Analysis report (type “B” additive)
recommended dosage of fuel “B”

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4.2.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “B”
4.3.1 Theoretical analysis report of sample “C”
recommended dosage of fuel “C”
4.3.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “C”
5. Conclusions
6. FTIR reports
7. List of references
8. Acknowledgement

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List of figures
Figure- 2.4.1: The variation of the ignition delay of stoichiometric mixtures of n-
butane with different proportions of di-t-butyl peroxide.
Figure- 2.4.2: The variation of the ignition delay of stoichiometric mixtures of n-
butane with different proportions of isopropyl nitrate.
Figure- 3: working of an additive in sequential manner.
Figure- 3.1: Illustration of possible modes for a non linear molecule.
INTRODUCTION

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1.1 Introduction
Internal combustion engines are used in various applications all over the world over as
prime movers. IC engines are understood and described by several performance
characteristics and terms like torque power and specific fuel oil consumption are the main
three of interest. Further reducing the specific fuel oil consumption with efficient
combustion is the need for the day.
The increase in energy needs has directed researchers to investigate new energy resources
or to find the optimum way of using them. Therefore improvement in fuels is an important
issue. As is known as one of the commercial and industrial fuels is diesel fuel, produced by
refining crude oil. The content of diesel fuel is changed by the production technology and
the quality of oil. Because of having more carbon content diesel fuels have some problems
when being used in the engine.
It is characteristic of diesel fuel that that it has low combustion efficiency and high pollutant
contents, causing air pollution. That is the reason many investigations have focussed on
improvement of diesel fuel properties. The required levels are difficult to achieve through
diesel alone. Even with high grade fuels, catalytic systems are being extensively investigated
to remove particulates. But there are still problems in these.
After investigations it was confirmed that improving the cetane number would lead to
efficient combustion which was lead by the work on fuel additives. Fuel additives available
commercially in the market are based on different technology. The fuel additive available is
primarily identified by the functional group but a group alone does not serve the problem
and to complement various other organic compounds are added. The fuel additives being
used are the ones whose source is not natural and a possible alteration to this trend could
be the use of fuel additives with natural source like the palm alkyl esters.
Enough data is available on the commercially available fuels but no significant conclusions
or comparisons have been drawn with reference to palm alkyl esters. This paper reviews the
various studies of the commercially used additive and additives based on palm alkyl esters
by comparing the actual performance on a diesel engine test rig .the functional groups of
three available additives which are identified by FTIR were found and the reasons for their
performance is justified due to presence of the identified functional groups which are
compared with palm alkyl ester based additive. The authors of the paper have proposed the
conclusions with certain limitations listed in the paper.

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1.2 Aim
As discussed above the additives which are palm alkyl ester based are the additives with
natural source and enough study has not been concluded about the palm alkyl esters. Thus
the aim of the paper is comparative study on fuel additives on the basis of theory and
practice.
Aim is achieved by theoretical study on the basis of functional group identified and the
known palm alkyl ester, where as practical conclusions are made by testing the fuel
additives on the diesel engine test rig and comparing on basis of specific fuel oil
consumption, and the observations noted relevant to condition of the piston top and
cylinder cover.
1.3 Scope
The comparison of fuel additives is based on the availability of literature review. The three
commercially available fuel additives have been chosen whose functional groups are
unknown initially .The functional groups are identified by FTIR only with support of previous
works done in this field. These three fuel additives have been compared with a fuel additive
known to be belonging to palm alky esters i.e. nanojosh.
The fuel additives have been compared practically and theoretically. The scope of practical
comparison is limited to specific fuel oil consumption and observations pertinent to
condition of piston top and cylinder cover (combustion chamber) after running the diesel
engine test rig for 20 hours on electric bank load with the recommended dosage of fuel
additive. The theoretical comparisons are based on functional group identified and the
available literature.
The sampling and testing procedures are limited to those mentioned in the paper.
LITERATURE SURVEY

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2.1 Abstract
Petroleum fuels reserves are depleting fast and also their cost is raising day by day
operations. Energy demand in India is high and growing as a direct result from economic
development and population growth. A large proportion of country’s energy import is from
foreign fossil fuels. It is important to reduce the consumption of fuels by use of various
additives or use of alternative fuels like biodiesels. The problem can be resolved by the use
if biogas in engines. A diesel engine can easily be run on biogas in dual fuel mode with
simple modification. However the performance of the engine operated on biogas would
depend on the constituents of biogas. Impurity like carbon dioxide which does not help in
combustion, adversely affect the performance of engine. The purification of biogas will raise
the capital cost but the increase in performance is very minimal. It appears that the choice
of a Diesel fuel additive is more optimal and should be guided by the ability of the additive
to maximise the initial reaction rate and overall exothermicity through a kinetic interaction
between it and the primary fuel. The type of interaction that takes place may be controlled
by the numbers of free radicals and the nature of primary products from the additive
decomposition or oxidation.
2.2 Introduction
A prerequisite for effective start-up and smooth combustion in Diesel engines is that
spontaneous ignition of the injected fuel should take place after only a very short delay. It is
desirable for ignition to be initiated in the partly vaporized fuel-air mixture whilst the
droplet spray is still expanding through the combustion chamber. Although the elapsed time
to ignition is controlled by engine conditions, the behavior of a particular hydrocarbon
vapor, or that of a mixture of hydrocarbon fuels, is governed by thermo kinetic interactions.
The "cetane rating" of a Diesel fuel blend encapsulates the overall performance as
determined under standard test-engine conditions, but a key feature appears to be that a
lengthening of the ignition delay occurs as the cetane rating of a fuel is reduced. Thus the
current trend to fuels of lower cetane rating has fostered an increased interest in the part
played by additives during hydrocarbon oxidation, with particular emphasis on the
mechanisms leading to a reduction in ignition delay times.

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2.3 Types of additives
Diesel fuel additives are used for a variety of purposes. Four applicable areas are:
1. Engine and fuel delivery system performance.
2. Fuel handling.
3. Fuel stability.
4. Contaminant controls.
2.3.1 Engine and fuel delivery system performance
This class of additives can improve engine or injection system performance. The effects of
different members of the class are seen in different time frames. Any benefit provided a
cetane number improver is immediate, where as that provided by a detergent additives or
lubricity additives is typically seen over a long time, often measured in thousands or tones
of thousands of miles.
2.3.1.1 Cetane Number Improvers (Diesel Ignition Improvers)
Cetane number improvers raise the cetane number of the fuel. Within a certain range, a
higher number can reduce combustion, noise and smoke and enhance easy of starting the
engine in cold climates. The magnitude of benefits varies among engine designs and
operating modes, ranging from no effects to readily acceptable improvement.
2.3.1.2 2- Ethylhexyl Nitrate (EHN)
It is the most widely used cetane number improver. It is also called octyl nitrate. EHN is
thermally unstable and decomposes rapidly at higher temperatures in the combustion
chambers. The products of decompositions help initiate fuel combustion and thus shorten
the initial delay from that of the fuel without the additives.
The increase in the cetane number from a given concentration of EHN varies from one fuel
to another. It is greater for a fuel whose natural cetane number is already relatively high.
The incremental increase gets smaller as more EHN is added, so there is little benefit to
exceeding a certain concentration. EHN typically is used in the concentration range from
(0.05-0.4)% mass and may yield to aid cetane number benefit. Disadvantage of EHN is that it

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decreases the stability of some diesel fuels. This can be compensated for by the use of
thermal stability additives.
2.3.1.3 Di-tertiary butyl peroxide (DTBT)
It is another additive, which is used commercially as a diesel cetane improver it is a less
effective cetane number improver than EHN. However DTBP does not degrade thermal
stability of most diesel fuels, and it doesn’t contain nitrogen (which may be important for
meeting some reformulated diesel fuel regulatory requirements)
Other alkyl nitrates, as well as ether nitrates, peroxides, and some nitroso compounds, have
also been found to be effective cetane number improvers on other fuels properties, such as
thermal stability, is not fully known.
2.3.1.4 Injector cleanliness additives
Fuel and /or crankcase lubricants can form deposits in the nozzle areas of injectors – the
area exposed to high cylinder temperatures. The extent of deposits formation varies with
engine design, fuel composition, lubricant composition and operating conditions. Excessive
deposits may upset the injector spray pattern, which in turn may hinder the fuel air mixing
process. In some engines this may results in decreased fuel economy and increased
emissions.
Ash less polymeric detergent additives can clean fuel injector deposits and /or keep
injectors clean. These additives are composed of a polar group that bonds to deposits and
deposit precursors and a non-polar group that dissolves in the fuel. Thus the additives can
re-dissolve deposits that already have formed and reduce the opportunity for deposits
precursors to form deposits. Detergent additives typically are used in the concentration of
50-300 ppm.
2.3.1.5 Lubricity additives
Lubricity additives are used to compensate for the lower lubricity of several hydro treated
diesel fuels. They contain a polar group that is attracted to metal surfaces that cause the
additive to form a thin surface film. The film acts as a boundary lubricant when two metal
surfaces come in contact.

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Three additives chemistries, monoacid, amides and esters are commonly used. Monoacids
are more effective; therefore lower concentrations are used (10-50ppm). Because ester and
amides are less polar, they require higher concentration range from 50-250ppm. Most ultra
low diesel fuel needs a lubricity additive to meet ASTM D 975and EN 590 lubricity
specifications.
2.3.1.6 Smoke Suppressants
Some organo-metallic compounds act as a combustion catalyst. Adding these compounds to
fuel can reduce the black smoke emission that results from incomplete combustion. Such
benefits are more significant when used with older technology engines, which are significant
smoke producers.
There is a significant concern regarding potential toxicological effects an engine component
compatibility with metal additives in general. During 1960’s, before the clean air act and the
formation of U.S.EPA, certain barium organo metallic were occasionally used in the US as
smoke suppressants. The EPA subsequently banned them because of potential health
hazard of barium in the exhaust.
Smoke suppressants based on the other metals, e.g., iron, serium, or platinum continue to
see limited use in some parts of the world where the emissions reduction benefit may out
way the potential health hazard of exposure to these materials. Use of metallic fuel
additives is not currently allowed in the Japan, US, and certain other countries.
2.3.2 Fuel handling additives
2.3.2.1 Anti-Foam additives:
Some diesel fuels tend to form as they are pumped into vehicle tanks. The foaming can
interfere with filling the tank completely or result in a spill. Most anti foam additives are
organo silicon compounds and are used typically is concentration of 10ppm or lower.
2.3.2.2 D/DE/Icing additives
Free in diesel fuels at low temperatures. The resulting ice crystals can plug fuel lines,
blocking fuel flow. Low molecular weight alcohols or glycols can be added to diesel fuels to
prevent ice formation. The alcohol/glycols preferentially dissolve in the free water giving the
resulting mixture a lower freezing point than the pure water.

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2.3.2.3 Low-specific Temperature Operability Additives
Flow property. Most of these additives are polymers that interact with the wax crystal that
form in diesel fuel when it is cooled below the cloud point. The polymer mitigates the effect
of wax crystal on fuel flow by modifying their size, shape, and/or degree of agglomeration.
The polymer wax interactions are fairly specific; a particular additive generally will not
perform equally well in all fuels.
The additives can be broken down in three idealized groups:
1. Specialized additives for narrow boiling range fuel.
2. General purpose additives.
3. Specialized additives for high final boiling point fuels.
To be effective, the additives must be blended into the fuel before any wax has formed i.e.,
when the fuel is above its cloud point, the best additive and treat rate for a particular fuel
cannot be predicted, it must be determined experimentally. Some cloud point depressant
additives also provide lubricity improvements.
2.3.2.4 Conductivity additives:
When fuel is pumped from one tank to another (inner refinery, terminal or fuelling stations),
especially when pumped through a filter, a small amount of static electric charge is
generated. Normally these charges quickly dissipated and do not pose a problem. However,
if the conductivity of the fuel is low, the fuel may act as an insulator allowing a significant
amount of charge to accumulate. Static discharge may then occur posing a potential risk or
fire hazard. Typically the lower sulphur diesel fuel has lower conductivity.
In order to prevent static charge accumulation, antistatic additives can be used to improve
the electrical conductivity of the fuel. Antistatic additives are available in both metallic and
non-metallic chemistries (metallic additives are banned U.S.EPA FOR using in the US) and
are typically used at concentrations of 10ppm or less.
2.3.2.5 Drag reducing additives:
Pipeline companies sometimes use drag reducing additives to increase the volume of
product they can deliver These high molecular weight polymers change the turbulent flow

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of fuels flowing in a pipeline, which can increase the max flow rate from 20% to 40%. Drag
reducing additives are typically used in concentrations below 15 ppm. When the additized
product passes through a pump, the additive is broken down into smaller molecules that
have minimal effect on product performance in engines at normal operating temperatures.
2.3.3 Fuel stability additives
Fuel instability leads to formation of gums that can lead to injector deposits that can plug
fuel filters or the fuel injection system. The need for a stability additive varies widely from
one fuel to another. It depends on how the fuel was made the crude oil source and the
refinery processing and blending. Stability additives typically work by blocking one step in a
multi step reaction pathway. Because of the complex chemistry involved the additive that is
effective in one fuel may not work as well in another
If a fuel needs to be stabilized it should be tested to select an effective additive and treat
rate. Best results are obtained when the additive is added immediately after the fuel is
manufactured.s15 diesel fuels will probably be more thermally stable but maybe prone to
peroxide formation during storage.
2.3.3.1 Antioxidants
One mode of fuel instability is oxidation this initial attack sets of complex chain reactions
anti oxidants work by interrupting the chain reactions hindered phenols and certain amines
such as phenyline diamine are most commonly used antioxidants they typically are used in
the concentration range from 10to 80 ppm
2.3.3.2 Stabilizers
Acid base reactions are another mode of fuel instability. The stabilizers used to prevent
these reactions are typically strongly basic amines and are used in the concentration range
of 50 to 150 ppm. They react with weakly acidic compounds to form products that remain
dissolved and don’t react further.
2.3.3.3 Metal deactivators

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When trace amounts of certain Metals like copper and iron dissolved in diesel fuel they
catalyze the reactions involved in fuel instability. Metal deactivators tie up these metals and
neutralize the catalytic effect. They are typically used in the conc. Range of 1 to 15 ppm.
2.3.3.4 Dispersants
Multi-component fuel stabilizers packages may contain a dispersant. The dispersant doesn’t
prevent the fuel instability reach; however, it does disperse the particulates that form
preventing the clustering onto aggregates large enough to plug fuel filters or injectors.
Dispersants typically are used in the range from 15-100 ppm.
2.3.4 Contaminant control
This class of additives is used to deal with housekeeping problems in distribution and
storage systems
2.3.4.1 Biocides
The high temp involved in refinery processing effectively sterilizes diesel fuel. However the
fuel may quickly become contaminated if exposed to microorganisms present in air or
water. These microorganisms include bacteria and fungi (yeasts and moulds)
Because most microorganisms need free water to grow, bio growth is usually concentrated
at the fuel water interface, when one exists. In addition to the fuel and water they also need
certain elemental nutrients in order to grow up. Of these nutrients, phosphorus is the only
one whose concentration might be low enough in a fuel system to limit bio growth. Higher
ambient temperatures also favour growth. Some organisms need air to grow (aerobic),
while others only grow in the absence of air (anaerobic).
The time available for growth is also important. A few, or even a thousand, organisms don’t
pose a problem. Only when the colony has had time to grow much larger will it have
produced enough acidic by products to accelerate tank corrosion or enough biomass
(microbial slime) to plug filters. Although growth can occur in working fuel tanks, static
tanks, where fuel is being stored for an extended period of time, are a much better growth
environment when water is present.

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Biocides can be used when microorganisms reach problem level. The best choice is an
additive that dissolves in both fuel and water to attack the microbes in both phases.
Biocides typically are used in the concentration range from 200 to 600 ppm.
A biocide may not work if a heavy bio-film has accumulated on the surface of the tank or
other equipment, because it may not be able to penetrate to the organisms living deep
within the film. In such cases, the tank must be drained and mechanically cleaned.
Even if the biocide effectively stops bio-growth, it still may be necessary to remove the
accumulated biomass to avoid filter plugging. Any water bottoms that contain biocides must
be disposed off approximately because biocides are toxic.
The best approach to microbial contamination is prevention. The most important preventive
step is keeping the amount of water in a fuel storage tank as low as possible, preferably at
zero.
2.3.4.2 Demulsifiers
Normally hydrocarbons and waters separate rapidly and cleanly. However, if the fuel
contains polar compounds that behave like surfactants and if free water is present the fuel
and water can form an emulsion. Any operation that subjects the mixture to high shear
forces (such as pumping the fuel) can stabilize the emulsion. Demulsifiers are surfactants
that break up the emulsions and allow the fuel and water to separate. Demulsifiers are
typically used in the concentration range from 5 to 30 ppm.
2.3.4.3 Corrosion Inhibitors
Most petroleum pipes and tanks are made of steel and the most common type of corrosion
is the formation of rust in the presence of water. Over time severe rusting can eat holes in
steel walls, and create leaks. More immediately, the fuel is contaminated by rust particles,
which can plug fuel filters or increase fuel pump and injector wear.
Corrosion inhibitors are compounds that attach to metal surface and form a protective
barrier that prevents attack by corrosive agents. They typically are used in the concentration
range from 5 to 15 ppm.
2.4 Working of an Additive

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Kirsch et al2
measured a marked reduction in ignition delay of a Diesel base-stock blend at
mean gas temperatures of 730 deg K and 660 deg K following rapid compression by addition
of cyclohexyl nitrate in the range of up to 2%. They correlated this result with a
corresponding improvement in cetane number. Results for isopropyl nitrate in paper 1 show
very similar effects on the ignition delay of reactants compressed to initial temperatures of
825 deg K and 845 deg K. The corresponding temperatures during the ignition delay were
somewhat lower because appreciable heat loss occurred especially immediately after the
piston stopped.
Li and Simmons 3
found di-t-butyl peroxide to be more effective than isopropyl nitrate as a
cetane number improver. They related the improvement to the relative numbers of radicals
generated at decomposition of each of these compounds and concluded more the number
of free radicals generated, faster is the combustion as the chain reactions occurring will be
more in more in number. The term free radicals have been clearly explained in the paper 1
as highly reactive unstable intermediate product that acts as a chain initiator and causes the
reaction to proceed further.
(CH3)3 COOC (CH3)3 2(CH3)2 CO + 2CH3.......... (2.4.1)
i C3H7ONO2 CH3 + CH2CHO + NO2........... (2.4.2)
Thermal feedback1
is clearly the route to ignition with short or negligible delay following
rapid compression. The marked sensitivity of the ignition delay to diminishing proportions of
the peroxide or nitrate added to butane (Figs 2.4.1 and 2.4.2) is consistent with an
enhanced reactivity as the initial temperature is raised. The term thermal feedback here has
been referred as to the heat that is produced during a reaction and which produces
favourable conditions for further reaction to take place at a faster rate producing more heat
which will again favour the reaction to occur in forward direction.

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Fig2.4.1: The variation of the ignition delay of stoichiometric mixtures of n-butane
with different proportions of di-t-butyl peroxide.
Fig 2.4.2: The variation of the ignition delay of stoichiometric mixtures of n-butane with
different proportions of isopropyl nitrate.

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We may regard the role of the additive to be primarily one of heat generation through its
exothermic combustion on admission to the combustion chamber. The performance is
optimized if interaction with the primary fuel augments the rate of heat release, consistent
with the view that the numbers of free radicals formed is a key to effectiveness of cetane
rating improvement. However, the initiation of a degenerate chain branching oxidation of
the primary fuel during the pre-ignition stage seems not to be sufficiently responsive to
cause ignition on a short enough timescale1
(timescale refers to the very short time period in
which the reaction takes place). Thus even ethanal or diethyl ether, which are amongst the
most readily oxidisable organic molecules, are unable to enhance the combustion of butane
in an effective way.
The molecular products of the additive decomposition may play a supplementary part. Thus,
on the one hand, di-t-butyl peroxide is a good choice because it furnishes two free radicals
on decomposition, but the molecular product, acetone, is very unreactive. Isopropyl nitrate,
on the other hand, generates only one free radical, but the molecular product, ethanal, is a
source of very labile hydrogen atoms1
(these are highly reactive intermediate products that
acts as an initiator for reaction to proceed further) and is very readily oxidized and leads to
micro-explosions. Moreover, alternative choices of organic peroxides or nitrates would give
rise to free radicals which oxidise to molecular products of greater reactivity than
formaldehyde, methanol or hydrogen peroxide, which are the major products of methyl
radical oxidation in the present systems. Refer reactions 2.4.1 and 2.4.2.

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Fig 3: working of an additive in sequential manner.
2.5 Nitrate based additives
2.5.1 Ethylhexyl Nitrate (EHN)
This is widely used cetane number improver, also called as octyl nitrate.

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It is thermally unstable and decomposes rapidly at higher temperatures in the combustion
chambers.EHN shortens the initial delay from that of the fuel without the additives. Since
the Increase in the cetane number varies from one fuel to another4
. Thus incremental
increase gets smaller as more EHN is added. Typically it is used in the concentration range
from (0.05-0.4) % by mass.
2.5.1.1 Disadvantage
 Decreases the stability of some diesel fuels.
 0.5 –0.3% higher NOX emissions.
2.5.1.2 Mechanism
Nitrate additives gives rise to free radicals, which oxidize to form molecular products of
Greater reactivity than formaldehyde, methanol or hydrogen peroxide, which are major
products of Methyl radical oxidation.
2.5.2 Isopropyl nitrate
It generates one free radical on decomposition. Its molecular product is ethanal. Ethanal is
source of hydrogen atoms and is readily oxidized (700-800 deg K) at 750 deg K oxidation of
ethanal releases 278 kJ/mol of Energy.
2.5.3 General
 EHN and isopropyl nitrate are short chain nitrates (not stable)
 Increase in ratio of carbon no: NO3- increases stability.
 Stability is required for storage and resistance to decomposition at increasing
temperature.
 Alkyl nitrates generate fuel too early- leads to- surrounding fuel molecules are
not as susceptible to attack by free radical- temp. Is too low
 Study of organic acid glycol nitrates has found that their capabilities are 60% of
the efficacy of 2-EHN.
2.6 Peroxide based additives
Peroxides can be synthesized by the reaction of an alcohol and/or an olefin with organic
hydro peroxide using an acidic catalyst (t-butyl alcohol/isobutylene-butyl hydro peroxide,
resin catalyst). DTBP is between 85-90% as effective as EHN in increasing cetane no and 15-
20% more effective than isopropyl nitrate. It is known that cetane response is inversely
related to aromatic content of fuel Paper 2. It is stable under typical fuel system

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temperatures and shows oxidative stability and long-term storage stability. Ii furnishes two
free radicals on decomposition. Its molecular product is acetone which is very unreactive.
3
EXPERIMENTAL METHODS AND MATERIALS
3.1 Preparation of samples
Three samples of fuel additives were acquired. Samples were made using diesel with
REDUCED, RECOMMENDED AND INCREASED CONCENTRATION of fuel additives. For the
purpose of sampling syringe with least count of 0.1ml and glass test tubes were used. The
samples were made and stored at room temperature. An 8ml sample of each fuel additive
was sent for FTIR analysis to IIT Mumbai.
3.2 Engine specification
A diesel engine test rig was set up at Tolani Maritime Institute, Induri. The diesel engine
used was EPI brand. The engine had the following specifications:
Number of cylinder : One
Rated bhp (with diesel), kW : 5.0 hp (3.7 kW)
Rated R.P.M. : 1500
Bore (mm) :110
Stroke Length (mm) : 110
Fuel Oil : High Speed Diesel
Lubricant oil : SAE 40
Source : Excel power Industries, Ahmednagar
Air/Water cooled : Air cooled
Specific fuel oil consumption-: 656gm/kwh
3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
FTIR (Fourier Transform Infrared) Spectroscopy, or simply FTIR Analysis, is a failure analysis
technique that provides information about the chemical bonding or molecular structure of

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materials, whether organic or inorganic. It is used in failure analysis to identify unknown
materials present in a specimen
The technique works on the fact that bonds and groups of bonds vibrate at characteristic
frequencies. A molecule that is exposed to infrared rays absorbs infrared energy at
frequencies which are characteristic to that molecule. During FTIR analysis, a spot on the
specimen is subjected to a modulated IR beam. The specimen's transmittance and
reflectance of the infrared rays at different frequencies is translated into an IR absorption
plot consisting of reverse peaks. The resulting FTIR spectral pattern is then analyzed and
matched with known signatures of identified materials in the FTIR library.
FTIR spectroscopy does not require a vacuum, since neither oxygen nor nitrogen absorbs
infrared rays. FTIR analysis can be applied to minute quantities of materials, whether solid,
liquid, or gaseous. When the library of FTIR spectral patterns does not provide an acceptable
match, individual peaks in the FTIR plot may be used to yield partial information about the
specimen.
Single fibers or particles are sufficient enough for material identification through FTIR
analysis. Organic contaminants in solvents may also be analyzed by first separating the
mixture into its components by gas chromatography, and then analyzing each component
by FTIR.
3.4 Determination of Structure
Infrared spectroscopy ( 4000 – 650 cm-1
) the study of infrared spectra leads to a great deal
of information, example, the presence of various functional groups, hydrogen bonding
(intermolecular and intermolecular), the identification of cis and trans isomers,
conformational orientation, orientation in aromatic compounds 5
, etc
The essential requirement for a substance to absorb in the infra-red region is that
vibrations in the molecule must give rise to an unsymmetrical charge distribution. Thus it is
not necessary for the molecule to possess a permanent dipole moment.
Just as electronic transitions are quantized, so are rotational and vibrational energy levels
also quantized. Absorption in the near infra-red is due to changes in vibrational energy
levels. A non-linear molecule can undergo a number of vibrational motions, the two main
types bring stretching (vibration along the bonds) and deformation (bending; displacements
perpendicular to bonds). Fig 3.1 illustrates possible modes for a non linear molecule (asym.
= asymmetrical; def. = deformation; str. = stretching; sym. = symmetrical; and the plus and
minus signs represent relative movement perpendicular to the page).

24 | P a g e
Fig 3.1: Illustration of possible modes for a non linear molecule
The stretching regions have higher frequencies (shorter wavelengths) then the deformation
regions, and the intensities of the former are much greater than those of the latter.
Although the masses of the bonded atoms predominately influence the frequencies of the
absorption, other effects, e.g., environment (i.e., the nature of neighbouring atoms), steric
effects, etc, also play a part. Thus, in general, a particular group will not have a fixed
maximum absorption wavelength, but will have a region of absorption, the actual maximum
in this region depending on the rest of the molecule. The spectrum also depends on the
physical state of the compound : a gas , liquid( as a thin film) , solid( as a thin film or as a
mull) or solution( preferably dilute ; CCL4, CHCl3, CS2).
The absorption regions of function groups have been obtained empirically; many of these
regions are described in the text (see also the index under the infrared spectra). Most of the
values have been taken from cross et al.
In the initial examination of the spectrum, the usual practice is to look for the presence of
the various functional groups. In this way, it may be possible to assign the compound to
some particular class (or classes). Knowledge of the molecular formula will often help to
reject some of the alternatives, and chemical reactions of the compound will further help in
this direction. Identification of the compound is carried out by comparison with public

25 | P a g e
spectra (or with the spectrum of an authentic specimen). The region 1400 – 650 cm-1
is
known as the ‘fingerprint region’; this region is usually checked for identification, since it is
the region associated with vibrational (and rotational) energy changes of the molecular
skeleton, and so is characteristic of the compound.
If a band has been found which corresponds to a particular group, the presence of this
group should be confirmed by the ascertaining the presence of another band which is also
characteristic of the group, e.g., saturated aliphatic esters show a strong band in the region
1750 – 1735 cm-1
(C=O str.) and another strong band in the region 1250 – 1170 cm-1
(C-O
str.). Furthermore, the absence of a band which is characteristic of a particular group is not
conclusive evidence that this group is not present in the molecule. One cause for this is that
groups in the molecule may interact, and the result is that both regions are now different
from the ‘expected ‘individual regions. It is therefore always desirable to have chemical
information about the compound and also spectroscopic data obtained from other methods
(U.V. and NMR).
Various spectra (with wave numbers) have been given in the text. The reader will find it
worth his while to make a list of infrared absorption regions (described for different
functional groups, etc), and to examine the spectra with the legends covered. In this way, he
will become familiar with the positions of some of the more important bands.

26 | P a g e
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
4.1.1 Theoretical analysis report of sample “A”
From the analysis done of FTIR report for samples of additive A it can be concluded that,
finger print region i.e. region with wave number less than 1000/cm have not been used to
identify the functional groups present in samples A.A1, A2, A3.The peaks show their
presence for multiple functional groups being in their range but only those groups which are
present for maximum number of peaks have been considered. The peaks which do not
repeat once additive is added to diesel are those functional groups which participate to
perform the function of additive and once additive is added to diesel the newly generating
functional groups in subsequent samples A1, A2 and A3 are the by products which react
inside the engine at high temperature conditions, out of which the one in A2are prominent
it being the sample with recommended dosage of additive.
The functional groups which have been identified are as a result of preliminary reactions at
room temperature by addition of additive to diesel fuel. Thus the conclusions further
proposed are on the basis of the functional groups identified. This paper does not considers
the time for which the mixture was kept idle prior to FTIR test, the prevailing atmospheric
conditions, the time difference between two tests of same additive and handling
procedures.
Following the above criteria the fuel additive has alcohol O –H stretch as the dominant
functional group, followed by carboxylic C-O and nitro group NO2 aliphatic. As the
participating functional groups. The functional groups which are identified in the
recommended dosage sample A2 are alkane, alcohol, carboxylic, aldehyde, nitro and amine.
All fuels consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The aliphatic
alkanes and cycloalkanes are hydrogen saturated and compose atleast 80-90% of fuel oil.
Hence getting alkane group in diesel sample containing additive i.e. sample A1, A2, A3 with
maximum and strong peaks is justified.
Nitroalkanes are industrial solvents and hence peaks of NO2 aliphatic are justified.
With reference to paper 1 ethanal is an aldehyde which on oxidation gives methyl radicals
via the reaction at 700-800 deg K .Possibly the aldehyde is generated from alcohol which at
high temperatures will yield the following reaction.
CH3CH0CH3COCH3+CO.............Eqn: 4.1.1
Aliphatic alcohols which are used in fuel additives are either compounds with monohydric
ethanol or dihydric glycol. The fact to be noted in case of the spectra is though alcohol is a
major peak in additive but once the additive is added to diesel no new major peaks are

27 | P a g e
identified in any of the samples. Previous work already carried out on diesel and ethanol
blends have shown reduction in smoke thus complete combustion and less deposition and
same has been observed practically. However the increase in cetane number due to ethanol
blends has not been significant. But ethanol alone will never be added because earlier
studies have proved that only ethanol reduces the cetane number and hence ethers are
used to complement the properties. Ethanol enhances antifreeze corrosion inhibiting
properties and adds to volatility of fuel, thus the increased volatility of mixture lowers the
flash point at ambient temperature.
It has been found that the process according to the invention i.e. the addition of neutral
salts of organic acids with specific metals in conjunction with free carboxylic acids results in
a satisfactory combustion of the diesel fuels without the occurrence of deposits, also the
soot number is reduced and it has been found that fuel savings are up to 2%.both aliphatic
and aromatic carboxylic acids are suitable. All carboxylic acids which are soluble in diesel
fuels can be used.

28 | P a g e
READING FTIR REPORT-A-AUTOMAX FUEL ADDITIVE
WAVE NUMBER TRANSMITTANCE GROUP
1010.04 35 ESTER C-O STRETCH,
1036.7 29 ESTER C-O STRETCH,
1126.44 33 ALCOHOL C-O STRETCH ,
1175.6 32 ALCOHOL C-O STRETCH,
1277.8 32 CARBOXYLIC C-O
1379.85 28
NITRO GROUP NO2
ALIPHTIC
1398.01 38
NITRO GROUP NO2
ALIPHTIC
1463.7 30
AROMATICS C-C
STRETCH IN RING,
1634.36 26
PRIMARY AMINE N-H
BEND
1745.3 36 CARBOXYLIC C-O,
2855.69 23 ALKANE C-H STRETCH
3389.6 24
ALCOHOL O-H STRETCH
HYDROGEN BONDED
Table 4.1.1: READING FTIR REPORT
AUTOMAX FUEL ADDITIVE

29 | P a g e
READING FTIR REPORT A1-
0.1 ML ADDITIVE IN
1 LITRE OF DIESEL
1032.8 72 ALKENE C-H BEND
1167.15 71 ,ALCOHOL C-O STRETCH,
1305.04 68
NITRO SYMETRIC N-O
/CARBOXYLIC C-O /
1377.92 55
NITRO GROUP NO2
ALIPHATIC
1463.98 43
AROMATICS C-C
STRETCH IN RING,
1606.83 67
PRIMARY AMINE N-H
BEND
2672.52 65 CARBOXYLIC O-H
2729.58 62
ALDEHYDE H-C=O
STRETCH
Table 4.1.2: READING FTIR REPORT A1-0.1
ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL

30 | P a g e
READING FTIR REPORT A2 0.2 ML
ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL-
RECOMMENDED
1033.48 69 ALKENE C-H BEND
1166.88 68 ALCOHOL C-O STRETCH,
1304.96 67 NITRO SYMETRIC N-O,
1377.77 49
NITRO GROUP NO2
ALIPHATIC
1463.68 36
AROMATICS C-C
STRETCH IN RING
1606.19 67
PRIMARY AMINE N-H
BEND
2671.85 64 CARBOXYLIC O-H
2729.36 63
ALDEHYDE H-C=O
STRETCH,
2854.23 22.5 ALKANE C-H STRETCH
Table 4.1.3: READING FTIR REPORT A2 0.2
ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL-
RECOMMENDED

31 | P a g e
READING FTIR REPORT-A3 0.33 ML
ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL
1022.74 68.5 ALKENE C-H BEND
1378.02 62
NITRO GROUP NO2
ALIPHATIC
1464.23 53
, AROMATICS C-C
STRETCH IN RING,
1606.94 67
PRIMARY AMINE N-H
BEND
2854.38 38 , ALKANE C-H STRETCH
Table 4.1.4: READING FTIR REPORT-A3
0.33 ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL
Key
COMMON FOR ALL
SAMPLES
PRESENT ONLY ONCE
PRESENT IN ANY 2 OF
THE SAMPLES
PRESENT IN ANY 3 OF
THE SAMPLES
GROUPS REACTING
WITH DIESEL
REACTING WITH DIESEL
- DOSE IS MORE THAN
REC.
PEAKS OF ONLY DIESEL

32 | P a g e
4.1.2 Practical observations on running the diesel engine test rig with recommended dosage
of fuel additive A
AFTER 20 HOURS CLEANED
PISTON TOP
AFTER 20 HOURS CLEANED
THICK , STICKY AND HARD DEPOSITION WITH COARSE GRAINS.

33 | P a g e
4.1.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “A”
VOLTAGE=212V
CURRENT =5.15Amperes
FREQUENCY=49.2Hz
SPEED=1500RPM
HUMIDITY =30%
FUEL CONSUMPTION20ml consumed in 1min 58 seconds
SPECIFIC FUEL OIL CONSUMPTION= 601.03 gm/kwh
POWER DEVELOPED= 0.873kw
AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE=40
EXHAUST TEMPERATURE BEFORE CALORIMETER=360
EXHAUST TEMPERATURE AFTER CALORIMETER=140
AIR TEMPERATURE AFTER FINS=41

34 | P a g e
4.2.1 Analysis report (type “B” additive)
From the FTIR report for sample “B” fuel additive finger print region i.e. region with wave
number less than 1000/cm has not been considered for the analysis purpose as this region is
quite complex and often difficult to interpret. The sample “B” is pure fuel additive, sample
“B1” is mixture of diesel and fuel additive at reduced concentration and sample “B2” is
mixture of diesel and recommended doses of fuel additive. The report shows a large
number of peaks, but the peaks which are more prominent and provide specific functional
group have been discussed. The peaks which do not repeat once additive is added to diesel
are those functional groups which participate to perform the function of additive. And once
additive is added to diesel the newly generated functional groups in subsequent samples B1,
B2 are the by products which react inside the engine at high temperature conditions, out of
which the one in A2are prominent it being the sample with recommended dosage.
The sampling has been done at room temperature and the functional groups identified are
result of preliminary reactions at atmospheric conditions. The analysis does not consider the
time elapsed between the sample formation and the FTIR test done in the laboratory.
From the FTIR report of sample “B” it can be seen that primary amines are present at wave
numbers 3388.17 and 1627.03 and at wave numbers 1303.15 and 1209.76 we have
Aromatic and aliphatic amines respectively. Since amines peak are present for most of the
time hence it can be concluded that amine is the predominant group in the sample “B”.
Peaks of hydrocarbons are also present but these are common peaks which are present in
most of the organic compounds. All fuels consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons. The aliphatic alkanes and cycloalkanes are hydrogen saturated and
compose at least 80-90% of fuel oil. Hence getting alkane group in diesel sample containing
additive i.e. sample B, B1, B2 with maximum and strong peaks is justified.
From the FTIR report of sample “B1” (which is mixture of 0.6 ml of additive in 1lt of diesel) it
can be analyzed that the peak 3388.17 is missing and the transmittance of other amines
have increased. This is due to fact that the amines are highly basic in nature and when diesel
is added to the additive it reacts with oil insoluble acids to form amorphous soluble salts.

35 | P a g e
The basic reaction of amine with acid has been shown below.
R1 R1
I I
R2-C-NH2 + H-X  R2-C-NH3
+
+ X-
I  I
R3 R3
Oil soluble oil insoluble amorphous oil soluble
acids acids salts
From the sample report “B” it can also be seen that there is presence of alkane group with
molecular motion C-H scissoring at wave number 1462.36 at transmittance of 34. On
addition of recommended dosage in the diesel the peak has become stronger, as can be
seen in report of sample “B2”. It can be known from paper 2 that a by-product of alkenes or
arene reaction can be several but one with a scissoring motion has maximum cetane
number.

36 | P a g e
Table 4.2.1: READING FTIR REPORT “B” (FUEL ADDITIVE ONLY)
SAMPLE B (PURE SAMPLE)
Sl.no Wave Number Transmittance
Functional
Group
Molecular
Motion
1 3388.17 52 Amine N-H Stretch
2 2955.62 22 Alkanes(C-H) C-H stretch
5 1742.75 65
Carboxylic
Acid C=O Stretch
7 1462.36 34 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H
Scissoring
8 1377.73 48 Nitro group
NO2(aliphati
c)
9 1303.15 65
Aromatic
Amine C-N Stretch
10 1209.76 65
Aliphatic
Amine C-N Stretch
11 1170.81 64 C-O C-O Stretch
12 1076.33 56 Alkene C-H Bend
13 723.59 68 Finger print Finger print

37 | P a g e
SAMPLE B1 (0.6 ml in 1 lt)
Functional
Group
Molecular
Motion
4 2729.72 66
Carboxylic
Acid Carboxylic Acid
5 1605.53 70
Amine
stretch N-H stretch
6 1462.78 48 Alkanes(C-H) C-H Scissoring
7 1412.94 61 Alkanes(C-H) C-H Bend
8 1304.55 75
Aromatic
Amine C-N Stretch
9 1021.48 77
Aliphatic
Amine C-N Stretch
Table 4.2.2: READING FTIR REPORT “B1” (0.6ml FUEL ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL)

38 | P a g e
Table 4.2.3: READING FTIR REPORT “B2” (1.25 ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE OF DIESEL
RECOMMENDED)
SAMPLE B2 (1.25 ml in 1 lt)
Functional
Group
Molecular
Motion
4 2729.7 57
Carboxylic
Acid O-H stretch
5 2671.09 60
Carboxylic
Acid O-H stretch
7 1463.58 28 Alkanes(C-H) C-H Scissoring
8 1377.49 38 Alkanes(C-H) C-H Bend
9 1304.93 58
Aromatic
Amine C-N Stretch
10 1157.35 63
Aliphatic
Amine C-N Stretch
11 1022 63
Aliphatic
Amine C-N Stretch
Key: REACTING GROUP
DIESEL PEAKS
COMMON GROUPS

39 | P a g e
of fuel additive “B”
Cylinder Cover
After 20 HRS Cleaned

40 | P a g e
Piston Top
THIN,DRY AND HARD DEPOSITION WITH FINE GRAINS

41 | P a g e
4.2.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “B”
VOLTAGE=216V
FREQUENCY=49.5Hz
SPEED=1560RPM
HUMIDITY =30%
FUEL CONSUMPTION20ml consumed in 2 mins 4 sec.
SPECIFIC FUEL OIL CONSUMPTION=552gm/kwh
POWER DEVELOPED=0.903kw
AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE=38 C
CALORIMETER WATER INLET TEMPERATURE=24

42 | P a g e
4.3.1 Theoretical analysis report of sample “C”
In the analysis done of FTIR report for samples of additive C the region with wave number
less than 1000 cm-1
have not been used to identify the functional groups present in samples
C, C1, C2, C3 as it is considered as fingerprint regions .The samples C, C1, C2, C3 represent
additive alone, additive and diesel mixture in reduced, recommended, increased
proportions. The peaks show their presence for multiple functional groups being in their
range but only those groups which are present for maximum number of peaks have been
considered. The peaks which do not repeat, once additive is added to diesel are those
functional groups which participate to perform the function of additive and once additive is
added to diesel the newly generating functional groups in subsequent samples C1, C2 and
C3 are the by products which react inside the engine at high temperature conditions, out of
which the one in C2are prominent it being the sample with recommended dosage of
additive.
The functional groups which have been identified are as a result of preliminary reactions at
room temperature by addition of additive to diesel fuel. Thus the conclusions further
proposed are on the basis of the functional groups identified. This paper does not considers
the time for which the mixture was kept idle prior to FTIR test, the prevailing atmospheric
conditions, the time difference between two tests of same additive and handling
procedures.
Following the above criteria the fuel additive has PRIMARY AMINE N-H STRECH as the
dominant functional group, followed by ALKENE =C-H STRECH as the participating functional
groups. The functional groups which are identified in the recommended dosage sample C2
are alkane, primary and secondary amines.
All fuels consist of complex mixtures of aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. The aliphatic
alkanes and cycloalkanes are hydrogen saturated and compose at least 80-90% of fuel oil.
Hence getting alkane group in diesel sample containing additive i.e. sample C1, C2, C3 with
maximum and strong peaks is justified.
The presence of alkenes or arene group is there in the additive alone that reacts with the
diesel and forms other products that enhance combustion which can be inferred by increase
in cetane number of the by-products .A particular alkane with molecular motion C-H
scissoring has transmittance 65 in sample C which keeps on decreasing with more and more
addition of the additive in diesel and finally reaches 39 indicating the fact that this particular
peak is becoming stronger and stronger as more number of C-H scissoring motions are
observed in FTIR. It can be known from paper 2 that a by-product of alkenes or arene
reaction can be several but one with a scissoring motion has maximum cetane number.
It can also be seen from the table 4.3.2 that the primary amine group that was present in
low dosage of additive vanishes completely in recommended and high dosages of additive

43 | P a g e
as it reacts with the weakly acidic compounds to form the products that remain dissolved in
the fuel and prevent further reaction and thus it stabilizes the fuel and acts as a acid
scavenger and corrosion inhibitor .The presence of primary amine can be seen in table 4.3.3
and table 4.3.4 indicating the presence of N-H bond of the primary amine that is responsible
for reducing corrosions after the combustion is over .
R1 R1
I I
R2-C-NH2 + H-X  R2-C-NH3
+
+ X-
--------Eq: 4.3.1
I  I
R3 R3
Oil soluble acids oil insoluble acids amorphous oil soluble salts

44 | P a g e
Table 4.3.1: READING FTIR REPORT-C-FUELCARE FUEL ADDITIVE ONLY
Key:
C-
sample
Sl.no
Wave
Number Transmittance Functional Group Molecular Motion
1 3006.65 56 Alkenes or Arene =C-H stretch
2 2959.82 52 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
3 2858.29 51 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
4 2730.36 54 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
5 1605.95 61
Primary or
Secondary Amine N-H(def)
6 1461.95 65
Alkane (methyl or
CH2) C–H scissoring
7 1378.33 63 Alkane(Methyl) C-H rock
8 873.5 72 fingerprint
COMMON FOR ALL
SAMPLES
PRESENT ONLY ONCE
PRESENT IN ANY 2 OF
THE SAMPLES
GROUPS REACTING
WITH DIESEL
PEAKS OF ONLY
DIESEL
Red
INDICATES
BYPRODUCT

45 | P a g e
C-1
sample
Sr.no
Wave
1 3435.7 65 Primary Amine N-H stretch
2 2955.93 18 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
3 2924.67 15 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
4 2854.42 18 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
5 2729.74 67 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch(sp3
carbon)
6 1606.09 73
Primary or
7 1462.78 43
Alkane (methyl or
Table 4.3.2: READING FTIR REPORT-C-FUELCARE FUEL ADDITIVE, 0.1 ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE
OF DIESEL

46 | P a g e
C-2
sample
Sl.no
Wave
1 2955.68 30 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
2 2923.82 26 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
3 2853.91 30 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
4 2729.67 60 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
5 2671.66 61 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
6 1606.29 64
Primary or
Secondary Amine N-H deformation
7 1463.78 44
Alkane (methyl or
8 1377.47 52 Alkane(Methyl) C–H rock
9 1031.81 67
Primary or
Secondary Amine C-N stretch
Table 4.3.3: READING FTIR REPORT-C-FUELCARE FUEL ADDITIVE, 0.2 ML ADDITIVE IN 1 LITRE
OF DIESEL-RECOMMENDED

47 | P a g e
C-3
sample
Sl.no
Wave
1 3166.57 62 Alkenes or Arene =C-H stretch
2 2955.73 25 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
3 2924.42 21 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
4 2854.13 25 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
5 2729.6 60 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
6 2671.44 61 Alkanes(C-H)
C-H stretch (sp3
carbon)
7 1606.25 62
Primary or
8 1463.66 39
Alkane (methyl or
11 1168.25 66
Primary or
12 1033.22 67
Primary or
Table 4.3.4: READING FTIR REPORT-C-FUELCARE FUEL ADDITIVE, 0.33 ML ADDITIVE IN 1
LITRE OF DIESEL

48 | P a g e
of fuel additive “C”
Cylinder Cover

49 | P a g e
PISTON TOP
THIN, DRY AND SOFT DEPOSITION WITH MODERATE GRAINS

50 | P a g e
4.3.3 Data recorded (average) when engine run on fuel additive “C”
VOLTAGE=212V
FREQUENCY=49.2Hz
SPEED=1500RPM
HUMIDITY =30%
FUEL CONSUMPTION20ml consumed in 2 mins 5 seconds
SPECIFIC FUEL OIL CONSUMPTION=567.422gm/kwh
POWER DEVELOPED=0.873kw
AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE=40
CALORIMETER WATER INLET TEMPERATURE=24
5

51 | P a g e
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
Palmalkyl ester fuel additives build an exceptionally stable three dimensional lattice
structure consisting of sub-microscopic nano-clusters, all evenly distributed within the fuel.
Nano-clusters reach the engine and begin to burn in the combustion chamber; they rapidly
gain heat and literally explode into steam. These steam explosions generate two very
significant benefits. Creates millions of tiny nano-clusters in the fuel. These nano-clusters
explode just before and during combustion, increasing turbulence and generating smaller
fuel droplets. Smaller fuel droplets vaporize completely, leaving no unburned fuel residue.
This results in more complete combustion, which increases power and improves mileage.
The known palmalkyl ester derivative saves 30% of oil. Further the observations are noted
and the remarks conclude the comparative study.
COMPARISON
PARAMETER
SAMPLEA SAMPLE B SAMPLE C NANOJOSH
FUNCTIONAL
GROUP
ALCOHOL AMINE AMINE PALMALKYL
ESTER
SPECIFIC FUEL
OIL
CONSUMPTION
601gm/kwh 552gm/kwh 567gm/kwh 506gm/kwh
DEPOSITION THICK THIN THIN THIN
GRAIN SIZE COARSE FINE MODERATE FINE
HARDNESS HARD HARD SOFT SOFT
STICKY/NON-
STICKY
STICKY DRY DRY STICKY
PISTON TOP
CONDITION

52 | P a g e
CYLINDER
COVER
CONDITION

53 | P a g e
LIST OF REFERENCES
1. THE ROLE OF ADDITIVES AS SENSITIZERS FOR THE SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF
HYDROCARBONS
By: T. INOMATA Faculty of Science and Technology Sophia University Tokyo, Japan
and J. F. GRIFFITHS and A. J. PAPPIN School of Chemistry, Physical Chemistry Section The
University, Leeds LS2 9JT
.
2. KIRSCH L. J., ROSENFELD J. L. J. AND SUMMERS R., Comb. Flame 43, 11 (1981).
3. Lt T.-M AND SIMMONS R. F., Twenty-First Symposium (International) on
Combustion, p 455, the Combustion Institute, 1988.
4. Experiments and modelling of ignition delay times, flame structure and intermediate
species of EHN-doped stoichiometric n-heptanes/air combustion
By: M. Hartmann a,*, K. Tian b, C. Hofrath c, M. Fikri a, A. Schubert c,
R. Schießl c, R. Starke a, B. Atakan b, C. Schulz a, U. Maas c,
F. Kleine Ja¨ger d, K. Ku¨hling d
a Institut fu¨ r Verbrennung und Gasdynamik, Verbrennung uGasdynamik,
Universita¨ t Duisburg-Essen,
Lotharstr. 1, 47057 Duisburg, Germany
b IVG, Thermodynamik, Universita¨ t Duisburg-Essen, Duisburg, Germany
c ITT, Universita¨ t Karlsruhe, Germany
d BASF SE, Ludwigshafen, Germany
5. Organic Chemistry
Vol 1: The Fundamental Principles
By I.L FINAR Dsc Phd (Lond) CChem MRIC
Principal lecturer in Organic Chemistry, The Polytechnic of North London, Holloway.
Lt T.-M AND SIMMONS R. F., Twenty-First
Symposium (International) on Combustion, p
1. 455Lt T.-M AND SIMMONS R. F., Twenty-First
2. Symposium (International) on Combustion, p
Lt T.-M AND SIMMONS R. F., Twenty-First
45Lt T.-M AND SIMMONS R. F., Twenty-First
1. Combustion Institute, 1988.5, The Combustion Institute, 1988.4he Combustion
Institute, 1988.

54 | P a g e
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At the outset we pay our sincere regards and gratitude to our guide Dr Sanjeet Kanungo for
making us what we are today. Constructive criticism and valuable guidance is what we have
received from our guide Dr Sanjeet Kanungo .Thank you for the patient guidance, Sir.
We would like to thank Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai for Fourier Transform
Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) of the samples, which is the foundation of our research work.
We would also like to pay our sincere regards and gratitude to Mr Ajeet Singh Aiden and Mr
Ajeet Gorpade without whose help and guidance the conduct of our experiments would
have been a herculean task. We thank them from core.
Lastly we thank our colleagues for rendering help wherever required.

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