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Maano Mmola
Maano Mmola

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INTRODUCTION TO EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY Presented by Mackenzie Chibambo
The notions of Emancipatory Pedagogy ➢ Emancipatory pedagogy combines two words (Emancipation plus Pedagogy). ➢ Emancipation means to liberate or to set someone or individuals free. ➢ Pedagogy refers to methods of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept (Pɛdəɡɒdʒi). ➢ It is a form of education that facilitates liberation from oppression. ➢ It aims to empower and liberate individuals from the pangs of oppression including from crooked politicians and their syndicates. ➢ This maybe within the schools or outside the schools environments.
The Genesis of Emancipatory Pedagogy (EP) ➢ Its values are contained in the book by a Brazilian scholar named Paul Freire (1921- 1997). ➢ Wrote a book called Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1964 but got published in 1968; 1971; 1993; 1998; 2003 and 2005, 2007 and beyond. ➢ Freire advanced the ideas of an education system that can help liberate the poor and the oppressed from the oppressors. ➢ Freire was born from a poor background and was taught how to read and write by his mother only at a tender age. ➢ EP initially sought to liberate peasant farmers in Brazil before it got popularized in America and across the whole world.
Key Scholars of EP ➢Paul Freire ➢Ira Shor ➢Peter McLaren ➢Henry Giroux ➢Jacques Ranciere, and others
Other names associated with EP ➢Critical pedagogy ➢Postmodern education ➢Democratic and just education ➢Pedagogy of questioning ➢Liberatory pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy (CP) ➢ Mostly, CP and EP borrow a lot from Critical Theory. ➢ Critical theorists were mainly concerned with power-relations which usually subjugated the poor (The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory in Germany). ➢ Early scholars such as Karl Marx, Habermas, Horkheimer, and Adorno were mainly concerned with dismantling social structures that perpetuated oppression. ➢ Marx struggled with the Capitalist Society, and mobilized peasants to rebel against capitalism for its exploitation of the peasant farmers. ➢ Capitalists mainly used the poor as mere means to an end to make profits at the expense of human welfare (Loss of urgency).
Critical Pedagogy (CP) cont… ➢ On this basis, CP is believed to be one of the offshoots of Critical theory because they were all concerned with dismantling of powerful structures that reduced the ‘other’ to lesser humans and/or into sub-humans. ➢ They were all concerned with the question of power-relations and abuse, and their aim was to empower the weaker groups.
Critical pedagogy ➢ While Marx resorted to violence including boycotts of capitalist products and services as a means of liberating the poor; ➢ Freire resorted to an emancipatory education that was based on civility and humanisation to empower the learners as future citizens. ➢ Note that CP cannot be reduced to teaching strategies but rather the whole education system and curriculum. ➢ Thus, we have Emancipatory Curriculum also known as the Negotiated Curriculum in which diverse voices including teachers and students voices are accommodated.
Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Seeks to remove barriers for the leaners to promote equality and justice. ➢ No one should be excluded from schooling through fees, language, religion, race etc. ➢ PE allows students to learn using social/cultural/symbolic capital including home language (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ Culture, economics, race, and religious backgrounds must not limit students participation in education. ➢ PE sits in opposition to modernist education which is anchored in competition, isolation, profitisation and commodification of knowledge. ➢ Commodification is the rebranding, purposing, marketing and selling of knowledge as if it is not a public good.
Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Excluding others in education is as good as disempowering the poor while empowering the advantaged groups. ➢ Exclusion also sits in opposition to inclusion/participation which is a democratic and justice notion. ➢ Freire’s EP has also been called postmodernist and or democratic education in this case. ➢ Scholars attribute the genesis of postmodernism to Freire as the key scholar.
Types of Emancipation ➢ Emancipation from within: One can be liberated if he is empowered to initiate his own liberation. ➢ Humans can free themselves given an enabling environment.  Emancipation from outside: Others consider themselves the Messiahs to liberate other people, yet they are not so.  They speak on our behalf and claim to know and fight on our behalf.  Soldiers, NGOs, elders, teachers may assume such roles, and believe they are acting on our behalf and in our best interest.  Freire is not comfortable with emancipation from outside.
Types of emancipation cont… ➢ Bourdieu (1992) and Fricker (2007) argue against emancipation from without because it leads to Symbolic Violence and Epistemic Injustices. ➢ Forcing ‘‘Our Will’’ upon others through resources and/or speaking on their behalf leads to ‘‘Symbolic Violence’ and or ‘Epistemic Injustices.’ ➢ Teachers who do endless talking (banking model) create symbolic violence, and/or epistemic injustices, and do subjugate/objectify their students. ➢ They assume the superior role of being more knowledgeable than their students; yet they are not. ➢ This has negative effects on the learners in mid-term and long-term bases as future citizens.
Key concerns of EP/CP ➢ Mainly concerned with the schooling conditions/methods which usually excluded students participation. ➢ Dictatorial teachers cannot help liberate learners but rather make them feel useless, brainless and shamelessly dependent upon authority. ➢ Old school teachers promote student objectification: a form of epistemic injustice. ➢ Such students cannot become creative and critical thinkers, and mostly become passive and over reliant on abusive authority. ➢ As they were spoon-fed, and so will they release the undigested stuff out.
Key Constructs/aims of EP/CP There are three main tenets of EP: ➢ Humanisation ➢ Problem-posing ➢ Critical Conscientization
Humanization aim explained ➢ Humanization means treating one others as human-beings, and an end in themselves with all due dignity. ➢ First, education should help students and teachers develop a critically conscious understanding of their relationship with the world. ➢ Second, education should enable students/teachers become subjects consciously aware of their context and their conditions as a human beings (Au, 2007). ➢ We can only change the world to be a humanized through true dialogue which occurs under different conditions.
Six conditions for dialogue, and a humanized world ➢ Love ➢ Humility ➢ Faith ➢ Trust ➢ Hope ➢ Critical thinking
Love as a precondition to dialogue ➢Dialogue cannot exist in the absence of intense love for the world and people. ➢The naming of the world, which is an act of creation and re-creation, may not be possible if it is not suffused within love.
Humility ➢ We cannot engage with one another without humility. ➢ The naming of the world, through which human beings continually re- create that world, cannot be an act of arrogance/defiance. ➢ Dialogue concerns engagement of diverse human beings with the common purpose of learning, acting and changing. ➢ Dialogue can only break if either party is defiant and pompous. ➢ Teachers who pretend to ‘know it all’ belong to pompous groups, and they break the dialogical code of conduct. (Subjectivism cannot work in this sense)
Faith ➢ Dialogue requires that we have adequate faith in humanity. ➢ Faith has the power to make and remake; create and re-create the world and its objects. ➢ Faith advocates that we view others as fully human, and autonomous beings. ➢ Faith is not the privilege of the elite; but it is rather the right for every human beings. ➢ Teachers should equally believe in their students; that they have knowledge worth sharing.
Trust ➢ Foregrounded in love, humility, and faith. ➢ Dialogue becomes a lateral relationship between dialoguers, and trust develops as results of the three conditions. ➢ Dialoguers who hold strong to love, humility and faith will create a mutually trust climate for conversations. ➢ These dialoguers then get into mutual relationship in the naming of their world.
Hope ➢ Dialogue is impossible where there is hopelessness. ➢ It is rooted in our incompleteness as human beings. ➢ This helps us constantly search for new knowledge alongside others. ➢ Teachers should not lose hope of their students’ competencies but rather encourage them to constantly search for new knowledge and/or solutions to complex situations.
Creative and critical thinking ➢ Dialogue cannot exist where there is no critical thinking. ➢ This differentiates an indivisible solidarity between the world and humans, and admits of no dichotomy between them. ➢ It perceives reality as a process, as transformation, but not as a static entity. ➢ It does not separate itself from action, but rather constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved (Freire, 1970a). ➢ In EP, only critical thinkers can take risks, and staunchly stand for equal rights and justice.
2. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION AIM ➢ This is the second main tenet of CP/EP after humanisation. ➢ Authentic learning creates “C/conscientisation” in the learners. ➢ Freire (1970a; 2005) defines conscientization as “to learn to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (see Freire, 1970a: 17; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ Conscientization” occurs in a context students and their teachers “know that they know” what they know.
CRITICAL CONSCIENTIZATION CONT… ➢ Conscientization subsumes knowing that includes understanding, and the ability to act on the learning in such a way as to affect a change (Abrahams, 2005; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ We should make meaning through mutual dialogues that lie at the centre of educational processes and experiences (Freire, 2005). ➢ Critical conscientization emerges through dialogue between education communities, and it can only be achieved through a problem-posing education system (Freire, 1970a). ➢ Authorities usually attempt to promulgate “silence culture” by controlling institutions (E.g. schools etc) so that they can easily govern docile people.
CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION CONT… ➢ Silenced people are viewed as “dumb” lambs who have been deprived from creatively participating in changing their world. ➢ They are thus deprived from being the real ‘‘beings”. ➢ The silenced are still ignorant of the authority that imposed the silence on them. ➢ Even when they learn to read and/or write in literacy courses, they are still dull, and sit in the bondage of the oppressors. ➢ Dismantling this bondage needs genuine dialogue and critical conscientisation which help students/society question the root causes of their oppression (Freire, 1970b).
3. The Problem-posing model of education ➢ This views education as a practice of freedom. ➢ The goal is to transform structural oppression through dialogue. ➢ Both educators and students teach and learn from each other. ➢ Teachers and students are simultaneously both teachers and learners. ➢ They learn from each other and help each other learn and solve complex situations (Freire, 2005: 59). ➢ The students, while being taught, also teach the teacher. ➢ "They become jointly responsible for the process of teaching in which all grow.“ ➢ "No one teaches another, nor is anyone self taught." We teach each other, mediated by the world. (P, 67)
The Problem-posing model of education cont ➢ Assumes the world is an unfolding historical process; everything and everyone is interrelated. ➢ Begins with students’ history, present and unwritten future. ➢ Seeks to transform society and rehumanize the oppressed and their oppressors. ➢ It affirms us as human-beings in the process of becoming. ➢ We are unfinished, and so is our reality, and we affect the world around us through our conscious transformations of it, and of our consciousness of it. (P, 72). ➢ It presents the ‘Banking Method’ of education as a problem, and our situation as a historical reality that can be transformed.
The Banking Model of Education ➢ Freire opposed the ‘‘banking model’’ where the teacher behaves like the king subject-master; while the students become lesser objects. ➢ Teachers narrate the content as if it is lifeless and articulable. ➢ Reality is seen as motionless, static and predictable (Freire, 2005:71) ➢ Topics are completely foreign to the experience of the learners. ➢ The aims to fill students with the content of narration and his/her garbage. ➢ Students record, memorise and repeat phrases, formulae etc, without understanding.
The Banking model cont… ➢Education becomes an act of depositing knowledge into rubbish pits (empty heads). ➢Students are assumed as ignorant and empty vessels or spongy mesophylls. ➢Students are unable to transform the world and themselves. ➢Students develop a fragmented view of reality and truth based on some falsified experts and specialists.
Characteristics of the banking model ➢ The teacher teaches while the students are taught. ➢ The teacher knows everything; the students know nothing. ➢ The teacher thinks, while the students are thought about or you think on their behalf. ➢ The teacher talks and the students listen—meekly. ➢ The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
Characteristics of the banking model cont.. ➢ The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, while the students comply. ➢ The teacher acts while the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher. ➢ The teacher chooses the program content while the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it. ➢ The teacher commands while the students are commanded. ➢ The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which she/he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students (Freire, 2005). ➢ The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
Implications of the Banking model on curriculum practices and identity  Curriculum development processes are monopolised by authorities: lacks teacher-student voices hence reforms may fail (Chisholm, 2005).  The curriculum is a mere product of the elite or the powerful individuals.  It thus represents knowledge of the powerful not powerful knowledge (Young, 2008; 2010)  Schools become may centres of reproduction and consumption but not really centres for the creation of knowledge (Bernstein, 2003).
Implication of the banking model cont  At implementation/reproduction stage students are reduced to mere objects and consumers of ready-made knowledge.  They are thus treated as mere thoughtless objects and indecisive.  This endocrines them into forming an identity that endorses subjugation and dependence over abusive authorities.  It makes students become passive and irresponsible for their own learning and future life.
Implications of the banking approach cont…  It makes them naturalize and normalize domination and oppression.  It endorses inequalities and injustices of all forms as being part of life and natural.  Students may develop apathy over socio-economic and political life as they view themselves as worthless spectators in the civic and democratic spaces.  They may become less tolerant to alternative views as they view truth as being constant (Uncritical).  Some may view violence as the only way to solving different problems (Maphosa & Shumba, 2010; Daviz, 2016; Moodley, 2016; Amatea & Sherrard, 1994).
Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices  Dialogue encourages conversation and debates  Knowledge and truth are thus viewed as inconstant and open to critic  Students begin to value and respect others contributions and knowledge  It raises the spirit of teamwork and collaboration which are but key skills and attributes at the workplace in the 21st century.  It improves their communication skills
Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices cont…  It facilitates creativity and critical thinking as students crack their heads, and brainstorm over possible options to problems.  It facilitates respect, tolerance and coexistence among individuals which is key to democratic society and globalization.  It provides room for clearing misconceptions of facts and assumptions.  It cements relationships as students work to become partners in knowledge creation much more than just competitors.
Implications of dialogue…..  It makes the learning process much more fun, tireless, communal and interactive.  Learning becomes a discovery process than an indoctrination one.  The learning becomes an internalized process since they own the solutions to the problems discovered during the discussions.  Students learn to accommodate even the worst forms of thinking since brainstorming does not condone condemnation of contributions.  It increases students participation as everybody is encouraged to speak out, and make contributions while respecting each view.
Approaches to achieving dialogue  Teachers may use group work: groups need to be regulated and guided.  Use pair-work and allow the pairs to discuss fully and participate in the debates (Avoid passengers).  Use role plays: groups can dramatize stories, plays, poetry etc.  Use tableaux in which they visually enact a story etc, and allow the others to identify the activity and make observations and conclusions.  Use mimes: still a form dramatization that is symbolic, and does not use voice.
Approaches to achieving dialogue cont..  Use observation methods: groups of students can observe phenomenon or an event and interpret the behaviors of the phenomenon or animals/people.  Use transect walks: groups of students can go out of the class and move around a village, city, schools to observe people doing or speaking in order to understand them, and make interpretations of what they observed.  Use Focus Group Discussions to understand peoples practices, behaviors and knowledge of phenomenon: FGDs should group people according to their segments (age, sex, location, status).
Implications of CP/EP on educational practices ➢ Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist, and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers” (p. 80). ➢ The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach the teacher. ➢ They are jointly responsible for the process of education in which they all grow.
Implication of EP on education practice ➢ In this process, arguments based on "authority" are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against it. ➢ Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone self- taught. ➢ People teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable objects which in banking education are "owned" by the teacher.
Implication of CP/EP on the curriculum processes ➢ There will be radical change in the power relationships in the classrooms between the teachers and students. ➢ Education begins to be perceived as not being all about the transfer of knowledge and formulas. ➢ The should be understood as both social and/or individual construction of knowledge raised in the real life of students experiences (Social- Realist) (Young, 2010) ➢ Education should now aim to broaden the student’s view of reality and truth.
Implication of EP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Education should be viewed as a transformative process but not in a technical instrumentalist sense. ➢ Education be viewed as political, and must not spare politicians but give them the right share of truth. ➢ The teacher becomes the guide who respects students’ independence, and acts in accordance with learners’ knowledge (role-model).
Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Principles of EP emphasize strengthening teachers’ and students’ knowledge of social and political realities and does not condone any hypocricy. ➢ Dialogue can provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking, and future possibility for engagement and self actualisation. ➢ As a role model, the teacher respects learners’ knowledge and social, cultural and symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ This way he sets the basis for democratic and civic values now and beyond.
Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont….  Given the democratic nature of EP it means schools adopt the Negotiated curriculum in which students, teachers and all stakeholders voices are paramount (see Bernstein, 2000).  The questions of Production, recontexualisation and Reproduction curriculum development stages require that all stakeholders participate at all those levels (Bernstein, 2000).  The question of Horizontal and Vertical Discourses (Bernstein, 2000) becomes tolerable in the curriculum development process.  Horizontal discourses refer to local knowledge (socio-cultural Capital for (Bourdieu, 1992) while Vertical discourses refer to academic knowledge (Bernstein, 2000).  Freire like Young (2010) here reconciled Bernstein and Bourdieu who held contradictory positions on what should go into the curriculum.
Reflectional questions 1. What characterizes education in post colonial Africa? 2. What is the place of emancipatory education in the 21st century society? 3. In what way can Freire’s emancipatory pedagogy help improve educational practices in post colonial Africa? 4. Critique Freire’s philosophy of education in the context of democratic Africa. 5. Is Freire’s philosophy applicable in your subject area? Explain. 6. Examine the role of dialogue in emancipatory education as a central notion.
Emancipatory Education The Ignorant Schoolmaster Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation (Jacques Ranciere) (Ranciere, 1987)
Background • Ranciere retells a story of Joseph Jacotot, who was a lecturer in French literature at the University of Louvain in Netherlands 1818. • A good number of students who did not speak French; but knew Flemish were asked to learn the French text (Felon’s Novel) with the help of a translator. • They were required to repeat over and over, to read through the rest of the book and recite it. • They successfully wrote in French what they thought they had read. • The questions: How could these students understand and resolve the difficulties of a language entirely new to them without any explanation? (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010 pp. 25-26)
Background 2 • Rancière, through Joseph Jacotot’s case study sought to rewrite/affirm a method for demonstrating to illiterate parents how they could teach their children reading. • He tried to affirm that even the illiterate can help learners read (the ignorant can create environments that can make others read hence the title ‘Ignorant Schoolmaster or teacher’ . • He uses Jacotot’s unusual method of teaching (Universal Teaching Model) (Enseignement universel), later renamed “the Panecastic System” as the basis for his arguments. • Panecastic was anchored in self-discovery, correction and trial and error approach (anti-explication model). (Citton, 2010, p. 26)
Key constructs for the universal teaching model • Stultification and abruitissement • Explication • Intelligence equality • Equal intelligence • Inequality of intelligence
Explicating the explication • Rancire describes this ‘chance experiment’ (or paradox) in his book ‘the ignorant schoolmaster’ (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010) • He decries “the Old Master” (the Old Lady/la Vieille) teaching methods of the Old Testament (Citton, 2010, p. 25) as being stultifying, unjust and dehumnaizing. • The Old Lady methods assume that the master’s role is to transmit knowledge to his dull students in order to bring them to his own level of expertise. • The essential act of the master is, falsely understood, as to transmit and explicate (explain; clarify; expound; elucidate) knowledge to ignorant learners. • Joseph Jacotot had reasoned and acted as an Old Testament Teacher for over 30 years.
Explicating the explication 2 • By chance, a grain of sand had gotten into the machine. He had given no explanation to his “ students” on the first elements of the language (Ranceire, 1987, p.3). • Jacotot put his Flemish students together to learn the French language and create sentences by themselves without any explication (explanations). • He only provided the books and the translator. • He concluded that explications were unnecessary as students could learn own their own. • He likened this to how children learn their first language and other life lessons from birth.
Explicators exposed 1 • Ranciere makes a series of arguments to explain the reasoning behind his book. • E.g., ‘‘the singular art of the explicator: the art of distance’’ (Ranceire, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010, p. 27). • This means masters need to recognize the fragility of the distance that exist between knowledge and the learners to bridge that gap. • Masters should also recognize the distance between learning and understanding and seek to bridge it. • The master holds privileged status of speech (Harbemesian Speech Terms); and must refrain from abusing this status to avoid increasing the distance and detach learning processes.
Questions of hierarchy in explication • The Old Lady model assumes oral explication (talking) is necessary to explicate the written texts. • This breeds unequal returns for various intellectual endeavours. • Ranciere argues ‘what children learn best is what no master can explicate: the mother tongue. We speak to them and we speak around them. They hear and retain, imitate and repeat, make mistakes and correct themselves, succeed by chance and begin again methodically, and, at too young an age for explicators to begin instructing them, they are almost all-regardless of gender, social condition, and skin colour-able to understand and speak the language of their parents (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010, pp. 4-5).
Explication exposed 2 xplication cannot cure the incapacity to learn and understand. re-enforces the structural fiction of this world as advanced by Plato in the ‘Republic’ d Socrates; which argued: Those who know” (the so-called experts) have claimed the right to be invested with political thority due to their superior knowledge. The division of labour delineated by Socrates illustrated e essence of justice in the macroscopic case of ‘the City’ which demanded that each individual main in the place/function attributed to him by an optimal distribution of specialized skills: thus kers should be bakers; fighters should be soldiers, and advisors should advise kings (or become ngs themselves) (Republic 433a–444). his assumed that those knowledgeable/powerful were positioned to decide for the owerless masses, and the powerless be governed by the powerful. his ideology has made explicators think they perform a kind job for their students: that equalizing them through explication, to raise their listeners to a higher level of nderstanding like themselves.
Explication exposed 3 • This misleading ideology has seen teachers confusing knowledge with authority. • Ironically, all explicators need the ignorant students the most not the other way around for them to function; hence the explicators constitute the ignorant. • In other words, through explication, we indirectly tell students that they cannot understand things by themselves, and this leads to ‘stultification and objectification (Citton, 2010 p. 28). • Explication is the myth of pedagogy; the parable of two antagonist worlds: that of the knowers and the brutes; the ripe and unripe; capable and incapable; the intelligent and the dumb. “The master, having thrown a veil of ignorance over everything that is to be learned, he appoints himself the task of lifting it. Until he came along, the child has been groping blindly, figuring out riddles. Now he will
Explication overturned 4 • The master ignorantly thinks he is transmitting his knowledge by adapting it to the intellectual capacities of the students. • He thinks explication allows him to verify that students have satisfactorily understood what he learned and planned for his learners. • Together, these form the key principles of explication. • The master ignorantly learns on behalf of his students as he prepares his talk.
Enforced stultification • Stultification means to dull/stupidify someone’s interest by being monopolistic hence making students seem dull (abrutissement). • Insensitive, dull-witted masters cram their students’ minds with poorly digested chunks of knowledge. • Wicked teachers utter half-truths to re-enforce their power, and the social order of the world while hiding their incompetence (they fear dialogue and engagement). • Because of their limited knowledge, they think they are more knowledgeable, and better positioned to act as a good Samaritans in donating nonsense to desperate students. • The more they claim to know, the greater the distance they create between the students and true knowledge.
Implications of stultification • Children who are explained to will devote most of their intelligence to the work of grieving to understanding. • They will seek to understand why they do not understand until someone explicates it to them. • The so-called 'geniuses"attach the creature they have rendered inferior with the strongest chains in the land of stultification - the child's consciousness of his own superiority" (Ranciere, 1987 p.22). • “This pedagogic myth...divides the world into two hemispheres: that of the inferior intelligence and the superior intelligence” (Rancière, 1987, p. 16). • What the students learn from this, before anything else, is that “thehy cannot understand (the object of knowledge) if it is not explained to him” (Ranciere, 1987, p. 18). Such is the “stultifying effect” of pedagogy (p. 17).
Undoing explication • Good masters know that students no longer submit to the Rod and Lords, but to unhierarchical world of intelligence. • They thus become vigilant and patient to ensure that children are not lost through clear instruction and translations but not explications. • They simply identify books and allow learners to take charge of the entire learning process just like Jacotot did with his Flemish students. • Children will then acquire new intelligence (master’s explications) using their own ‘‘Will Power’’ and procedures. • They can then become own explicators since they own the process.
The emancipatory master 1 • Knows that students can learn without a master as a chatterbox. • Leaves his intelligence out of the picture, and allows students’ to grapple with the objects of learning (i.e books). • Knows that stultification subordinates pupils intelligence over his own. • ‘‘ A person…may need a master when his own ‘‘Will’’ is insufficient to set him on track, and keep him there. But that subjection is purely one of ‘’will over will.’’ It becomes stultification when it links an intelligence to another intelligence (Ranciere, 1987, p. 13). • In other words, the master knows that emancipation occurs when the act of intelligence obeys only itself even when the ‘will’ obeys another ‘will’.
The emancipatory master 2 • One can teach what one doesn’t know if the student is allowed to use his own intelligence. • To emancipate an ignorant person, one must first of all emancipate oneself/ become conscious of the true power of the human mind. • The ignorant person will learn by himself what the master doesn’t know if the master believes he can, and obliges him to realize his full potential.
The emancipatory master 3 • He knows that emancipation needs recognition of equality. • He understands that what stultifies learners is their own belief in their own inferiority of their intelligence but not lack of explication. • He knows that what stultifies the “inferiors” also stultifies the “superiors” at the same time. • He knows that truthful intelligence is one that speaks to others who are capable of verifying that truth through equality of their intelligence.
The emancipatory master 4 • That superior mind therefore condemns itself to never being understood by the inferiors. "Whoever looks also finds. He doesn't necessarily find what he was looking for, and even less what he was supposed to find. But he finds something new to relate to the things that he already know. What is essential is the continuous vigilance, the attention that never subsides without irrationality setting in - something that the learned one, like the ignorant one, excels at." (Ranciere, 1987, p.33)
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 1 • Equal intelligence of human beings...the method of “universal education” as advanced by Jacotot (Citton, 2010). • SA Educational Act assumes that there are equal minds (one-world), that of learners and teachers. • That explication is not required for the students to learn better: “This does not mean that they have learned without a master, they just learned without an explainer master”
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 2 • Emancipation exists when intelligence obeys itself; thus, when people use their own intelligence (knowledge), without the need to use the intelligence of the ‘other’. • It exists when students make their own discoveries. • Emancipation is possible since the intelligence of a being is considered equal for everybody, but not polarising the “hierarchy of individual intellectual capacity” • Emancipation does not mean that all intelligences are equal, rather use of a person’s intelligence based on the intelligence equality. (see Citton, 2010, p. 31-32) • Teachers mustn’t explain everything to everybody but rather guide them through the learning processes.
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 3 • Teachers should encourage students to think and reflect on phenomena, giving them conditions for finding value, temporality and meaning to life. • Each student has his/her own experience that makes them unique in their intelligence. • Each student can use their own autonomy, and intelligence to build their own social/individual relationship with the phenomena. • Students must "say what they see; what they think about it and what they make out of it." p.20
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 4 • The first principle of Universal Teaching is that "one must learn something, and then relate everything else to it." • There is need for respect for individuality. ‘‘There is no link between teaching and having knowledge. The inequalities that education aims to solve can be stopped not through explication but by establishing a relationship of equality between the master and student… • Teaching, in its aim of generating intellectual equality, should consequently start from the principle : “all humans have equal intelligences” (1987, p. 34)
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 5 • Teaching through explication is merely training in the modes of academia, rather than an intellectual adventure and/or criticality. • Explication is at the core of the reproduction of social inequalities and hegemonic tendencies. • Discovery is key to emancipation from social class society. • Explication cannot redeem incapacity to understand knowledge.
Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 6 • Explication reproduces dependence and exploitation, which constitute the generative principle of the social world, and inequalities. • Humans may reclaim their dignity; take measure of their intellectual capacity, and decide how to use it." (Ranciere, 1987, p.17) ***Also read, Citton, Y. (2010). The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Knowledge and Authority. Jacques Rancière : Key Concepts, Acumen, pp.25-37, 2010. ffhal-00847083f. Accessed from https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00847083/document on 25/04/2021.
The End Good luck as you carry the Anti-explicative message further. Thank you
A DISTINCTION BETWEEN ETHICS AND MORALITY
THE NATURE OF ETHICS: MORALITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Morality: The idea that some behavior is good or right and that other behavior is bad or wrong. Moral Philosophy A philosophical inquiry concerned with morality and its principles and values as well as it judgments and problems 2
• Etiquette: a set of customs and rules for polite behavior • Law: a system of rules developed and enforced by society or government in order to deal with business agreements, personal agreements and relationships, and crime. 3
NOTE • Although morality shares certain characteristics with either one of these systems of rules, morality transcends (or goes beyond) etiquette and often but not invariably precedes law. • Morality is close to etiquette and distinguishes it from law because it is not changeable or exhaustible by legislation and deliberate judicial procedures. • Morality is also not etiquette 4
PHASES OF MORALITY AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN A PERSON • Stage 1: Group (pre-conventional) morality • Morality begins as a set of culturally determined goals and rules • The rules are usually external to the individual • Stage 2: internalization of conventions • Also linked to development of conscience yet not fully rational. • Make the external one’s own • Motivated by acceptance, closeness, dependence 5
• Stage 3: Individual (rational or reflective) morality • With the gradually increasing capacity to put oneself into another person’s position one begins to develop the ability to care as well as examine one’s own grounds for doing things. • Stage 4: The stage of ethics /moral philosophy • Transcends society group by criticizing its norms, values 6
CAN WE TEACH ETHICS? Mackenzie Chibambo mackchibambo@gmail.com 1
Lesson objectives • By the end of this lesson, you should be able to answer the question: Can teachers teach ethics? How can/should they teach? • The challenges faced in the teaching of ethical and moral education. • Explain the differences between morality and ethics. • Trace the origins of ethics and morality. • Explore some ethical theories as the sources of the challenges faced by moral educators. 2
Distinguishing Ethics from Morality • The two maybe used interchangeably, but are different. • Ethics refer to the justification of the rules. • Ethical codes defines acceptable behavior but have nothing to do with cosmic righteousness. • In institutions, ethics help build the image of the organization. Rule breakers are hence punished. • Schools have codes of conduct teachers/students follow. 3
MORALS • Morals are individuals' own guiding principles regarding right or wrong/good or bad. • A moral person seeks to do the right and good thing. • A moral precept is an idea driven by the desire to be good. • A moral impulse usually means best intentions. • Our idea of morals is shaped by our environment, values and or beliefs. 4
ORIGINSOF ETHICSANDMORALITY • Pure ethical(moral) theories begin with ancient Greek philosophers (Sophists, Socrates and others). • Later early English positivists joined the debates during the Medieval times in Europe and included it in their research. • Other scholars believe ethics are derived from God (E.g The Hebrew Ten Commandments (see DavidHume) • Sigmund Freud (Psychologist) and Emily Durkheim (sociologist) challenged this claim 5
Implicationsof associatingethicswith God • The arguments by Freud and Durkheim that God was nothing but a projection almost discredits Hume’s claim. • How do schools teach ethics whose origin is considered to be fraught and false? • Likewise, thinking of ethics as coming from God puts schools (teachers/students) in awkward positions since not all schools ascribe to Christians beliefs. • This means the teaching of ethics may promote exclusion of the ‘other’. 6
EETHICAL THEORIESAND THEIR CHALLNGES TO THE TEACHING OF ETHICS Subjectivism • An individual’s mental activity is the only unquestionable fact of experience not shared experiences • What is good/bad depends on the individual. • Implications on education: If the good/bad rests in a person, then schools would have to design ethics for each individual for them to be acceptable by everyone which is impossible. • If individuals/schools make different moral judgments on one action, then accepting that action as morally right would be impossible. • This could also lead to inconsistent judgments about the same act done by different students/staff. 7
CULTURAL RELATIVISM 8 • An action is good/bad if it is judged so by society or culture. • There is no universal truth in ethics but various cultural codes, and nothing more. • This challenges our belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. • By claiming that each culture has its own mode of perceiving truth/good, it means there is nothing absolutely right/wrong. This means no need to teach ethics because it is ethics of nothing. • If each society has its own truth, then which societies’ ethics should schools teach since schools consist of heterogeneous societies. • Thus, the teaching of ethics becomes almost uninspiring and impossible.
KANTI’SDEONTOLOGICALETHICALTHEORY • We can’t think of anything as good without limitation except a good will. • States that an action is good if the principle behind it has duty to Moral Law, and arises from a sense of duty in the Actor. • Kant identifie the Categorical Imperative (CI), (unconditional) and the hypothetical Imperative (conditional) for judging moral actions. 9
KANT’S ETHICS CONT 10 • Principle of Universalizability( a C.I.) considers an action as right if it can be applied to everybody without contradictions. • The principle of Human Agency (C.I): suggest that people be treated as an end in themselves. • Principle of autonomy suggests that Rational Agents must be bound to the moral law by their own will. • Hypothetical Imperative is an action where the good depends on a condition.
Kant’stheory Cont • There are two examples of duties: perfect and imperfect. • Kant used lying as an example of duties. Because there is a perfect duty to tell the truth, we must not lie, although lying would bring benefits. • A perfect duty (e.g. honesty) always holds true; an imperfect duty (e.g., lying) is transient and limited to place/time. 11
Implicationsof Kant’stheory on moral education • Since moral education makes a citizen valuable for a state, it is inadequate to teach students ethics. • Thus Kant proposed teaching students how to think to enable them to act according to ethical laws. • Since this theory is too abstract and just prescribes good actions not the right thing to do in particular situations, then teaching of ethics would be difficult. • Alasdair MacIntyre argues that universality principle can be used to justify practically anything. • If lying is wholly wrong; would hiding to a student whose mother has died to avoid distressing her be wrong? 12
Other Views on Ethicsand MoralEducation’s Challenges 1. Fredrick Nietsche • Nietzsche (1844) believed that the energy that drives humans to achieve greater things is not as (Christians or Kant) believed, e.g. “Love your neighbours’ but the will to dominate. • If individuals act in pursuit of personal interests then schools would not serve as equalisers/places for socialization and resource redistribution. No school would willing to teach ethics that promote individualism and greed. 13
II. KOLHBEG AND MORAL EDUCATION • Kolhbeg (1984) borrowed Kant’s claims that moral education is a rational activity. • What is moral is defined by reason not actions. • A moral person must offer justifiable rational arguments for their actions. • Used Piaget (1965) theories of child development theory to redefine moral education. 14
Kolhbeg Cont • Devised three stages of moral justification. • Pre-conventional: a person judges something as moral/immoral if adults judge it so. • Conventional: when pre-conventions are internalised, one begins to understand and justify actions as good or bad. • Post-conventional: arises from conventional stage. Here rules of natural justice come into play. • One may challenge the Law as unjust and reject it (Think of Zuma’s Case) 15
So, can we teachethics and morality? • These debates have shown us that ethics can be taught though that does assure the creation of a moral or ethical person • Thus morality (be’s) cannot be taught. • The problem on ethics (do’s) lie on the disagreements over what is good/bad. • Aristotle proposes that we must teach virtue (not ethics) because ethics are highly contested and contextual. 16
Implications of this school of thought • Since this appeals to rational justice, it fails to account for other things such as compassionate, care, consistency and moral resilience. • There is a possibility to forego justice based on other good factors and knowledge of the leaners. • Schools as social institutions may reflect some values of society yet they must cultivate morality in learners. • This often pose problems on the sort of ethics to be taught since society is broad and fluid. (Think of Corporal Punishment and its changes). • Pre-conventional stage may work at early grades not at upper levels. 17
So can we teach ethicsand morality? Cont… • The notion that all ethics derive from God has been challenged giving rising to further complications on the teaching of ethics. • Instead of focusing on teaching ethics, we should focus on cultivating people’s disposition to act in particular ways as (Aristotle) proposed. • To cultivate virtue in our students, means we should act virtuously not teaching them ethics which are contested concepts. • Try to be act morally to serve as a role model to the students. • In conclusion, we cannot teach ethics but we can help them grow morally. 18
• The end 19
SUBJECTIVISM AND MORAL RELATIVISM Are moral judgments and behaviour just personal views and attitudes? Are we simply expressing our emotions or sentiments? Should moral judgments be based on reason? In what sense can moral judgments be true or false Do moral truths exist? 1
SUBJECTIVISM and ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM and its basic beliefs ➢ Attitudes of each individual person determine right or wrong, good or bad. ➢ Anyone who calls something right or wrong is expressing a personal attitude, nothing more. ➢ Arises from observation that values are very different from facts. ➢That facts can be proven true and moral judgments are neither true nor false
Philosophical origin of ethical subjectivism David Hume’s argument: Are moral judgments based on reason or sentiment (emotions, feelings, passion)? ➢ Morality is based on affections of humanity, common to all ➢ the natural feelings, passions are not objectively verifiable. ➢Therefore morality is subjective
Conclusions arising from Hume’s thinking ▪ The function of morality is to reinforce sentiments that meet the general approval of all so that selfish desires are controlled. Reason only serves the emotions – a slave to hu. passion Reason can only acquaint us with the facts of the matter There is a wide gap between is and ought
Is ethical subjectivism all there is? If it is true: It is difficult to understand how anyone could ever be mistaken in one’s moral views (if it is simply a report of how one feels). It is consequently difficult to see any teacher or authority reprimanding ‘bad’ behavior It is not possible to agree on what is right or wrong in society. Where do you get the basis for teaching values in the curriculum?
It changes the game on how we understand to be the place of reason(ing) in human life. How? Is reasoning confined to facts? (but moral truths are truths of reason!)
Questions to help you summarize your understanding How does subjectivism define the “good”? How do we arrive at moral beliefs according to subjective ethics? If you see things from a subjective position, how will moral values look like? Is there objectivity in subjective ethics? Using the readings, you can raise many questions on your own
REVIEW EXERCISE Evaluate the extent to which ethical subjectivism is traceable in the South African schooling system. Please provide clear examples Provide a mental picture of how schooling and society would like where the moral principles of ethical subjectivism prevail
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Some Introduction Relativism in the first place is the view that there are no objective truths, there are no objective and universal standards. It is an elevated form of subjectivism in a sense. Cultural relativism confines the subjectivism to a group within which one was born and brought up. It confines the realm of morals as mainly legitimate within the boundaries of my background and culture
CULTURAL RELATIVISM The view that right and wrong, good and bad, etc, are determined by the standards of particular cultures or societies e. g. different residence practices or ethnic practices or racial practices. Morality is what society or culture deems normal behavior. It is an extension of ethical subjectivism (right or wrong by personal taste to group or cultural approval)
THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT AS A SOURCE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ❖ What is right and true is so by virtue of the fact that it is believed to be right and true by a particular society or culture at a particular time. ❖ Therefore, there is no morality that is universal and that exists ahistorically, non-instrumentally and non-empirically. ❖ In other words, no morality can exists outside or beyond social or cultural traditions. ❖ Because societies are different, then different societies or cultures have different conceptions of “right” and “wrong”, “truth”. ❖ From the above, it follows that there is no objective truth in morality
Short Exercise Using your understanding of the 2 readings given for this week evaluate the logic of this argument and indicate what you think.
DEFENDING CULTURAL RELATIVISM USING THE “PROVABILITY” ARGUMENT Cultural relativists argue that if there were such a thing as objective truth in ethics, we would be able to prove that some moral beliefs are true and others false. But in fact we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true and which are false, e.g. different cultures have different moral beliefs which are justified within the culture yet they are not practiced elsewhere. Therefore there is no such thing as objective truth in ethics. In other words, we cannot have universal or objective morality that is proved beyond any doubt!
Some problems with cultural relativism  While the cultural differences argument is neither sound nor valid, the ‘provability’ argument although valid is not sound because its premise 2 is false.  The idea that “we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true” is false.  What would happen if cultural relativism was taken seriously? Cultural relativism would bar us from saying that any oppression is wrong Cultural relativism would not only imply that that these standards and traditions are right and worth emulating, but also that we cannot criticize or condemn (educational) policies arising from a cultural understanding. Policies would then become excessively conservative. The ideas of moral progress and social reform in education would called into doubt.
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MERITS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM (CR)  Although basic arguments underlying cultural relativism are logically faulty, it is important to note: 1. That there is less disagreement between cultures than it appears. Cultures may disagree on factual and religious beliefs, but there is less disagreement in terms of ethical beliefs concerning human life. 2. All cultures have some values in common. Other scholars have referred to these as cultural universals (Wiredu, K. 1996. Cultural universals and particulars: An African perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press) 3. Relativism is right in warning against basing all our preferences, judgments on some absolute standard. Most often what is considered absolute may be dependent on a salient dominant culture. e.g. embedded western values or Christian values or other religious values have been taken for granted and dictated what is considered as moral. Nevertheless what is wrong in CR is the idea that all beliefs depend on cultural proclamations.
SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS In your view what are the intersections between cultural relativism and subjectivism? How does CR define good? What method does it follow for arriving at moral beliefs? Why does CR supposedly make us more tolerant of others’ beliefs? Why does CR make us conform to society’s values? What does CR mean when it argues that tolerance is good? How does cultural relativism promote Racism, tribalism and ethnicity?
ETHICS AND MORALITY AS PRECURSORS TO EMANCIPATORY EDUCATION PRESENTER MACKENZIE CHIBAMBO
RECAPPING ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES AND POSITIONS Key scholars John Mills, Jeromy Bethan, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls among others
THE QUESTION OF ETHICS AND MORALITY AND EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Are ethics and morality one and the same? So what are ethics? And what does morality mean?  Simply put, they are not one and the same though often used interchangeably.  Morality may mean the valued judgements we make as individuals or in our collectiveness towards an action as being good or bad, right or wrong, ugly or beautiful, or just or unjust, or fair or unfair.  Ethics may simply mean descriptive roles of the 'do's' and 'donts' in a more simplistic sense.
Ethics and Morality  This means, every organization has its own ethics meant to curtail social order and cohesion.  E.g: teachers have ethics set aside for them: one of which is don't propose a female or male student.  Why and how? That is a question for the next discourse.
Ethics and Morality continued  Simply put, ethics are externally prescribed; while morality is internalized or emerges from within us whether in public or in private.  Ethics may come from outside sources/forces or from some other motivation.  Morality mostly emerges from internalisation, and within our consciousness and ‘will’  Essentially, questions of ethics and morality are tied to the notions of social justice; notions that are very broad and complex.  This way, emancipatory education finds its place in morality through its humanisation and democratic claims as you will see later.
ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES Four theories inform the questions of ethics and morality: Utilitarianism or Consequentialism Subjectivism Relativism and Deontology also known as Duty for the Sake of Duty. We can judge an action as being ethical or unethical based on these four theories.
SUBJECTIVISM  Subjectivism is a selfish-based theory.  An action is right as long as it is right to me.  Nothing is good or bad to nobody minus the individual.  If I drink alcohol or love women who drink alcohol, there is nothing wrong with that as long as it pleases me.  I am because I am; or I m what I am because I am  Me first kind of thinking.
Cultural relativism  This is founded on cultural based establishments and concessions.  Nothing is wrong or right as long as it is acceptable by that culture, society or group of people  So if polygamy is acceptable in that culture, no one has the right to frown on you; or blame you for marrying 200 women.  We are because we are.  We are not what they are because we are.
Utilitarianism/Consequentialism  Utilitarianism is based on utility or use.  It is based on the degree of pleasure and pain, or consequences.  An action maybe good or moral if it pleases the majority.  An action maybe good if the outcomes are good for the majority.  Never mind about the past or the process that led to the outcomes as long as that action brings pleasure/happiness, then it is moral or good.  So if I kill you to marry your wife, and many people are happy in my village that I married a beautiful wife after killing, that should be okay and moral.  Also known as Majoritanism theory.
Duty for the sake of duty  DFD (Deontology) is based on Immanuel Kant’s assumptions.  It is based on the principles of Hypothetical Imperatives and Categorical Imperatives also known as (Universalism).  Kant believed that all humans have ‘interests’ and the 'WILL'.  Humans have some reasons for doing certain things in their life.  Hypothetical reasons lead to immorality because mostly humans do things for certain reasons so much so that if those reasons are suspended, the whole act collapses.
Duty for the sake of duty continued…  For example, if COSATU leaders lead demonstrations in order to form a new government, so that they get ministerial positions then they are wrong since they have been driven by greed.  The Categorical Imperative assumes that an action is good or right because it is good in itself, and no conditions must be attached.  Kant says, ‘‘you must act as though you would wish it were to be made into a universally acceptable Law.’’
Duty for the sake of duty cont…  Kant called this principle, ‘‘Universalism.’’  This means an action must be universally good wherever and/whenever it is done.  An action is good if it does not use others, or if it does not treat others as the means to the end (Autonomy/humanisation).  Kant then believes that universalism is built on Autonomy, Agency , Will and Rationalization.
The link between agency, autonomy, will and rationalization  Everything that we do has to be first rationalised or reasoned about.  Rational ‘Will’ is important for morality.  We act as ‘‘agents’’ when we act out of our Will and rationality.  These assumptions relate closely to Emancipatory Pedagogy.
Duty for the sake of duty conti…  An action is good if we do it without any coercion or blackmail from anybody else (Agency).  Humans are different from animals because of the ‘Will power’ and their ability to think and rationalize.  Kant then brings the notion of 'Duty for the Sake of Duty'.  There is Perfect duty and Imperfect duty.
Duty for the sake of duty cont…  What we do maybe moral if we do it without using others or expecting gains, and that we treat each other as free willed agents.  For example, if I marry you because of your job, school and/or money; it is immoral and evil.  If I propose you because of your hips and or anything, it is immoral.  If I give you financial support because I want to be populist, it is immoral and an ‘‘Imperfect Duty.’’  A perfect duty is perfect because it is universally perfect and good.
A critique of DFD  Kant was inconsiderate of animals and plants.  By subsuming that only rational thinkers have the right to questions of morality; then the insane/drug-adicts have no place in it.  Since, emancipatory pedagogy calls for humanization; it challenges us to treat the whole environment as full humans deserving humanly treatment.  Because animals, ‘think in their own way’ just like mad people do, then they have no rights or cannot be defended in moral circles.
DFD as precursor to emancipation  Like in D4D theory, emancipation rests on agency, will power and humanization as its key tenets.  Questions of liberation from oppression demands role modelling, reflection and action/praxis.  We may help set individuals free from repulsive authority if we treat them as free willed agents.  The oppressed can liberate themselves from within (agency/will) given enabling conditions.
The notion of emancipation cont… Emancipation is desirable because it is linked to morality especially DFD Emancipation is linked to education as an intrinsic concept that is an end it self (Universalist/categorical value. Emancipation advocates for a moral way of doing education.
What is emancipation?  The process of being freed from legal, social, or political restrictions also known as liberation.  To free from restraint, control, or the power of another or the other.  To be freed from bondage or some repulsive forces.  To be freed from parental care, responsibility and any authority.  To free from any controlling influence (such as traditional mores or beliefs) also known as ‘Sui Juris’ (Latin)
THE OPRESSOR/OPPRESSEE DICHOTOMY ➢ Involves those whose humanity have been stolen (oppressed), and those who have stolen it (oppressors). ➢ Oppressors prevent people from being more fully human. ➢ Oppression engenders violence in the oppressors, while dehumanizing the oppressed. (Violence: physical, behavioural, verbal, symbolic, epistemic etc). ➢ Humanity only makes sense among oppressors; otherwise the oppressed are seen and treated as “things/objects” (objectification).  Question :In your view what characterises the oppressed?
The question fear and freedom  The oppressed fear freedom because they have been made to think that way by the oppressors.  They admirer the oppressors when in fact they cannot attain the status of the oppressors in their current condition.  The oppressors keep the oppressed continuously poor, and dependent on the rationed resources and through highly sensored media. ➢ The oppressors however are afraid of losing their "freedom" to oppress the oppressed and control.
The question of fear and freedom ➢ Oppressors know that freedom brings autonomy and responsibility. ➢ That freedom is acquired through knowledge and conquest, not handouts or naivety… ➢ This freedom must be pursued constantly and responsibly. ➢ Without freedoms all humans cannot exist authentically. ➢ Yet, the oppressed fear freedom even when they desire to exist authentically (Freire, 2005).
The foundations of emancipation theories ➢Hegel – history, dialectic method. ➢Marx – class consciousness, change, alienation. ➢Existentialism – human beings are free to choose or are responsible for their own actions. ➢Dewey – democratic choices in education ➢Critical Theorists: Power-relations and ideology (Horkheimer, Adorno, Habermas, etc)
EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Pedagogy of the Oppressed (book) by Paul Freire  1921 born  Died 1997  To be done NEXT WEEK
INTRODUCTION TO EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY Presented by Mackenzie Chibambo
The notions of Emancipatory Pedagogy ➢ Emancipatory pedagogy combines two words (Emancipation plus Pedagogy). ➢ Emancipation means to liberate or to set someone or individuals free. ➢ Pedagogy refers to methods of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept (Pɛdəɡɒdʒi). ➢ It is a form of education that facilitates liberation from oppression. ➢ It aims to empower and liberate individuals from the pangs of oppression including from crooked politicians and their syndicates. ➢ This maybe within the schools or outside the schools environments.
The Genesis of Emancipatory Pedagogy (EP) ➢ Its values are contained in the book by a Brazilian scholar named Paul Freire (1921- 1997). ➢ Wrote a book called Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1964 but got published in 1968; 1971; 1993; 1998; 2003 and 2005, 2007 and beyond. ➢ Freire advanced the ideas of an education system that can help liberate the poor and the oppressed from the oppressors. ➢ Freire was born from a poor background and was taught how to read and write by his mother only at a tender age. ➢ EP initially sought to liberate peasant farmers in Brazil before it got popularized in America and across the whole world.
Key Scholars of EP ➢Paul Freire ➢Ira Shor ➢Peter McLaren ➢Henry Giroux ➢Jacques Ranciere, and others
Other names associated with EP ➢Critical pedagogy ➢Postmodern education ➢Democratic and just education ➢Pedagogy of questioning ➢Liberatory pedagogy
Critical Pedagogy (CP) ➢ Mostly, CP and EP borrow a lot from Critical Theory. ➢ Critical theorists were mainly concerned with power-relations which usually subjugated the poor (The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory in Germany). ➢ Early scholars such as Karl Marx, Habermas, Horkheimer, and Adorno were mainly concerned with dismantling social structures that perpetuated oppression. ➢ Marx struggled with the Capitalist Society, and mobilized peasants to rebel against capitalism for its exploitation of the peasant farmers. ➢ Capitalists mainly used the poor as mere means to an end to make profits at the expense of human welfare (Loss of urgency).
Critical Pedagogy (CP) cont… ➢ On this basis, CP is believed to be one of the offshoots of Critical theory because they were all concerned with dismantling of powerful structures that reduced the ‘other’ to lesser humans and/or into sub-humans. ➢ They were all concerned with the question of power-relations and abuse, and their aim was to empower the weaker groups.
Critical pedagogy ➢ While Marx resorted to violence including boycotts of capitalist products and services as a means of liberating the poor; ➢ Freire resorted to an emancipatory education that was based on civility and humanisation to empower the learners as future citizens. ➢ Note that CP cannot be reduced to teaching strategies but rather the whole education system and curriculum. ➢ Thus, we have Emancipatory Curriculum also known as the Negotiated Curriculum in which diverse voices including teachers and students voices are accommodated.
Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Seeks to remove barriers for the leaners to promote equality and justice. ➢ No one should be excluded from schooling through fees, language, religion, race etc. ➢ PE allows students to learn using social/cultural/symbolic capital including home language (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ Culture, economics, race, and religious backgrounds must not limit students participation in education. ➢ PE sits in opposition to modernist education which is anchored in competition, isolation, profitisation and commodification of knowledge. ➢ Commodification is the rebranding, purposing, marketing and selling of knowledge as if it is not a public good.
Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Excluding others in education is as good as disempowering the poor while empowering the advantaged groups. ➢ Exclusion also sits in opposition to inclusion/participation which is a democratic and justice notion. ➢ Freire’s EP has also been called postmodernist and or democratic education in this case. ➢ Scholars attribute the genesis of postmodernism to Freire as the key scholar.
Types of Emancipation ➢ Emancipation from within: One can be liberated if he is empowered to initiate his own liberation. ➢ Humans can free themselves given an enabling environment.  Emancipation from outside: Others consider themselves the Messiahs to liberate other people, yet they are not so.  They speak on our behalf and claim to know and fight on our behalf.  Soldiers, NGOs, elders, teachers may assume such roles, and believe they are acting on our behalf and in our best interest.  Freire is not comfortable with emancipation from outside.
Types of emancipation cont… ➢ Bourdieu (1992) and Fricker (2007) argue against emancipation from without because it leads to Symbolic Violence and Epistemic Injustices. ➢ Forcing ‘‘Our Will’’ upon others through resources and/or speaking on their behalf leads to ‘‘Symbolic Violence’ and or ‘Epistemic Injustices.’ ➢ Teachers who do endless talking (banking model) create symbolic violence, and/or epistemic injustices, and do subjugate/objectify their students. ➢ They assume the superior role of being more knowledgeable than their students; yet they are not. ➢ This has negative effects on the learners in mid-term and long-term bases as future citizens.
Key concerns of EP/CP ➢ Mainly concerned with the schooling conditions/methods which usually excluded students participation. ➢ Dictatorial teachers cannot help liberate learners but rather make them feel useless, brainless and shamelessly dependent upon authority. ➢ Old school teachers promote student objectification: a form of epistemic injustice. ➢ Such students cannot become creative and critical thinkers, and mostly become passive and over reliant on abusive authority. ➢ As they were spoon-fed, and so will they release the undigested stuff out.
Key Constructs/aims of EP/CP There are three main tenets of EP: ➢ Humanisation ➢ Problem-posing ➢ Critical Conscientization
Humanization aim explained ➢ Humanization means treating one others as human-beings, and an end in themselves with all due dignity. ➢ First, education should help students and teachers develop a critically conscious understanding of their relationship with the world. ➢ Second, education should enable students/teachers become subjects consciously aware of their context and their conditions as a human beings (Au, 2007). ➢ We can only change the world to be a humanized through true dialogue which occurs under different conditions.
Six conditions for dialogue, and a humanized world ➢ Love ➢ Humility ➢ Faith ➢ Trust ➢ Hope ➢ Critical thinking
Love as a precondition to dialogue ➢Dialogue cannot exist in the absence of intense love for the world and people. ➢The naming of the world, which is an act of creation and re-creation, may not be possible if it is not suffused within love.
Humility ➢ We cannot engage with one another without humility. ➢ The naming of the world, through which human beings continually re- create that world, cannot be an act of arrogance/defiance. ➢ Dialogue concerns engagement of diverse human beings with the common purpose of learning, acting and changing. ➢ Dialogue can only break if either party is defiant and pompous. ➢ Teachers who pretend to ‘know it all’ belong to pompous groups, and they break the dialogical code of conduct. (Subjectivism cannot work in this sense)
Faith ➢ Dialogue requires that we have adequate faith in humanity. ➢ Faith has the power to make and remake; create and re-create the world and its objects. ➢ Faith advocates that we view others as fully human, and autonomous beings. ➢ Faith is not the privilege of the elite; but it is rather the right for every human beings. ➢ Teachers should equally believe in their students; that they have knowledge worth sharing.
Trust ➢ Foregrounded in love, humility, and faith. ➢ Dialogue becomes a lateral relationship between dialoguers, and trust develops as results of the three conditions. ➢ Dialoguers who hold strong to love, humility and faith will create a mutually trust climate for conversations. ➢ These dialoguers then get into mutual relationship in the naming of their world.
Hope ➢ Dialogue is impossible where there is hopelessness. ➢ It is rooted in our incompleteness as human beings. ➢ This helps us constantly search for new knowledge alongside others. ➢ Teachers should not lose hope of their students’ competencies but rather encourage them to constantly search for new knowledge and/or solutions to complex situations.
Creative and critical thinking ➢ Dialogue cannot exist where there is no critical thinking. ➢ This differentiates an indivisible solidarity between the world and humans, and admits of no dichotomy between them. ➢ It perceives reality as a process, as transformation, but not as a static entity. ➢ It does not separate itself from action, but rather constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved (Freire, 1970a). ➢ In EP, only critical thinkers can take risks, and staunchly stand for equal rights and justice.
2. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION AIM ➢ This is the second main tenet of CP/EP after humanisation. ➢ Authentic learning creates “C/conscientisation” in the learners. ➢ Freire (1970a; 2005) defines conscientization as “to learn to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (see Freire, 1970a: 17; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ Conscientization” occurs in a context students and their teachers “know that they know” what they know.
CRITICAL CONSCIENTIZATION CONT… ➢ Conscientization subsumes knowing that includes understanding, and the ability to act on the learning in such a way as to affect a change (Abrahams, 2005; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ We should make meaning through mutual dialogues that lie at the centre of educational processes and experiences (Freire, 2005). ➢ Critical conscientization emerges through dialogue between education communities, and it can only be achieved through a problem-posing education system (Freire, 1970a). ➢ Authorities usually attempt to promulgate “silence culture” by controlling institutions (E.g. schools etc) so that they can easily govern docile people.
CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION CONT… ➢ Silenced people are viewed as “dumb” lambs who have been deprived from creatively participating in changing their world. ➢ They are thus deprived from being the real ‘‘beings”. ➢ The silenced are still ignorant of the authority that imposed the silence on them. ➢ Even when they learn to read and/or write in literacy courses, they are still dull, and sit in the bondage of the oppressors. ➢ Dismantling this bondage needs genuine dialogue and critical conscientisation which help students/society question the root causes of their oppression (Freire, 1970b).
3. The Problem-posing model of education ➢ This views education as a practice of freedom. ➢ The goal is to transform structural oppression through dialogue. ➢ Both educators and students teach and learn from each other. ➢ Teachers and students are simultaneously both teachers and learners. ➢ They learn from each other and help each other learn and solve complex situations (Freire, 2005: 59). ➢ The students, while being taught, also teach the teacher. ➢ "They become jointly responsible for the process of teaching in which all grow.“ ➢ "No one teaches another, nor is anyone self taught." We teach each other, mediated by the world. (P, 67)
The Problem-posing model of education cont ➢ Assumes the world is an unfolding historical process; everything and everyone is interrelated. ➢ Begins with students’ history, present and unwritten future. ➢ Seeks to transform society and rehumanize the oppressed and their oppressors. ➢ It affirms us as human-beings in the process of becoming. ➢ We are unfinished, and so is our reality, and we affect the world around us through our conscious transformations of it, and of our consciousness of it. (P, 72). ➢ It presents the ‘Banking Method’ of education as a problem, and our situation as a historical reality that can be transformed.
The Banking Model of Education ➢ Freire opposed the ‘‘banking model’’ where the teacher behaves like the king subject-master; while the students become lesser objects. ➢ Teachers narrate the content as if it is lifeless and articulable. ➢ Reality is seen as motionless, static and predictable (Freire, 2005:71) ➢ Topics are completely foreign to the experience of the learners. ➢ The aims to fill students with the content of narration and his/her garbage. ➢ Students record, memorise and repeat phrases, formulae etc, without understanding.
The Banking model cont… ➢Education becomes an act of depositing knowledge into rubbish pits (empty heads). ➢Students are assumed as ignorant and empty vessels or spongy mesophylls. ➢Students are unable to transform the world and themselves. ➢Students develop a fragmented view of reality and truth based on some falsified experts and specialists.
Characteristics of the banking model ➢ The teacher teaches while the students are taught. ➢ The teacher knows everything; the students know nothing. ➢ The teacher thinks, while the students are thought about or you think on their behalf. ➢ The teacher talks and the students listen—meekly. ➢ The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
Characteristics of the banking model cont.. ➢ The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, while the students comply. ➢ The teacher acts while the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher. ➢ The teacher chooses the program content while the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it. ➢ The teacher commands while the students are commanded. ➢ The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which she/he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students (Freire, 2005). ➢ The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
Implications of the Banking model on curriculum practices and identity  Curriculum development processes are monopolised by authorities: lacks teacher-student voices hence reforms may fail (Chisholm, 2005).  The curriculum is a mere product of the elite or the powerful individuals.  It thus represents knowledge of the powerful not powerful knowledge (Young, 2008; 2010)  Schools become may centres of reproduction and consumption but not really centres for the creation of knowledge (Bernstein, 2003).
Implication of the banking model cont  At implementation/reproduction stage students are reduced to mere objects and consumers of ready-made knowledge.  They are thus treated as mere thoughtless objects and indecisive.  This endocrines them into forming an identity that endorses subjugation and dependence over abusive authorities.  It makes students become passive and irresponsible for their own learning and future life.
Implications of the banking approach cont…  It makes them naturalize and normalize domination and oppression.  It endorses inequalities and injustices of all forms as being part of life and natural.  Students may develop apathy over socio-economic and political life as they view themselves as worthless spectators in the civic and democratic spaces.  They may become less tolerant to alternative views as they view truth as being constant (Uncritical).  Some may view violence as the only way to solving different problems (Maphosa & Shumba, 2010; Daviz, 2016; Moodley, 2016; Amatea & Sherrard, 1994).
Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices  Dialogue encourages conversation and debates  Knowledge and truth are thus viewed as inconstant and open to critic  Students begin to value and respect others contributions and knowledge  It raises the spirit of teamwork and collaboration which are but key skills and attributes at the workplace in the 21st century.  It improves their communication skills
Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices cont…  It facilitates creativity and critical thinking as students crack their heads, and brainstorm over possible options to problems.  It facilitates respect, tolerance and coexistence among individuals which is key to democratic society and globalization.  It provides room for clearing misconceptions of facts and assumptions.  It cements relationships as students work to become partners in knowledge creation much more than just competitors.
Implications of dialogue…..  It makes the learning process much more fun, tireless, communal and interactive.  Learning becomes a discovery process than an indoctrination one.  The learning becomes an internalized process since they own the solutions to the problems discovered during the discussions.  Students learn to accommodate even the worst forms of thinking since brainstorming does not condone condemnation of contributions.  It increases students participation as everybody is encouraged to speak out, and make contributions while respecting each view.
Approaches to achieving dialogue  Teachers may use group work: groups need to be regulated and guided.  Use pair-work and allow the pairs to discuss fully and participate in the debates (Avoid passengers).  Use role plays: groups can dramatize stories, plays, poetry etc.  Use tableaux in which they visually enact a story etc, and allow the others to identify the activity and make observations and conclusions.  Use mimes: still a form dramatization that is symbolic, and does not use voice.
Approaches to achieving dialogue cont..  Use observation methods: groups of students can observe phenomenon or an event and interpret the behaviors of the phenomenon or animals/people.  Use transect walks: groups of students can go out of the class and move around a village, city, schools to observe people doing or speaking in order to understand them, and make interpretations of what they observed.  Use Focus Group Discussions to understand peoples practices, behaviors and knowledge of phenomenon: FGDs should group people according to their segments (age, sex, location, status).
Implications of CP/EP on educational practices ➢ Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist, and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers” (p. 80). ➢ The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach the teacher. ➢ They are jointly responsible for the process of education in which they all grow.
Implication of EP on education practice ➢ In this process, arguments based on "authority" are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against it. ➢ Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone self- taught. ➢ People teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable objects which in banking education are "owned" by the teacher.
Implication of CP/EP on the curriculum processes ➢ There will be radical change in the power relationships in the classrooms between the teachers and students. ➢ Education begins to be perceived as not being all about the transfer of knowledge and formulas. ➢ The should be understood as both social and/or individual construction of knowledge raised in the real life of students experiences (Social- Realist) (Young, 2010) ➢ Education should now aim to broaden the student’s view of reality and truth.
Implication of EP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Education should be viewed as a transformative process but not in a technical instrumentalist sense. ➢ Education be viewed as political, and must not spare politicians but give them the right share of truth. ➢ The teacher becomes the guide who respects students’ independence, and acts in accordance with learners’ knowledge (role-model).
Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Principles of EP emphasize strengthening teachers’ and students’ knowledge of social and political realities and does not condone any hypocricy. ➢ Dialogue can provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking, and future possibility for engagement and self actualisation. ➢ As a role model, the teacher respects learners’ knowledge and social, cultural and symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ This way he sets the basis for democratic and civic values now and beyond.
Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont….  Given the democratic nature of EP it means schools adopt the Negotiated curriculum in which students, teachers and all stakeholders voices are paramount (see Bernstein, 2000).  The questions of Production, recontexualisation and Reproduction curriculum development stages require that all stakeholders participate at all those levels (Bernstein, 2000).  The question of Horizontal and Vertical Discourses (Bernstein, 2000) becomes tolerable in the curriculum development process.  Horizontal discourses refer to local knowledge (socio-cultural Capital for (Bourdieu, 1992) while Vertical discourses refer to academic knowledge (Bernstein, 2000).  Freire like Young (2010) here reconciled Bernstein and Bourdieu who held contradictory positions on what should go into the curriculum.
Reflectional questions 1. What characterizes education in post colonial Africa? 2. What is the place of emancipatory education in the 21st century society? 3. In what way can Freire’s emancipatory pedagogy help improve educational practices in post colonial Africa? 4. Critique Freire’s philosophy of education in the context of democratic Africa. 5. Is Freire’s philosophy applicable in your subject area? Explain. 6. Examine the role of dialogue in emancipatory education as a central notion.
SUBJECTIVISM AND MORAL RELATIVISM Are moral judgments and behaviour just personal views and attitudes? Are we simply expressing our emotions or sentiments? Should moral judgments be based on reason? In what sense can moral judgments be true or false Do moral truths exist? 1
SUBJECTIVISM and ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM and its basic beliefs ➢ Attitudes of each individual person determine right or wrong, good or bad. ➢ Anyone who calls something right or wrong is expressing a personal attitude, nothing more. ➢ Arises from observation that values are very different from facts. ➢That facts can be proven true and moral judgments are neither true nor false
Philosophical origin of ethical subjectivism David Hume’s argument: Are moral judgments based on reason or sentiment (emotions, feelings, passion)? ➢ Morality is based on affections of humanity, common to all ➢ the natural feelings, passions are not objectively verifiable. ➢Therefore morality is subjective
Conclusions arising from Hume’s thinking ▪ The function of morality is to reinforce sentiments that meet the general approval of all so that selfish desires are controlled. Reason only serves the emotions – a slave to hu. passion Reason can only acquaint us with the facts of the matter There is a wide gap between is and ought
Is ethical subjectivism all there is? If it is true: It is difficult to understand how anyone could ever be mistaken in one’s moral views (if it is simply a report of how one feels). It is consequently difficult to see any teacher or authority reprimanding ‘bad’ behavior It is not possible to agree on what is right or wrong in society. Where do you get the basis for teaching values in the curriculum?
It changes the game on how we understand to be the place of reason(ing) in human life. How? Is reasoning confined to facts? (but moral truths are truths of reason!)
Questions to help you summarize your understanding How does subjectivism define the “good”? How do we arrive at moral beliefs according to subjective ethics? If you see things from a subjective position, how will moral values look like? Is there objectivity in subjective ethics? Using the readings, you can raise many questions on your own
REVIEW EXERCISE Evaluate the extent to which ethical subjectivism is traceable in the South African schooling system. Please provide clear examples Provide a mental picture of how schooling and society would like where the moral principles of ethical subjectivism prevail
CULTURAL RELATIVISM
Some Introduction Relativism in the first place is the view that there are no objective truths, there are no objective and universal standards. It is an elevated form of subjectivism in a sense. Cultural relativism confines the subjectivism to a group within which one was born and brought up. It confines the realm of morals as mainly legitimate within the boundaries of my background and culture
CULTURAL RELATIVISM The view that right and wrong, good and bad, etc, are determined by the standards of particular cultures or societies e. g. different residence practices or ethnic practices or racial practices. Morality is what society or culture deems normal behavior. It is an extension of ethical subjectivism (right or wrong by personal taste to group or cultural approval)
THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT AS A SOURCE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ❖ What is right and true is so by virtue of the fact that it is believed to be right and true by a particular society or culture at a particular time. ❖ Therefore, there is no morality that is universal and that exists ahistorically, non-instrumentally and non-empirically. ❖ In other words, no morality can exists outside or beyond social or cultural traditions. ❖ Because societies are different, then different societies or cultures have different conceptions of “right” and “wrong”, “truth”. ❖ From the above, it follows that there is no objective truth in morality
Short Exercise Using your understanding of the 2 readings given for this week evaluate the logic of this argument and indicate what you think.
DEFENDING CULTURAL RELATIVISM USING THE “PROVABILITY” ARGUMENT Cultural relativists argue that if there were such a thing as objective truth in ethics, we would be able to prove that some moral beliefs are true and others false. But in fact we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true and which are false, e.g. different cultures have different moral beliefs which are justified within the culture yet they are not practiced elsewhere. Therefore there is no such thing as objective truth in ethics. In other words, we cannot have universal or objective morality that is proved beyond any doubt!
Some problems with cultural relativism  While the cultural differences argument is neither sound nor valid, the ‘provability’ argument although valid is not sound because its premise 2 is false.  The idea that “we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true” is false.  What would happen if cultural relativism was taken seriously? Cultural relativism would bar us from saying that any oppression is wrong Cultural relativism would not only imply that that these standards and traditions are right and worth emulating, but also that we cannot criticize or condemn (educational) policies arising from a cultural understanding. Policies would then become excessively conservative. The ideas of moral progress and social reform in education would called into doubt.
WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MERITS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM (CR)  Although basic arguments underlying cultural relativism are logically faulty, it is important to note: 1. That there is less disagreement between cultures than it appears. Cultures may disagree on factual and religious beliefs, but there is less disagreement in terms of ethical beliefs concerning human life. 2. All cultures have some values in common. Other scholars have referred to these as cultural universals (Wiredu, K. 1996. Cultural universals and particulars: An African perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press) 3. Relativism is right in warning against basing all our preferences, judgments on some absolute standard. Most often what is considered absolute may be dependent on a salient dominant culture. e.g. embedded western values or Christian values or other religious values have been taken for granted and dictated what is considered as moral. Nevertheless what is wrong in CR is the idea that all beliefs depend on cultural proclamations.
SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS In your view what are the intersections between cultural relativism and subjectivism? How does CR define good? What method does it follow for arriving at moral beliefs? Why does CR supposedly make us more tolerant of others’ beliefs? Why does CR make us conform to society’s values? What does CR mean when it argues that tolerance is good? How does cultural relativism promote Racism, tribalism and ethnicity?
ETHICS AND MORALITY AS PRECURSORS TO EMANCIPATORY EDUCATION PRESENTER MACKENZIE CHIBAMBO
RECAPPING ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES AND POSITIONS Key scholars John Mills, Jeromy Bethan, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls among others
THE QUESTION OF ETHICS AND MORALITY AND EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Are ethics and morality one and the same? So what are ethics? And what does morality mean?  Simply put, they are not one and the same though often used interchangeably.  Morality may mean the valued judgements we make as individuals or in our collectiveness towards an action as being good or bad, right or wrong, ugly or beautiful, or just or unjust, or fair or unfair.  Ethics may simply mean descriptive roles of the 'do's' and 'donts' in a more simplistic sense.
Ethics and Morality  This means, every organization has its own ethics meant to curtail social order and cohesion.  E.g: teachers have ethics set aside for them: one of which is don't propose a female or male student.  Why and how? That is a question for the next discourse.
Ethics and Morality continued  Simply put, ethics are externally prescribed; while morality is internalized or emerges from within us whether in public or in private.  Ethics may come from outside sources/forces or from some other motivation.  Morality mostly emerges from internalisation, and within our consciousness and ‘will’  Essentially, questions of ethics and morality are tied to the notions of social justice; notions that are very broad and complex.  This way, emancipatory education finds its place in morality through its humanisation and democratic claims as you will see later.
ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES Four theories inform the questions of ethics and morality: Utilitarianism or Consequentialism Subjectivism Relativism and Deontology also known as Duty for the Sake of Duty. We can judge an action as being ethical or unethical based on these four theories.
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EST 3A

  • 2. The notions of Emancipatory Pedagogy ➢ Emancipatory pedagogy combines two words (Emancipation plus Pedagogy). ➢ Emancipation means to liberate or to set someone or individuals free. ➢ Pedagogy refers to methods of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept (Pɛdəɡɒdʒi). ➢ It is a form of education that facilitates liberation from oppression. ➢ It aims to empower and liberate individuals from the pangs of oppression including from crooked politicians and their syndicates. ➢ This maybe within the schools or outside the schools environments.
  • 3. The Genesis of Emancipatory Pedagogy (EP) ➢ Its values are contained in the book by a Brazilian scholar named Paul Freire (1921- 1997). ➢ Wrote a book called Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1964 but got published in 1968; 1971; 1993; 1998; 2003 and 2005, 2007 and beyond. ➢ Freire advanced the ideas of an education system that can help liberate the poor and the oppressed from the oppressors. ➢ Freire was born from a poor background and was taught how to read and write by his mother only at a tender age. ➢ EP initially sought to liberate peasant farmers in Brazil before it got popularized in America and across the whole world.
  • 4. Key Scholars of EP ➢Paul Freire ➢Ira Shor ➢Peter McLaren ➢Henry Giroux ➢Jacques Ranciere, and others
  • 5. Other names associated with EP ➢Critical pedagogy ➢Postmodern education ➢Democratic and just education ➢Pedagogy of questioning ➢Liberatory pedagogy
  • 6. Critical Pedagogy (CP) ➢ Mostly, CP and EP borrow a lot from Critical Theory. ➢ Critical theorists were mainly concerned with power-relations which usually subjugated the poor (The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory in Germany). ➢ Early scholars such as Karl Marx, Habermas, Horkheimer, and Adorno were mainly concerned with dismantling social structures that perpetuated oppression. ➢ Marx struggled with the Capitalist Society, and mobilized peasants to rebel against capitalism for its exploitation of the peasant farmers. ➢ Capitalists mainly used the poor as mere means to an end to make profits at the expense of human welfare (Loss of urgency).
  • 7. Critical Pedagogy (CP) cont… ➢ On this basis, CP is believed to be one of the offshoots of Critical theory because they were all concerned with dismantling of powerful structures that reduced the ‘other’ to lesser humans and/or into sub-humans. ➢ They were all concerned with the question of power-relations and abuse, and their aim was to empower the weaker groups.
  • 8. Critical pedagogy ➢ While Marx resorted to violence including boycotts of capitalist products and services as a means of liberating the poor; ➢ Freire resorted to an emancipatory education that was based on civility and humanisation to empower the learners as future citizens. ➢ Note that CP cannot be reduced to teaching strategies but rather the whole education system and curriculum. ➢ Thus, we have Emancipatory Curriculum also known as the Negotiated Curriculum in which diverse voices including teachers and students voices are accommodated.
  • 9. Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Seeks to remove barriers for the leaners to promote equality and justice. ➢ No one should be excluded from schooling through fees, language, religion, race etc. ➢ PE allows students to learn using social/cultural/symbolic capital including home language (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ Culture, economics, race, and religious backgrounds must not limit students participation in education. ➢ PE sits in opposition to modernist education which is anchored in competition, isolation, profitisation and commodification of knowledge. ➢ Commodification is the rebranding, purposing, marketing and selling of knowledge as if it is not a public good.
  • 10. Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Excluding others in education is as good as disempowering the poor while empowering the advantaged groups. ➢ Exclusion also sits in opposition to inclusion/participation which is a democratic and justice notion. ➢ Freire’s EP has also been called postmodernist and or democratic education in this case. ➢ Scholars attribute the genesis of postmodernism to Freire as the key scholar.
  • 11. Types of Emancipation ➢ Emancipation from within: One can be liberated if he is empowered to initiate his own liberation. ➢ Humans can free themselves given an enabling environment.  Emancipation from outside: Others consider themselves the Messiahs to liberate other people, yet they are not so.  They speak on our behalf and claim to know and fight on our behalf.  Soldiers, NGOs, elders, teachers may assume such roles, and believe they are acting on our behalf and in our best interest.  Freire is not comfortable with emancipation from outside.
  • 12. Types of emancipation cont… ➢ Bourdieu (1992) and Fricker (2007) argue against emancipation from without because it leads to Symbolic Violence and Epistemic Injustices. ➢ Forcing ‘‘Our Will’’ upon others through resources and/or speaking on their behalf leads to ‘‘Symbolic Violence’ and or ‘Epistemic Injustices.’ ➢ Teachers who do endless talking (banking model) create symbolic violence, and/or epistemic injustices, and do subjugate/objectify their students. ➢ They assume the superior role of being more knowledgeable than their students; yet they are not. ➢ This has negative effects on the learners in mid-term and long-term bases as future citizens.
  • 13. Key concerns of EP/CP ➢ Mainly concerned with the schooling conditions/methods which usually excluded students participation. ➢ Dictatorial teachers cannot help liberate learners but rather make them feel useless, brainless and shamelessly dependent upon authority. ➢ Old school teachers promote student objectification: a form of epistemic injustice. ➢ Such students cannot become creative and critical thinkers, and mostly become passive and over reliant on abusive authority. ➢ As they were spoon-fed, and so will they release the undigested stuff out.
  • 14. Key Constructs/aims of EP/CP There are three main tenets of EP: ➢ Humanisation ➢ Problem-posing ➢ Critical Conscientization
  • 15. Humanization aim explained ➢ Humanization means treating one others as human-beings, and an end in themselves with all due dignity. ➢ First, education should help students and teachers develop a critically conscious understanding of their relationship with the world. ➢ Second, education should enable students/teachers become subjects consciously aware of their context and their conditions as a human beings (Au, 2007). ➢ We can only change the world to be a humanized through true dialogue which occurs under different conditions.
  • 16. Six conditions for dialogue, and a humanized world ➢ Love ➢ Humility ➢ Faith ➢ Trust ➢ Hope ➢ Critical thinking
  • 17. Love as a precondition to dialogue ➢Dialogue cannot exist in the absence of intense love for the world and people. ➢The naming of the world, which is an act of creation and re-creation, may not be possible if it is not suffused within love.
  • 18. Humility ➢ We cannot engage with one another without humility. ➢ The naming of the world, through which human beings continually re- create that world, cannot be an act of arrogance/defiance. ➢ Dialogue concerns engagement of diverse human beings with the common purpose of learning, acting and changing. ➢ Dialogue can only break if either party is defiant and pompous. ➢ Teachers who pretend to ‘know it all’ belong to pompous groups, and they break the dialogical code of conduct. (Subjectivism cannot work in this sense)
  • 19. Faith ➢ Dialogue requires that we have adequate faith in humanity. ➢ Faith has the power to make and remake; create and re-create the world and its objects. ➢ Faith advocates that we view others as fully human, and autonomous beings. ➢ Faith is not the privilege of the elite; but it is rather the right for every human beings. ➢ Teachers should equally believe in their students; that they have knowledge worth sharing.
  • 20. Trust ➢ Foregrounded in love, humility, and faith. ➢ Dialogue becomes a lateral relationship between dialoguers, and trust develops as results of the three conditions. ➢ Dialoguers who hold strong to love, humility and faith will create a mutually trust climate for conversations. ➢ These dialoguers then get into mutual relationship in the naming of their world.
  • 21. Hope ➢ Dialogue is impossible where there is hopelessness. ➢ It is rooted in our incompleteness as human beings. ➢ This helps us constantly search for new knowledge alongside others. ➢ Teachers should not lose hope of their students’ competencies but rather encourage them to constantly search for new knowledge and/or solutions to complex situations.
  • 22. Creative and critical thinking ➢ Dialogue cannot exist where there is no critical thinking. ➢ This differentiates an indivisible solidarity between the world and humans, and admits of no dichotomy between them. ➢ It perceives reality as a process, as transformation, but not as a static entity. ➢ It does not separate itself from action, but rather constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved (Freire, 1970a). ➢ In EP, only critical thinkers can take risks, and staunchly stand for equal rights and justice.
  • 23. 2. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION AIM ➢ This is the second main tenet of CP/EP after humanisation. ➢ Authentic learning creates “C/conscientisation” in the learners. ➢ Freire (1970a; 2005) defines conscientization as “to learn to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (see Freire, 1970a: 17; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ Conscientization” occurs in a context students and their teachers “know that they know” what they know.
  • 24. CRITICAL CONSCIENTIZATION CONT… ➢ Conscientization subsumes knowing that includes understanding, and the ability to act on the learning in such a way as to affect a change (Abrahams, 2005; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ We should make meaning through mutual dialogues that lie at the centre of educational processes and experiences (Freire, 2005). ➢ Critical conscientization emerges through dialogue between education communities, and it can only be achieved through a problem-posing education system (Freire, 1970a). ➢ Authorities usually attempt to promulgate “silence culture” by controlling institutions (E.g. schools etc) so that they can easily govern docile people.
  • 25. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION CONT… ➢ Silenced people are viewed as “dumb” lambs who have been deprived from creatively participating in changing their world. ➢ They are thus deprived from being the real ‘‘beings”. ➢ The silenced are still ignorant of the authority that imposed the silence on them. ➢ Even when they learn to read and/or write in literacy courses, they are still dull, and sit in the bondage of the oppressors. ➢ Dismantling this bondage needs genuine dialogue and critical conscientisation which help students/society question the root causes of their oppression (Freire, 1970b).
  • 26. 3. The Problem-posing model of education ➢ This views education as a practice of freedom. ➢ The goal is to transform structural oppression through dialogue. ➢ Both educators and students teach and learn from each other. ➢ Teachers and students are simultaneously both teachers and learners. ➢ They learn from each other and help each other learn and solve complex situations (Freire, 2005: 59). ➢ The students, while being taught, also teach the teacher. ➢ "They become jointly responsible for the process of teaching in which all grow.“ ➢ "No one teaches another, nor is anyone self taught." We teach each other, mediated by the world. (P, 67)
  • 27. The Problem-posing model of education cont ➢ Assumes the world is an unfolding historical process; everything and everyone is interrelated. ➢ Begins with students’ history, present and unwritten future. ➢ Seeks to transform society and rehumanize the oppressed and their oppressors. ➢ It affirms us as human-beings in the process of becoming. ➢ We are unfinished, and so is our reality, and we affect the world around us through our conscious transformations of it, and of our consciousness of it. (P, 72). ➢ It presents the ‘Banking Method’ of education as a problem, and our situation as a historical reality that can be transformed.
  • 28. The Banking Model of Education ➢ Freire opposed the ‘‘banking model’’ where the teacher behaves like the king subject-master; while the students become lesser objects. ➢ Teachers narrate the content as if it is lifeless and articulable. ➢ Reality is seen as motionless, static and predictable (Freire, 2005:71) ➢ Topics are completely foreign to the experience of the learners. ➢ The aims to fill students with the content of narration and his/her garbage. ➢ Students record, memorise and repeat phrases, formulae etc, without understanding.
  • 29. The Banking model cont… ➢Education becomes an act of depositing knowledge into rubbish pits (empty heads). ➢Students are assumed as ignorant and empty vessels or spongy mesophylls. ➢Students are unable to transform the world and themselves. ➢Students develop a fragmented view of reality and truth based on some falsified experts and specialists.
  • 30. Characteristics of the banking model ➢ The teacher teaches while the students are taught. ➢ The teacher knows everything; the students know nothing. ➢ The teacher thinks, while the students are thought about or you think on their behalf. ➢ The teacher talks and the students listen—meekly. ➢ The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
  • 31. Characteristics of the banking model cont.. ➢ The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, while the students comply. ➢ The teacher acts while the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher. ➢ The teacher chooses the program content while the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it. ➢ The teacher commands while the students are commanded. ➢ The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which she/he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students (Freire, 2005). ➢ The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
  • 32. Implications of the Banking model on curriculum practices and identity  Curriculum development processes are monopolised by authorities: lacks teacher-student voices hence reforms may fail (Chisholm, 2005).  The curriculum is a mere product of the elite or the powerful individuals.  It thus represents knowledge of the powerful not powerful knowledge (Young, 2008; 2010)  Schools become may centres of reproduction and consumption but not really centres for the creation of knowledge (Bernstein, 2003).
  • 33. Implication of the banking model cont  At implementation/reproduction stage students are reduced to mere objects and consumers of ready-made knowledge.  They are thus treated as mere thoughtless objects and indecisive.  This endocrines them into forming an identity that endorses subjugation and dependence over abusive authorities.  It makes students become passive and irresponsible for their own learning and future life.
  • 34. Implications of the banking approach cont…  It makes them naturalize and normalize domination and oppression.  It endorses inequalities and injustices of all forms as being part of life and natural.  Students may develop apathy over socio-economic and political life as they view themselves as worthless spectators in the civic and democratic spaces.  They may become less tolerant to alternative views as they view truth as being constant (Uncritical).  Some may view violence as the only way to solving different problems (Maphosa & Shumba, 2010; Daviz, 2016; Moodley, 2016; Amatea & Sherrard, 1994).
  • 35. Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices  Dialogue encourages conversation and debates  Knowledge and truth are thus viewed as inconstant and open to critic  Students begin to value and respect others contributions and knowledge  It raises the spirit of teamwork and collaboration which are but key skills and attributes at the workplace in the 21st century.  It improves their communication skills
  • 36. Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices cont…  It facilitates creativity and critical thinking as students crack their heads, and brainstorm over possible options to problems.  It facilitates respect, tolerance and coexistence among individuals which is key to democratic society and globalization.  It provides room for clearing misconceptions of facts and assumptions.  It cements relationships as students work to become partners in knowledge creation much more than just competitors.
  • 37. Implications of dialogue…..  It makes the learning process much more fun, tireless, communal and interactive.  Learning becomes a discovery process than an indoctrination one.  The learning becomes an internalized process since they own the solutions to the problems discovered during the discussions.  Students learn to accommodate even the worst forms of thinking since brainstorming does not condone condemnation of contributions.  It increases students participation as everybody is encouraged to speak out, and make contributions while respecting each view.
  • 38. Approaches to achieving dialogue  Teachers may use group work: groups need to be regulated and guided.  Use pair-work and allow the pairs to discuss fully and participate in the debates (Avoid passengers).  Use role plays: groups can dramatize stories, plays, poetry etc.  Use tableaux in which they visually enact a story etc, and allow the others to identify the activity and make observations and conclusions.  Use mimes: still a form dramatization that is symbolic, and does not use voice.
  • 39. Approaches to achieving dialogue cont..  Use observation methods: groups of students can observe phenomenon or an event and interpret the behaviors of the phenomenon or animals/people.  Use transect walks: groups of students can go out of the class and move around a village, city, schools to observe people doing or speaking in order to understand them, and make interpretations of what they observed.  Use Focus Group Discussions to understand peoples practices, behaviors and knowledge of phenomenon: FGDs should group people according to their segments (age, sex, location, status).
  • 40. Implications of CP/EP on educational practices ➢ Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist, and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers” (p. 80). ➢ The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach the teacher. ➢ They are jointly responsible for the process of education in which they all grow.
  • 41. Implication of EP on education practice ➢ In this process, arguments based on "authority" are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against it. ➢ Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone self- taught. ➢ People teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable objects which in banking education are "owned" by the teacher.
  • 42. Implication of CP/EP on the curriculum processes ➢ There will be radical change in the power relationships in the classrooms between the teachers and students. ➢ Education begins to be perceived as not being all about the transfer of knowledge and formulas. ➢ The should be understood as both social and/or individual construction of knowledge raised in the real life of students experiences (Social- Realist) (Young, 2010) ➢ Education should now aim to broaden the student’s view of reality and truth.
  • 43. Implication of EP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Education should be viewed as a transformative process but not in a technical instrumentalist sense. ➢ Education be viewed as political, and must not spare politicians but give them the right share of truth. ➢ The teacher becomes the guide who respects students’ independence, and acts in accordance with learners’ knowledge (role-model).
  • 44. Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Principles of EP emphasize strengthening teachers’ and students’ knowledge of social and political realities and does not condone any hypocricy. ➢ Dialogue can provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking, and future possibility for engagement and self actualisation. ➢ As a role model, the teacher respects learners’ knowledge and social, cultural and symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ This way he sets the basis for democratic and civic values now and beyond.
  • 45. Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont….  Given the democratic nature of EP it means schools adopt the Negotiated curriculum in which students, teachers and all stakeholders voices are paramount (see Bernstein, 2000).  The questions of Production, recontexualisation and Reproduction curriculum development stages require that all stakeholders participate at all those levels (Bernstein, 2000).  The question of Horizontal and Vertical Discourses (Bernstein, 2000) becomes tolerable in the curriculum development process.  Horizontal discourses refer to local knowledge (socio-cultural Capital for (Bourdieu, 1992) while Vertical discourses refer to academic knowledge (Bernstein, 2000).  Freire like Young (2010) here reconciled Bernstein and Bourdieu who held contradictory positions on what should go into the curriculum.
  • 46. Reflectional questions 1. What characterizes education in post colonial Africa? 2. What is the place of emancipatory education in the 21st century society? 3. In what way can Freire’s emancipatory pedagogy help improve educational practices in post colonial Africa? 4. Critique Freire’s philosophy of education in the context of democratic Africa. 5. Is Freire’s philosophy applicable in your subject area? Explain. 6. Examine the role of dialogue in emancipatory education as a central notion.
  • 47. Emancipatory Education The Ignorant Schoolmaster Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation (Jacques Ranciere) (Ranciere, 1987)
  • 48. Background • Ranciere retells a story of Joseph Jacotot, who was a lecturer in French literature at the University of Louvain in Netherlands 1818. • A good number of students who did not speak French; but knew Flemish were asked to learn the French text (Felon’s Novel) with the help of a translator. • They were required to repeat over and over, to read through the rest of the book and recite it. • They successfully wrote in French what they thought they had read. • The questions: How could these students understand and resolve the difficulties of a language entirely new to them without any explanation? (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010 pp. 25-26)
  • 49. Background 2 • Rancière, through Joseph Jacotot’s case study sought to rewrite/affirm a method for demonstrating to illiterate parents how they could teach their children reading. • He tried to affirm that even the illiterate can help learners read (the ignorant can create environments that can make others read hence the title ‘Ignorant Schoolmaster or teacher’ . • He uses Jacotot’s unusual method of teaching (Universal Teaching Model) (Enseignement universel), later renamed “the Panecastic System” as the basis for his arguments. • Panecastic was anchored in self-discovery, correction and trial and error approach (anti-explication model). (Citton, 2010, p. 26)
  • 50. Key constructs for the universal teaching model • Stultification and abruitissement • Explication • Intelligence equality • Equal intelligence • Inequality of intelligence
  • 51. Explicating the explication • Rancire describes this ‘chance experiment’ (or paradox) in his book ‘the ignorant schoolmaster’ (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010) • He decries “the Old Master” (the Old Lady/la Vieille) teaching methods of the Old Testament (Citton, 2010, p. 25) as being stultifying, unjust and dehumnaizing. • The Old Lady methods assume that the master’s role is to transmit knowledge to his dull students in order to bring them to his own level of expertise. • The essential act of the master is, falsely understood, as to transmit and explicate (explain; clarify; expound; elucidate) knowledge to ignorant learners. • Joseph Jacotot had reasoned and acted as an Old Testament Teacher for over 30 years.
  • 52. Explicating the explication 2 • By chance, a grain of sand had gotten into the machine. He had given no explanation to his “ students” on the first elements of the language (Ranceire, 1987, p.3). • Jacotot put his Flemish students together to learn the French language and create sentences by themselves without any explication (explanations). • He only provided the books and the translator. • He concluded that explications were unnecessary as students could learn own their own. • He likened this to how children learn their first language and other life lessons from birth.
  • 53. Explicators exposed 1 • Ranciere makes a series of arguments to explain the reasoning behind his book. • E.g., ‘‘the singular art of the explicator: the art of distance’’ (Ranceire, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010, p. 27). • This means masters need to recognize the fragility of the distance that exist between knowledge and the learners to bridge that gap. • Masters should also recognize the distance between learning and understanding and seek to bridge it. • The master holds privileged status of speech (Harbemesian Speech Terms); and must refrain from abusing this status to avoid increasing the distance and detach learning processes.
  • 54. Questions of hierarchy in explication • The Old Lady model assumes oral explication (talking) is necessary to explicate the written texts. • This breeds unequal returns for various intellectual endeavours. • Ranciere argues ‘what children learn best is what no master can explicate: the mother tongue. We speak to them and we speak around them. They hear and retain, imitate and repeat, make mistakes and correct themselves, succeed by chance and begin again methodically, and, at too young an age for explicators to begin instructing them, they are almost all-regardless of gender, social condition, and skin colour-able to understand and speak the language of their parents (Ranciere, 1987 as cited in Citton, 2010, pp. 4-5).
  • 55. Explication exposed 2 xplication cannot cure the incapacity to learn and understand. re-enforces the structural fiction of this world as advanced by Plato in the ‘Republic’ d Socrates; which argued: Those who know” (the so-called experts) have claimed the right to be invested with political thority due to their superior knowledge. The division of labour delineated by Socrates illustrated e essence of justice in the macroscopic case of ‘the City’ which demanded that each individual main in the place/function attributed to him by an optimal distribution of specialized skills: thus kers should be bakers; fighters should be soldiers, and advisors should advise kings (or become ngs themselves) (Republic 433a–444). his assumed that those knowledgeable/powerful were positioned to decide for the owerless masses, and the powerless be governed by the powerful. his ideology has made explicators think they perform a kind job for their students: that equalizing them through explication, to raise their listeners to a higher level of nderstanding like themselves.
  • 56. Explication exposed 3 • This misleading ideology has seen teachers confusing knowledge with authority. • Ironically, all explicators need the ignorant students the most not the other way around for them to function; hence the explicators constitute the ignorant. • In other words, through explication, we indirectly tell students that they cannot understand things by themselves, and this leads to ‘stultification and objectification (Citton, 2010 p. 28). • Explication is the myth of pedagogy; the parable of two antagonist worlds: that of the knowers and the brutes; the ripe and unripe; capable and incapable; the intelligent and the dumb. “The master, having thrown a veil of ignorance over everything that is to be learned, he appoints himself the task of lifting it. Until he came along, the child has been groping blindly, figuring out riddles. Now he will
  • 57. Explication overturned 4 • The master ignorantly thinks he is transmitting his knowledge by adapting it to the intellectual capacities of the students. • He thinks explication allows him to verify that students have satisfactorily understood what he learned and planned for his learners. • Together, these form the key principles of explication. • The master ignorantly learns on behalf of his students as he prepares his talk.
  • 58. Enforced stultification • Stultification means to dull/stupidify someone’s interest by being monopolistic hence making students seem dull (abrutissement). • Insensitive, dull-witted masters cram their students’ minds with poorly digested chunks of knowledge. • Wicked teachers utter half-truths to re-enforce their power, and the social order of the world while hiding their incompetence (they fear dialogue and engagement). • Because of their limited knowledge, they think they are more knowledgeable, and better positioned to act as a good Samaritans in donating nonsense to desperate students. • The more they claim to know, the greater the distance they create between the students and true knowledge.
  • 59. Implications of stultification • Children who are explained to will devote most of their intelligence to the work of grieving to understanding. • They will seek to understand why they do not understand until someone explicates it to them. • The so-called 'geniuses"attach the creature they have rendered inferior with the strongest chains in the land of stultification - the child's consciousness of his own superiority" (Ranciere, 1987 p.22). • “This pedagogic myth...divides the world into two hemispheres: that of the inferior intelligence and the superior intelligence” (Rancière, 1987, p. 16). • What the students learn from this, before anything else, is that “thehy cannot understand (the object of knowledge) if it is not explained to him” (Ranciere, 1987, p. 18). Such is the “stultifying effect” of pedagogy (p. 17).
  • 60. Undoing explication • Good masters know that students no longer submit to the Rod and Lords, but to unhierarchical world of intelligence. • They thus become vigilant and patient to ensure that children are not lost through clear instruction and translations but not explications. • They simply identify books and allow learners to take charge of the entire learning process just like Jacotot did with his Flemish students. • Children will then acquire new intelligence (master’s explications) using their own ‘‘Will Power’’ and procedures. • They can then become own explicators since they own the process.
  • 61. The emancipatory master 1 • Knows that students can learn without a master as a chatterbox. • Leaves his intelligence out of the picture, and allows students’ to grapple with the objects of learning (i.e books). • Knows that stultification subordinates pupils intelligence over his own. • ‘‘ A person…may need a master when his own ‘‘Will’’ is insufficient to set him on track, and keep him there. But that subjection is purely one of ‘’will over will.’’ It becomes stultification when it links an intelligence to another intelligence (Ranciere, 1987, p. 13). • In other words, the master knows that emancipation occurs when the act of intelligence obeys only itself even when the ‘will’ obeys another ‘will’.
  • 62. The emancipatory master 2 • One can teach what one doesn’t know if the student is allowed to use his own intelligence. • To emancipate an ignorant person, one must first of all emancipate oneself/ become conscious of the true power of the human mind. • The ignorant person will learn by himself what the master doesn’t know if the master believes he can, and obliges him to realize his full potential.
  • 63. The emancipatory master 3 • He knows that emancipation needs recognition of equality. • He understands that what stultifies learners is their own belief in their own inferiority of their intelligence but not lack of explication. • He knows that what stultifies the “inferiors” also stultifies the “superiors” at the same time. • He knows that truthful intelligence is one that speaks to others who are capable of verifying that truth through equality of their intelligence.
  • 64. The emancipatory master 4 • That superior mind therefore condemns itself to never being understood by the inferiors. "Whoever looks also finds. He doesn't necessarily find what he was looking for, and even less what he was supposed to find. But he finds something new to relate to the things that he already know. What is essential is the continuous vigilance, the attention that never subsides without irrationality setting in - something that the learned one, like the ignorant one, excels at." (Ranciere, 1987, p.33)
  • 65. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 1 • Equal intelligence of human beings...the method of “universal education” as advanced by Jacotot (Citton, 2010). • SA Educational Act assumes that there are equal minds (one-world), that of learners and teachers. • That explication is not required for the students to learn better: “This does not mean that they have learned without a master, they just learned without an explainer master”
  • 66. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 2 • Emancipation exists when intelligence obeys itself; thus, when people use their own intelligence (knowledge), without the need to use the intelligence of the ‘other’. • It exists when students make their own discoveries. • Emancipation is possible since the intelligence of a being is considered equal for everybody, but not polarising the “hierarchy of individual intellectual capacity” • Emancipation does not mean that all intelligences are equal, rather use of a person’s intelligence based on the intelligence equality. (see Citton, 2010, p. 31-32) • Teachers mustn’t explain everything to everybody but rather guide them through the learning processes.
  • 67. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 3 • Teachers should encourage students to think and reflect on phenomena, giving them conditions for finding value, temporality and meaning to life. • Each student has his/her own experience that makes them unique in their intelligence. • Each student can use their own autonomy, and intelligence to build their own social/individual relationship with the phenomena. • Students must "say what they see; what they think about it and what they make out of it." p.20
  • 68. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 4 • The first principle of Universal Teaching is that "one must learn something, and then relate everything else to it." • There is need for respect for individuality. ‘‘There is no link between teaching and having knowledge. The inequalities that education aims to solve can be stopped not through explication but by establishing a relationship of equality between the master and student… • Teaching, in its aim of generating intellectual equality, should consequently start from the principle : “all humans have equal intelligences” (1987, p. 34)
  • 69. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 5 • Teaching through explication is merely training in the modes of academia, rather than an intellectual adventure and/or criticality. • Explication is at the core of the reproduction of social inequalities and hegemonic tendencies. • Discovery is key to emancipation from social class society. • Explication cannot redeem incapacity to understand knowledge.
  • 70. Implications for educational practice (Lessons) 6 • Explication reproduces dependence and exploitation, which constitute the generative principle of the social world, and inequalities. • Humans may reclaim their dignity; take measure of their intellectual capacity, and decide how to use it." (Ranciere, 1987, p.17) ***Also read, Citton, Y. (2010). The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Knowledge and Authority. Jacques Rancière : Key Concepts, Acumen, pp.25-37, 2010. ffhal-00847083f. Accessed from https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00847083/document on 25/04/2021.
  • 71. The End Good luck as you carry the Anti-explicative message further. Thank you
  • 73. THE NATURE OF ETHICS: MORALITY AND PSYCHOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT Morality: The idea that some behavior is good or right and that other behavior is bad or wrong. Moral Philosophy A philosophical inquiry concerned with morality and its principles and values as well as it judgments and problems 2
  • 74. • Etiquette: a set of customs and rules for polite behavior • Law: a system of rules developed and enforced by society or government in order to deal with business agreements, personal agreements and relationships, and crime. 3
  • 75. NOTE • Although morality shares certain characteristics with either one of these systems of rules, morality transcends (or goes beyond) etiquette and often but not invariably precedes law. • Morality is close to etiquette and distinguishes it from law because it is not changeable or exhaustible by legislation and deliberate judicial procedures. • Morality is also not etiquette 4
  • 76. PHASES OF MORALITY AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN A PERSON • Stage 1: Group (pre-conventional) morality • Morality begins as a set of culturally determined goals and rules • The rules are usually external to the individual • Stage 2: internalization of conventions • Also linked to development of conscience yet not fully rational. • Make the external one’s own • Motivated by acceptance, closeness, dependence 5
  • 77. • Stage 3: Individual (rational or reflective) morality • With the gradually increasing capacity to put oneself into another person’s position one begins to develop the ability to care as well as examine one’s own grounds for doing things. • Stage 4: The stage of ethics /moral philosophy • Transcends society group by criticizing its norms, values 6
  • 78.
  • 79. CAN WE TEACH ETHICS? Mackenzie Chibambo mackchibambo@gmail.com 1
  • 80. Lesson objectives • By the end of this lesson, you should be able to answer the question: Can teachers teach ethics? How can/should they teach? • The challenges faced in the teaching of ethical and moral education. • Explain the differences between morality and ethics. • Trace the origins of ethics and morality. • Explore some ethical theories as the sources of the challenges faced by moral educators. 2
  • 81. Distinguishing Ethics from Morality • The two maybe used interchangeably, but are different. • Ethics refer to the justification of the rules. • Ethical codes defines acceptable behavior but have nothing to do with cosmic righteousness. • In institutions, ethics help build the image of the organization. Rule breakers are hence punished. • Schools have codes of conduct teachers/students follow. 3
  • 82. MORALS • Morals are individuals' own guiding principles regarding right or wrong/good or bad. • A moral person seeks to do the right and good thing. • A moral precept is an idea driven by the desire to be good. • A moral impulse usually means best intentions. • Our idea of morals is shaped by our environment, values and or beliefs. 4
  • 83. ORIGINSOF ETHICSANDMORALITY • Pure ethical(moral) theories begin with ancient Greek philosophers (Sophists, Socrates and others). • Later early English positivists joined the debates during the Medieval times in Europe and included it in their research. • Other scholars believe ethics are derived from God (E.g The Hebrew Ten Commandments (see DavidHume) • Sigmund Freud (Psychologist) and Emily Durkheim (sociologist) challenged this claim 5
  • 84. Implicationsof associatingethicswith God • The arguments by Freud and Durkheim that God was nothing but a projection almost discredits Hume’s claim. • How do schools teach ethics whose origin is considered to be fraught and false? • Likewise, thinking of ethics as coming from God puts schools (teachers/students) in awkward positions since not all schools ascribe to Christians beliefs. • This means the teaching of ethics may promote exclusion of the ‘other’. 6
  • 85. EETHICAL THEORIESAND THEIR CHALLNGES TO THE TEACHING OF ETHICS Subjectivism • An individual’s mental activity is the only unquestionable fact of experience not shared experiences • What is good/bad depends on the individual. • Implications on education: If the good/bad rests in a person, then schools would have to design ethics for each individual for them to be acceptable by everyone which is impossible. • If individuals/schools make different moral judgments on one action, then accepting that action as morally right would be impossible. • This could also lead to inconsistent judgments about the same act done by different students/staff. 7
  • 86. CULTURAL RELATIVISM 8 • An action is good/bad if it is judged so by society or culture. • There is no universal truth in ethics but various cultural codes, and nothing more. • This challenges our belief in the objectivity and universality of moral truth. • By claiming that each culture has its own mode of perceiving truth/good, it means there is nothing absolutely right/wrong. This means no need to teach ethics because it is ethics of nothing. • If each society has its own truth, then which societies’ ethics should schools teach since schools consist of heterogeneous societies. • Thus, the teaching of ethics becomes almost uninspiring and impossible.
  • 87. KANTI’SDEONTOLOGICALETHICALTHEORY • We can’t think of anything as good without limitation except a good will. • States that an action is good if the principle behind it has duty to Moral Law, and arises from a sense of duty in the Actor. • Kant identifie the Categorical Imperative (CI), (unconditional) and the hypothetical Imperative (conditional) for judging moral actions. 9
  • 88. KANT’S ETHICS CONT 10 • Principle of Universalizability( a C.I.) considers an action as right if it can be applied to everybody without contradictions. • The principle of Human Agency (C.I): suggest that people be treated as an end in themselves. • Principle of autonomy suggests that Rational Agents must be bound to the moral law by their own will. • Hypothetical Imperative is an action where the good depends on a condition.
  • 89. Kant’stheory Cont • There are two examples of duties: perfect and imperfect. • Kant used lying as an example of duties. Because there is a perfect duty to tell the truth, we must not lie, although lying would bring benefits. • A perfect duty (e.g. honesty) always holds true; an imperfect duty (e.g., lying) is transient and limited to place/time. 11
  • 90. Implicationsof Kant’stheory on moral education • Since moral education makes a citizen valuable for a state, it is inadequate to teach students ethics. • Thus Kant proposed teaching students how to think to enable them to act according to ethical laws. • Since this theory is too abstract and just prescribes good actions not the right thing to do in particular situations, then teaching of ethics would be difficult. • Alasdair MacIntyre argues that universality principle can be used to justify practically anything. • If lying is wholly wrong; would hiding to a student whose mother has died to avoid distressing her be wrong? 12
  • 91. Other Views on Ethicsand MoralEducation’s Challenges 1. Fredrick Nietsche • Nietzsche (1844) believed that the energy that drives humans to achieve greater things is not as (Christians or Kant) believed, e.g. “Love your neighbours’ but the will to dominate. • If individuals act in pursuit of personal interests then schools would not serve as equalisers/places for socialization and resource redistribution. No school would willing to teach ethics that promote individualism and greed. 13
  • 92. II. KOLHBEG AND MORAL EDUCATION • Kolhbeg (1984) borrowed Kant’s claims that moral education is a rational activity. • What is moral is defined by reason not actions. • A moral person must offer justifiable rational arguments for their actions. • Used Piaget (1965) theories of child development theory to redefine moral education. 14
  • 93. Kolhbeg Cont • Devised three stages of moral justification. • Pre-conventional: a person judges something as moral/immoral if adults judge it so. • Conventional: when pre-conventions are internalised, one begins to understand and justify actions as good or bad. • Post-conventional: arises from conventional stage. Here rules of natural justice come into play. • One may challenge the Law as unjust and reject it (Think of Zuma’s Case) 15
  • 94. So, can we teachethics and morality? • These debates have shown us that ethics can be taught though that does assure the creation of a moral or ethical person • Thus morality (be’s) cannot be taught. • The problem on ethics (do’s) lie on the disagreements over what is good/bad. • Aristotle proposes that we must teach virtue (not ethics) because ethics are highly contested and contextual. 16
  • 95. Implications of this school of thought • Since this appeals to rational justice, it fails to account for other things such as compassionate, care, consistency and moral resilience. • There is a possibility to forego justice based on other good factors and knowledge of the leaners. • Schools as social institutions may reflect some values of society yet they must cultivate morality in learners. • This often pose problems on the sort of ethics to be taught since society is broad and fluid. (Think of Corporal Punishment and its changes). • Pre-conventional stage may work at early grades not at upper levels. 17
  • 96. So can we teach ethicsand morality? Cont… • The notion that all ethics derive from God has been challenged giving rising to further complications on the teaching of ethics. • Instead of focusing on teaching ethics, we should focus on cultivating people’s disposition to act in particular ways as (Aristotle) proposed. • To cultivate virtue in our students, means we should act virtuously not teaching them ethics which are contested concepts. • Try to be act morally to serve as a role model to the students. • In conclusion, we cannot teach ethics but we can help them grow morally. 18
  • 98. SUBJECTIVISM AND MORAL RELATIVISM Are moral judgments and behaviour just personal views and attitudes? Are we simply expressing our emotions or sentiments? Should moral judgments be based on reason? In what sense can moral judgments be true or false Do moral truths exist? 1
  • 99. SUBJECTIVISM and ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM and its basic beliefs ➢ Attitudes of each individual person determine right or wrong, good or bad. ➢ Anyone who calls something right or wrong is expressing a personal attitude, nothing more. ➢ Arises from observation that values are very different from facts. ➢That facts can be proven true and moral judgments are neither true nor false
  • 100. Philosophical origin of ethical subjectivism David Hume’s argument: Are moral judgments based on reason or sentiment (emotions, feelings, passion)? ➢ Morality is based on affections of humanity, common to all ➢ the natural feelings, passions are not objectively verifiable. ➢Therefore morality is subjective
  • 101. Conclusions arising from Hume’s thinking ▪ The function of morality is to reinforce sentiments that meet the general approval of all so that selfish desires are controlled. Reason only serves the emotions – a slave to hu. passion Reason can only acquaint us with the facts of the matter There is a wide gap between is and ought
  • 102. Is ethical subjectivism all there is? If it is true: It is difficult to understand how anyone could ever be mistaken in one’s moral views (if it is simply a report of how one feels). It is consequently difficult to see any teacher or authority reprimanding ‘bad’ behavior It is not possible to agree on what is right or wrong in society. Where do you get the basis for teaching values in the curriculum?
  • 103. It changes the game on how we understand to be the place of reason(ing) in human life. How? Is reasoning confined to facts? (but moral truths are truths of reason!)
  • 104. Questions to help you summarize your understanding How does subjectivism define the “good”? How do we arrive at moral beliefs according to subjective ethics? If you see things from a subjective position, how will moral values look like? Is there objectivity in subjective ethics? Using the readings, you can raise many questions on your own
  • 105. REVIEW EXERCISE Evaluate the extent to which ethical subjectivism is traceable in the South African schooling system. Please provide clear examples Provide a mental picture of how schooling and society would like where the moral principles of ethical subjectivism prevail
  • 107. Some Introduction Relativism in the first place is the view that there are no objective truths, there are no objective and universal standards. It is an elevated form of subjectivism in a sense. Cultural relativism confines the subjectivism to a group within which one was born and brought up. It confines the realm of morals as mainly legitimate within the boundaries of my background and culture
  • 108. CULTURAL RELATIVISM The view that right and wrong, good and bad, etc, are determined by the standards of particular cultures or societies e. g. different residence practices or ethnic practices or racial practices. Morality is what society or culture deems normal behavior. It is an extension of ethical subjectivism (right or wrong by personal taste to group or cultural approval)
  • 109. THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT AS A SOURCE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ❖ What is right and true is so by virtue of the fact that it is believed to be right and true by a particular society or culture at a particular time. ❖ Therefore, there is no morality that is universal and that exists ahistorically, non-instrumentally and non-empirically. ❖ In other words, no morality can exists outside or beyond social or cultural traditions. ❖ Because societies are different, then different societies or cultures have different conceptions of “right” and “wrong”, “truth”. ❖ From the above, it follows that there is no objective truth in morality
  • 110. Short Exercise Using your understanding of the 2 readings given for this week evaluate the logic of this argument and indicate what you think.
  • 111. DEFENDING CULTURAL RELATIVISM USING THE “PROVABILITY” ARGUMENT Cultural relativists argue that if there were such a thing as objective truth in ethics, we would be able to prove that some moral beliefs are true and others false. But in fact we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true and which are false, e.g. different cultures have different moral beliefs which are justified within the culture yet they are not practiced elsewhere. Therefore there is no such thing as objective truth in ethics. In other words, we cannot have universal or objective morality that is proved beyond any doubt!
  • 112. Some problems with cultural relativism  While the cultural differences argument is neither sound nor valid, the ‘provability’ argument although valid is not sound because its premise 2 is false.  The idea that “we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true” is false.  What would happen if cultural relativism was taken seriously? Cultural relativism would bar us from saying that any oppression is wrong Cultural relativism would not only imply that that these standards and traditions are right and worth emulating, but also that we cannot criticize or condemn (educational) policies arising from a cultural understanding. Policies would then become excessively conservative. The ideas of moral progress and social reform in education would called into doubt.
  • 113. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MERITS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM (CR)  Although basic arguments underlying cultural relativism are logically faulty, it is important to note: 1. That there is less disagreement between cultures than it appears. Cultures may disagree on factual and religious beliefs, but there is less disagreement in terms of ethical beliefs concerning human life. 2. All cultures have some values in common. Other scholars have referred to these as cultural universals (Wiredu, K. 1996. Cultural universals and particulars: An African perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press) 3. Relativism is right in warning against basing all our preferences, judgments on some absolute standard. Most often what is considered absolute may be dependent on a salient dominant culture. e.g. embedded western values or Christian values or other religious values have been taken for granted and dictated what is considered as moral. Nevertheless what is wrong in CR is the idea that all beliefs depend on cultural proclamations.
  • 114. SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS In your view what are the intersections between cultural relativism and subjectivism? How does CR define good? What method does it follow for arriving at moral beliefs? Why does CR supposedly make us more tolerant of others’ beliefs? Why does CR make us conform to society’s values? What does CR mean when it argues that tolerance is good? How does cultural relativism promote Racism, tribalism and ethnicity?
  • 115. ETHICS AND MORALITY AS PRECURSORS TO EMANCIPATORY EDUCATION PRESENTER MACKENZIE CHIBAMBO
  • 116. RECAPPING ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES AND POSITIONS Key scholars John Mills, Jeromy Bethan, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls among others
  • 117. THE QUESTION OF ETHICS AND MORALITY AND EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Are ethics and morality one and the same? So what are ethics? And what does morality mean?  Simply put, they are not one and the same though often used interchangeably.  Morality may mean the valued judgements we make as individuals or in our collectiveness towards an action as being good or bad, right or wrong, ugly or beautiful, or just or unjust, or fair or unfair.  Ethics may simply mean descriptive roles of the 'do's' and 'donts' in a more simplistic sense.
  • 118. Ethics and Morality  This means, every organization has its own ethics meant to curtail social order and cohesion.  E.g: teachers have ethics set aside for them: one of which is don't propose a female or male student.  Why and how? That is a question for the next discourse.
  • 119. Ethics and Morality continued  Simply put, ethics are externally prescribed; while morality is internalized or emerges from within us whether in public or in private.  Ethics may come from outside sources/forces or from some other motivation.  Morality mostly emerges from internalisation, and within our consciousness and ‘will’  Essentially, questions of ethics and morality are tied to the notions of social justice; notions that are very broad and complex.  This way, emancipatory education finds its place in morality through its humanisation and democratic claims as you will see later.
  • 120. ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES Four theories inform the questions of ethics and morality: Utilitarianism or Consequentialism Subjectivism Relativism and Deontology also known as Duty for the Sake of Duty. We can judge an action as being ethical or unethical based on these four theories.
  • 121. SUBJECTIVISM  Subjectivism is a selfish-based theory.  An action is right as long as it is right to me.  Nothing is good or bad to nobody minus the individual.  If I drink alcohol or love women who drink alcohol, there is nothing wrong with that as long as it pleases me.  I am because I am; or I m what I am because I am  Me first kind of thinking.
  • 122. Cultural relativism  This is founded on cultural based establishments and concessions.  Nothing is wrong or right as long as it is acceptable by that culture, society or group of people  So if polygamy is acceptable in that culture, no one has the right to frown on you; or blame you for marrying 200 women.  We are because we are.  We are not what they are because we are.
  • 123. Utilitarianism/Consequentialism  Utilitarianism is based on utility or use.  It is based on the degree of pleasure and pain, or consequences.  An action maybe good or moral if it pleases the majority.  An action maybe good if the outcomes are good for the majority.  Never mind about the past or the process that led to the outcomes as long as that action brings pleasure/happiness, then it is moral or good.  So if I kill you to marry your wife, and many people are happy in my village that I married a beautiful wife after killing, that should be okay and moral.  Also known as Majoritanism theory.
  • 124. Duty for the sake of duty  DFD (Deontology) is based on Immanuel Kant’s assumptions.  It is based on the principles of Hypothetical Imperatives and Categorical Imperatives also known as (Universalism).  Kant believed that all humans have ‘interests’ and the 'WILL'.  Humans have some reasons for doing certain things in their life.  Hypothetical reasons lead to immorality because mostly humans do things for certain reasons so much so that if those reasons are suspended, the whole act collapses.
  • 125. Duty for the sake of duty continued…  For example, if COSATU leaders lead demonstrations in order to form a new government, so that they get ministerial positions then they are wrong since they have been driven by greed.  The Categorical Imperative assumes that an action is good or right because it is good in itself, and no conditions must be attached.  Kant says, ‘‘you must act as though you would wish it were to be made into a universally acceptable Law.’’
  • 126. Duty for the sake of duty cont…  Kant called this principle, ‘‘Universalism.’’  This means an action must be universally good wherever and/whenever it is done.  An action is good if it does not use others, or if it does not treat others as the means to the end (Autonomy/humanisation).  Kant then believes that universalism is built on Autonomy, Agency , Will and Rationalization.
  • 127. The link between agency, autonomy, will and rationalization  Everything that we do has to be first rationalised or reasoned about.  Rational ‘Will’ is important for morality.  We act as ‘‘agents’’ when we act out of our Will and rationality.  These assumptions relate closely to Emancipatory Pedagogy.
  • 128. Duty for the sake of duty conti…  An action is good if we do it without any coercion or blackmail from anybody else (Agency).  Humans are different from animals because of the ‘Will power’ and their ability to think and rationalize.  Kant then brings the notion of 'Duty for the Sake of Duty'.  There is Perfect duty and Imperfect duty.
  • 129. Duty for the sake of duty cont…  What we do maybe moral if we do it without using others or expecting gains, and that we treat each other as free willed agents.  For example, if I marry you because of your job, school and/or money; it is immoral and evil.  If I propose you because of your hips and or anything, it is immoral.  If I give you financial support because I want to be populist, it is immoral and an ‘‘Imperfect Duty.’’  A perfect duty is perfect because it is universally perfect and good.
  • 130. A critique of DFD  Kant was inconsiderate of animals and plants.  By subsuming that only rational thinkers have the right to questions of morality; then the insane/drug-adicts have no place in it.  Since, emancipatory pedagogy calls for humanization; it challenges us to treat the whole environment as full humans deserving humanly treatment.  Because animals, ‘think in their own way’ just like mad people do, then they have no rights or cannot be defended in moral circles.
  • 131. DFD as precursor to emancipation  Like in D4D theory, emancipation rests on agency, will power and humanization as its key tenets.  Questions of liberation from oppression demands role modelling, reflection and action/praxis.  We may help set individuals free from repulsive authority if we treat them as free willed agents.  The oppressed can liberate themselves from within (agency/will) given enabling conditions.
  • 132. The notion of emancipation cont… Emancipation is desirable because it is linked to morality especially DFD Emancipation is linked to education as an intrinsic concept that is an end it self (Universalist/categorical value. Emancipation advocates for a moral way of doing education.
  • 133. What is emancipation?  The process of being freed from legal, social, or political restrictions also known as liberation.  To free from restraint, control, or the power of another or the other.  To be freed from bondage or some repulsive forces.  To be freed from parental care, responsibility and any authority.  To free from any controlling influence (such as traditional mores or beliefs) also known as ‘Sui Juris’ (Latin)
  • 134. THE OPRESSOR/OPPRESSEE DICHOTOMY ➢ Involves those whose humanity have been stolen (oppressed), and those who have stolen it (oppressors). ➢ Oppressors prevent people from being more fully human. ➢ Oppression engenders violence in the oppressors, while dehumanizing the oppressed. (Violence: physical, behavioural, verbal, symbolic, epistemic etc). ➢ Humanity only makes sense among oppressors; otherwise the oppressed are seen and treated as “things/objects” (objectification).  Question :In your view what characterises the oppressed?
  • 135. The question fear and freedom  The oppressed fear freedom because they have been made to think that way by the oppressors.  They admirer the oppressors when in fact they cannot attain the status of the oppressors in their current condition.  The oppressors keep the oppressed continuously poor, and dependent on the rationed resources and through highly sensored media. ➢ The oppressors however are afraid of losing their "freedom" to oppress the oppressed and control.
  • 136. The question of fear and freedom ➢ Oppressors know that freedom brings autonomy and responsibility. ➢ That freedom is acquired through knowledge and conquest, not handouts or naivety… ➢ This freedom must be pursued constantly and responsibly. ➢ Without freedoms all humans cannot exist authentically. ➢ Yet, the oppressed fear freedom even when they desire to exist authentically (Freire, 2005).
  • 137. The foundations of emancipation theories ➢Hegel – history, dialectic method. ➢Marx – class consciousness, change, alienation. ➢Existentialism – human beings are free to choose or are responsible for their own actions. ➢Dewey – democratic choices in education ➢Critical Theorists: Power-relations and ideology (Horkheimer, Adorno, Habermas, etc)
  • 138. EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Pedagogy of the Oppressed (book) by Paul Freire  1921 born  Died 1997  To be done NEXT WEEK
  • 140. The notions of Emancipatory Pedagogy ➢ Emancipatory pedagogy combines two words (Emancipation plus Pedagogy). ➢ Emancipation means to liberate or to set someone or individuals free. ➢ Pedagogy refers to methods of teaching, especially as an academic subject or theoretical concept (Pɛdəɡɒdʒi). ➢ It is a form of education that facilitates liberation from oppression. ➢ It aims to empower and liberate individuals from the pangs of oppression including from crooked politicians and their syndicates. ➢ This maybe within the schools or outside the schools environments.
  • 141. The Genesis of Emancipatory Pedagogy (EP) ➢ Its values are contained in the book by a Brazilian scholar named Paul Freire (1921- 1997). ➢ Wrote a book called Pedagogy of the Oppressed in 1964 but got published in 1968; 1971; 1993; 1998; 2003 and 2005, 2007 and beyond. ➢ Freire advanced the ideas of an education system that can help liberate the poor and the oppressed from the oppressors. ➢ Freire was born from a poor background and was taught how to read and write by his mother only at a tender age. ➢ EP initially sought to liberate peasant farmers in Brazil before it got popularized in America and across the whole world.
  • 142. Key Scholars of EP ➢Paul Freire ➢Ira Shor ➢Peter McLaren ➢Henry Giroux ➢Jacques Ranciere, and others
  • 143. Other names associated with EP ➢Critical pedagogy ➢Postmodern education ➢Democratic and just education ➢Pedagogy of questioning ➢Liberatory pedagogy
  • 144. Critical Pedagogy (CP) ➢ Mostly, CP and EP borrow a lot from Critical Theory. ➢ Critical theorists were mainly concerned with power-relations which usually subjugated the poor (The Frankfurt School of Critical Theory in Germany). ➢ Early scholars such as Karl Marx, Habermas, Horkheimer, and Adorno were mainly concerned with dismantling social structures that perpetuated oppression. ➢ Marx struggled with the Capitalist Society, and mobilized peasants to rebel against capitalism for its exploitation of the peasant farmers. ➢ Capitalists mainly used the poor as mere means to an end to make profits at the expense of human welfare (Loss of urgency).
  • 145. Critical Pedagogy (CP) cont… ➢ On this basis, CP is believed to be one of the offshoots of Critical theory because they were all concerned with dismantling of powerful structures that reduced the ‘other’ to lesser humans and/or into sub-humans. ➢ They were all concerned with the question of power-relations and abuse, and their aim was to empower the weaker groups.
  • 146. Critical pedagogy ➢ While Marx resorted to violence including boycotts of capitalist products and services as a means of liberating the poor; ➢ Freire resorted to an emancipatory education that was based on civility and humanisation to empower the learners as future citizens. ➢ Note that CP cannot be reduced to teaching strategies but rather the whole education system and curriculum. ➢ Thus, we have Emancipatory Curriculum also known as the Negotiated Curriculum in which diverse voices including teachers and students voices are accommodated.
  • 147. Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Seeks to remove barriers for the leaners to promote equality and justice. ➢ No one should be excluded from schooling through fees, language, religion, race etc. ➢ PE allows students to learn using social/cultural/symbolic capital including home language (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ Culture, economics, race, and religious backgrounds must not limit students participation in education. ➢ PE sits in opposition to modernist education which is anchored in competition, isolation, profitisation and commodification of knowledge. ➢ Commodification is the rebranding, purposing, marketing and selling of knowledge as if it is not a public good.
  • 148. Postmodernist education (PE) ➢ Excluding others in education is as good as disempowering the poor while empowering the advantaged groups. ➢ Exclusion also sits in opposition to inclusion/participation which is a democratic and justice notion. ➢ Freire’s EP has also been called postmodernist and or democratic education in this case. ➢ Scholars attribute the genesis of postmodernism to Freire as the key scholar.
  • 149. Types of Emancipation ➢ Emancipation from within: One can be liberated if he is empowered to initiate his own liberation. ➢ Humans can free themselves given an enabling environment.  Emancipation from outside: Others consider themselves the Messiahs to liberate other people, yet they are not so.  They speak on our behalf and claim to know and fight on our behalf.  Soldiers, NGOs, elders, teachers may assume such roles, and believe they are acting on our behalf and in our best interest.  Freire is not comfortable with emancipation from outside.
  • 150. Types of emancipation cont… ➢ Bourdieu (1992) and Fricker (2007) argue against emancipation from without because it leads to Symbolic Violence and Epistemic Injustices. ➢ Forcing ‘‘Our Will’’ upon others through resources and/or speaking on their behalf leads to ‘‘Symbolic Violence’ and or ‘Epistemic Injustices.’ ➢ Teachers who do endless talking (banking model) create symbolic violence, and/or epistemic injustices, and do subjugate/objectify their students. ➢ They assume the superior role of being more knowledgeable than their students; yet they are not. ➢ This has negative effects on the learners in mid-term and long-term bases as future citizens.
  • 151. Key concerns of EP/CP ➢ Mainly concerned with the schooling conditions/methods which usually excluded students participation. ➢ Dictatorial teachers cannot help liberate learners but rather make them feel useless, brainless and shamelessly dependent upon authority. ➢ Old school teachers promote student objectification: a form of epistemic injustice. ➢ Such students cannot become creative and critical thinkers, and mostly become passive and over reliant on abusive authority. ➢ As they were spoon-fed, and so will they release the undigested stuff out.
  • 152. Key Constructs/aims of EP/CP There are three main tenets of EP: ➢ Humanisation ➢ Problem-posing ➢ Critical Conscientization
  • 153. Humanization aim explained ➢ Humanization means treating one others as human-beings, and an end in themselves with all due dignity. ➢ First, education should help students and teachers develop a critically conscious understanding of their relationship with the world. ➢ Second, education should enable students/teachers become subjects consciously aware of their context and their conditions as a human beings (Au, 2007). ➢ We can only change the world to be a humanized through true dialogue which occurs under different conditions.
  • 154. Six conditions for dialogue, and a humanized world ➢ Love ➢ Humility ➢ Faith ➢ Trust ➢ Hope ➢ Critical thinking
  • 155. Love as a precondition to dialogue ➢Dialogue cannot exist in the absence of intense love for the world and people. ➢The naming of the world, which is an act of creation and re-creation, may not be possible if it is not suffused within love.
  • 156. Humility ➢ We cannot engage with one another without humility. ➢ The naming of the world, through which human beings continually re- create that world, cannot be an act of arrogance/defiance. ➢ Dialogue concerns engagement of diverse human beings with the common purpose of learning, acting and changing. ➢ Dialogue can only break if either party is defiant and pompous. ➢ Teachers who pretend to ‘know it all’ belong to pompous groups, and they break the dialogical code of conduct. (Subjectivism cannot work in this sense)
  • 157. Faith ➢ Dialogue requires that we have adequate faith in humanity. ➢ Faith has the power to make and remake; create and re-create the world and its objects. ➢ Faith advocates that we view others as fully human, and autonomous beings. ➢ Faith is not the privilege of the elite; but it is rather the right for every human beings. ➢ Teachers should equally believe in their students; that they have knowledge worth sharing.
  • 158. Trust ➢ Foregrounded in love, humility, and faith. ➢ Dialogue becomes a lateral relationship between dialoguers, and trust develops as results of the three conditions. ➢ Dialoguers who hold strong to love, humility and faith will create a mutually trust climate for conversations. ➢ These dialoguers then get into mutual relationship in the naming of their world.
  • 159. Hope ➢ Dialogue is impossible where there is hopelessness. ➢ It is rooted in our incompleteness as human beings. ➢ This helps us constantly search for new knowledge alongside others. ➢ Teachers should not lose hope of their students’ competencies but rather encourage them to constantly search for new knowledge and/or solutions to complex situations.
  • 160. Creative and critical thinking ➢ Dialogue cannot exist where there is no critical thinking. ➢ This differentiates an indivisible solidarity between the world and humans, and admits of no dichotomy between them. ➢ It perceives reality as a process, as transformation, but not as a static entity. ➢ It does not separate itself from action, but rather constantly immerses itself in temporality without fear of the risks involved (Freire, 1970a). ➢ In EP, only critical thinkers can take risks, and staunchly stand for equal rights and justice.
  • 161. 2. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION AIM ➢ This is the second main tenet of CP/EP after humanisation. ➢ Authentic learning creates “C/conscientisation” in the learners. ➢ Freire (1970a; 2005) defines conscientization as “to learn to perceive social, political, and economic contradictions, and to take action against the oppressive elements of reality” (see Freire, 1970a: 17; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ Conscientization” occurs in a context students and their teachers “know that they know” what they know.
  • 162. CRITICAL CONSCIENTIZATION CONT… ➢ Conscientization subsumes knowing that includes understanding, and the ability to act on the learning in such a way as to affect a change (Abrahams, 2005; Nouri & Sajjadi, 2014: 80). ➢ We should make meaning through mutual dialogues that lie at the centre of educational processes and experiences (Freire, 2005). ➢ Critical conscientization emerges through dialogue between education communities, and it can only be achieved through a problem-posing education system (Freire, 1970a). ➢ Authorities usually attempt to promulgate “silence culture” by controlling institutions (E.g. schools etc) so that they can easily govern docile people.
  • 163. CRITICAL CONSCIENTISATION CONT… ➢ Silenced people are viewed as “dumb” lambs who have been deprived from creatively participating in changing their world. ➢ They are thus deprived from being the real ‘‘beings”. ➢ The silenced are still ignorant of the authority that imposed the silence on them. ➢ Even when they learn to read and/or write in literacy courses, they are still dull, and sit in the bondage of the oppressors. ➢ Dismantling this bondage needs genuine dialogue and critical conscientisation which help students/society question the root causes of their oppression (Freire, 1970b).
  • 164. 3. The Problem-posing model of education ➢ This views education as a practice of freedom. ➢ The goal is to transform structural oppression through dialogue. ➢ Both educators and students teach and learn from each other. ➢ Teachers and students are simultaneously both teachers and learners. ➢ They learn from each other and help each other learn and solve complex situations (Freire, 2005: 59). ➢ The students, while being taught, also teach the teacher. ➢ "They become jointly responsible for the process of teaching in which all grow.“ ➢ "No one teaches another, nor is anyone self taught." We teach each other, mediated by the world. (P, 67)
  • 165. The Problem-posing model of education cont ➢ Assumes the world is an unfolding historical process; everything and everyone is interrelated. ➢ Begins with students’ history, present and unwritten future. ➢ Seeks to transform society and rehumanize the oppressed and their oppressors. ➢ It affirms us as human-beings in the process of becoming. ➢ We are unfinished, and so is our reality, and we affect the world around us through our conscious transformations of it, and of our consciousness of it. (P, 72). ➢ It presents the ‘Banking Method’ of education as a problem, and our situation as a historical reality that can be transformed.
  • 166. The Banking Model of Education ➢ Freire opposed the ‘‘banking model’’ where the teacher behaves like the king subject-master; while the students become lesser objects. ➢ Teachers narrate the content as if it is lifeless and articulable. ➢ Reality is seen as motionless, static and predictable (Freire, 2005:71) ➢ Topics are completely foreign to the experience of the learners. ➢ The aims to fill students with the content of narration and his/her garbage. ➢ Students record, memorise and repeat phrases, formulae etc, without understanding.
  • 167. The Banking model cont… ➢Education becomes an act of depositing knowledge into rubbish pits (empty heads). ➢Students are assumed as ignorant and empty vessels or spongy mesophylls. ➢Students are unable to transform the world and themselves. ➢Students develop a fragmented view of reality and truth based on some falsified experts and specialists.
  • 168. Characteristics of the banking model ➢ The teacher teaches while the students are taught. ➢ The teacher knows everything; the students know nothing. ➢ The teacher thinks, while the students are thought about or you think on their behalf. ➢ The teacher talks and the students listen—meekly. ➢ The teacher disciplines and the students are disciplined.
  • 169. Characteristics of the banking model cont.. ➢ The teacher chooses and enforces his choice, while the students comply. ➢ The teacher acts while the students have the illusion of acting through the action of the teacher. ➢ The teacher chooses the program content while the students (who were not consulted) adapt to it. ➢ The teacher commands while the students are commanded. ➢ The teacher confuses the authority of knowledge with his or her own professional authority, which she/he sets in opposition to the freedom of the students (Freire, 2005). ➢ The teacher is the subject of the learning process, while the pupils are mere objects.
  • 170. Implications of the Banking model on curriculum practices and identity  Curriculum development processes are monopolised by authorities: lacks teacher-student voices hence reforms may fail (Chisholm, 2005).  The curriculum is a mere product of the elite or the powerful individuals.  It thus represents knowledge of the powerful not powerful knowledge (Young, 2008; 2010)  Schools become may centres of reproduction and consumption but not really centres for the creation of knowledge (Bernstein, 2003).
  • 171. Implication of the banking model cont  At implementation/reproduction stage students are reduced to mere objects and consumers of ready-made knowledge.  They are thus treated as mere thoughtless objects and indecisive.  This endocrines them into forming an identity that endorses subjugation and dependence over abusive authorities.  It makes students become passive and irresponsible for their own learning and future life.
  • 172. Implications of the banking approach cont…  It makes them naturalize and normalize domination and oppression.  It endorses inequalities and injustices of all forms as being part of life and natural.  Students may develop apathy over socio-economic and political life as they view themselves as worthless spectators in the civic and democratic spaces.  They may become less tolerant to alternative views as they view truth as being constant (Uncritical).  Some may view violence as the only way to solving different problems (Maphosa & Shumba, 2010; Daviz, 2016; Moodley, 2016; Amatea & Sherrard, 1994).
  • 173. Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices  Dialogue encourages conversation and debates  Knowledge and truth are thus viewed as inconstant and open to critic  Students begin to value and respect others contributions and knowledge  It raises the spirit of teamwork and collaboration which are but key skills and attributes at the workplace in the 21st century.  It improves their communication skills
  • 174. Implications of dialogue on curriculum practices cont…  It facilitates creativity and critical thinking as students crack their heads, and brainstorm over possible options to problems.  It facilitates respect, tolerance and coexistence among individuals which is key to democratic society and globalization.  It provides room for clearing misconceptions of facts and assumptions.  It cements relationships as students work to become partners in knowledge creation much more than just competitors.
  • 175. Implications of dialogue…..  It makes the learning process much more fun, tireless, communal and interactive.  Learning becomes a discovery process than an indoctrination one.  The learning becomes an internalized process since they own the solutions to the problems discovered during the discussions.  Students learn to accommodate even the worst forms of thinking since brainstorming does not condone condemnation of contributions.  It increases students participation as everybody is encouraged to speak out, and make contributions while respecting each view.
  • 176. Approaches to achieving dialogue  Teachers may use group work: groups need to be regulated and guided.  Use pair-work and allow the pairs to discuss fully and participate in the debates (Avoid passengers).  Use role plays: groups can dramatize stories, plays, poetry etc.  Use tableaux in which they visually enact a story etc, and allow the others to identify the activity and make observations and conclusions.  Use mimes: still a form dramatization that is symbolic, and does not use voice.
  • 177. Approaches to achieving dialogue cont..  Use observation methods: groups of students can observe phenomenon or an event and interpret the behaviors of the phenomenon or animals/people.  Use transect walks: groups of students can go out of the class and move around a village, city, schools to observe people doing or speaking in order to understand them, and make interpretations of what they observed.  Use Focus Group Discussions to understand peoples practices, behaviors and knowledge of phenomenon: FGDs should group people according to their segments (age, sex, location, status).
  • 178. Implications of CP/EP on educational practices ➢ Through dialogue, the teacher-of-the-students and the students-of-the-teacher cease to exist, and a new term emerges: teacher-student with students-teachers” (p. 80). ➢ The teacher is no longer merely the-one-who-teaches, but one who is himself taught in dialogue with the students, who in turn while being taught also teach the teacher. ➢ They are jointly responsible for the process of education in which they all grow.
  • 179. Implication of EP on education practice ➢ In this process, arguments based on "authority" are no longer valid; in order to function, authority must be on the side of freedom, not against it. ➢ Here, no one teaches another, nor is anyone self- taught. ➢ People teach each other, mediated by the world, by the cognizable objects which in banking education are "owned" by the teacher.
  • 180. Implication of CP/EP on the curriculum processes ➢ There will be radical change in the power relationships in the classrooms between the teachers and students. ➢ Education begins to be perceived as not being all about the transfer of knowledge and formulas. ➢ The should be understood as both social and/or individual construction of knowledge raised in the real life of students experiences (Social- Realist) (Young, 2010) ➢ Education should now aim to broaden the student’s view of reality and truth.
  • 181. Implication of EP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Education should be viewed as a transformative process but not in a technical instrumentalist sense. ➢ Education be viewed as political, and must not spare politicians but give them the right share of truth. ➢ The teacher becomes the guide who respects students’ independence, and acts in accordance with learners’ knowledge (role-model).
  • 182. Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont.. ➢ Principles of EP emphasize strengthening teachers’ and students’ knowledge of social and political realities and does not condone any hypocricy. ➢ Dialogue can provide opportunities for students to practice critical thinking, and future possibility for engagement and self actualisation. ➢ As a role model, the teacher respects learners’ knowledge and social, cultural and symbolic capital (Bourdieu, 1992). ➢ This way he sets the basis for democratic and civic values now and beyond.
  • 183. Implication of EP/CP on the curriculum cont….  Given the democratic nature of EP it means schools adopt the Negotiated curriculum in which students, teachers and all stakeholders voices are paramount (see Bernstein, 2000).  The questions of Production, recontexualisation and Reproduction curriculum development stages require that all stakeholders participate at all those levels (Bernstein, 2000).  The question of Horizontal and Vertical Discourses (Bernstein, 2000) becomes tolerable in the curriculum development process.  Horizontal discourses refer to local knowledge (socio-cultural Capital for (Bourdieu, 1992) while Vertical discourses refer to academic knowledge (Bernstein, 2000).  Freire like Young (2010) here reconciled Bernstein and Bourdieu who held contradictory positions on what should go into the curriculum.
  • 184. Reflectional questions 1. What characterizes education in post colonial Africa? 2. What is the place of emancipatory education in the 21st century society? 3. In what way can Freire’s emancipatory pedagogy help improve educational practices in post colonial Africa? 4. Critique Freire’s philosophy of education in the context of democratic Africa. 5. Is Freire’s philosophy applicable in your subject area? Explain. 6. Examine the role of dialogue in emancipatory education as a central notion.
  • 185. SUBJECTIVISM AND MORAL RELATIVISM Are moral judgments and behaviour just personal views and attitudes? Are we simply expressing our emotions or sentiments? Should moral judgments be based on reason? In what sense can moral judgments be true or false Do moral truths exist? 1
  • 186. SUBJECTIVISM and ETHICAL SUBJECTIVISM and its basic beliefs ➢ Attitudes of each individual person determine right or wrong, good or bad. ➢ Anyone who calls something right or wrong is expressing a personal attitude, nothing more. ➢ Arises from observation that values are very different from facts. ➢That facts can be proven true and moral judgments are neither true nor false
  • 187. Philosophical origin of ethical subjectivism David Hume’s argument: Are moral judgments based on reason or sentiment (emotions, feelings, passion)? ➢ Morality is based on affections of humanity, common to all ➢ the natural feelings, passions are not objectively verifiable. ➢Therefore morality is subjective
  • 188. Conclusions arising from Hume’s thinking ▪ The function of morality is to reinforce sentiments that meet the general approval of all so that selfish desires are controlled. Reason only serves the emotions – a slave to hu. passion Reason can only acquaint us with the facts of the matter There is a wide gap between is and ought
  • 189. Is ethical subjectivism all there is? If it is true: It is difficult to understand how anyone could ever be mistaken in one’s moral views (if it is simply a report of how one feels). It is consequently difficult to see any teacher or authority reprimanding ‘bad’ behavior It is not possible to agree on what is right or wrong in society. Where do you get the basis for teaching values in the curriculum?
  • 190. It changes the game on how we understand to be the place of reason(ing) in human life. How? Is reasoning confined to facts? (but moral truths are truths of reason!)
  • 191. Questions to help you summarize your understanding How does subjectivism define the “good”? How do we arrive at moral beliefs according to subjective ethics? If you see things from a subjective position, how will moral values look like? Is there objectivity in subjective ethics? Using the readings, you can raise many questions on your own
  • 192. REVIEW EXERCISE Evaluate the extent to which ethical subjectivism is traceable in the South African schooling system. Please provide clear examples Provide a mental picture of how schooling and society would like where the moral principles of ethical subjectivism prevail
  • 194. Some Introduction Relativism in the first place is the view that there are no objective truths, there are no objective and universal standards. It is an elevated form of subjectivism in a sense. Cultural relativism confines the subjectivism to a group within which one was born and brought up. It confines the realm of morals as mainly legitimate within the boundaries of my background and culture
  • 195. CULTURAL RELATIVISM The view that right and wrong, good and bad, etc, are determined by the standards of particular cultures or societies e. g. different residence practices or ethnic practices or racial practices. Morality is what society or culture deems normal behavior. It is an extension of ethical subjectivism (right or wrong by personal taste to group or cultural approval)
  • 196. THE CULTURAL DIFFERENCES ARGUMENT AS A SOURCE OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM ❖ What is right and true is so by virtue of the fact that it is believed to be right and true by a particular society or culture at a particular time. ❖ Therefore, there is no morality that is universal and that exists ahistorically, non-instrumentally and non-empirically. ❖ In other words, no morality can exists outside or beyond social or cultural traditions. ❖ Because societies are different, then different societies or cultures have different conceptions of “right” and “wrong”, “truth”. ❖ From the above, it follows that there is no objective truth in morality
  • 197. Short Exercise Using your understanding of the 2 readings given for this week evaluate the logic of this argument and indicate what you think.
  • 198. DEFENDING CULTURAL RELATIVISM USING THE “PROVABILITY” ARGUMENT Cultural relativists argue that if there were such a thing as objective truth in ethics, we would be able to prove that some moral beliefs are true and others false. But in fact we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true and which are false, e.g. different cultures have different moral beliefs which are justified within the culture yet they are not practiced elsewhere. Therefore there is no such thing as objective truth in ethics. In other words, we cannot have universal or objective morality that is proved beyond any doubt!
  • 199. Some problems with cultural relativism  While the cultural differences argument is neither sound nor valid, the ‘provability’ argument although valid is not sound because its premise 2 is false.  The idea that “we cannot prove which moral beliefs are true” is false.  What would happen if cultural relativism was taken seriously? Cultural relativism would bar us from saying that any oppression is wrong Cultural relativism would not only imply that that these standards and traditions are right and worth emulating, but also that we cannot criticize or condemn (educational) policies arising from a cultural understanding. Policies would then become excessively conservative. The ideas of moral progress and social reform in education would called into doubt.
  • 200. WHAT ARE SOME OF THE MERITS OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM (CR)  Although basic arguments underlying cultural relativism are logically faulty, it is important to note: 1. That there is less disagreement between cultures than it appears. Cultures may disagree on factual and religious beliefs, but there is less disagreement in terms of ethical beliefs concerning human life. 2. All cultures have some values in common. Other scholars have referred to these as cultural universals (Wiredu, K. 1996. Cultural universals and particulars: An African perspective. Bloomington: Indiana University Press) 3. Relativism is right in warning against basing all our preferences, judgments on some absolute standard. Most often what is considered absolute may be dependent on a salient dominant culture. e.g. embedded western values or Christian values or other religious values have been taken for granted and dictated what is considered as moral. Nevertheless what is wrong in CR is the idea that all beliefs depend on cultural proclamations.
  • 201. SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS In your view what are the intersections between cultural relativism and subjectivism? How does CR define good? What method does it follow for arriving at moral beliefs? Why does CR supposedly make us more tolerant of others’ beliefs? Why does CR make us conform to society’s values? What does CR mean when it argues that tolerance is good? How does cultural relativism promote Racism, tribalism and ethnicity?
  • 202. ETHICS AND MORALITY AS PRECURSORS TO EMANCIPATORY EDUCATION PRESENTER MACKENZIE CHIBAMBO
  • 203. RECAPPING ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES AND POSITIONS Key scholars John Mills, Jeromy Bethan, Immanuel Kant and John Rawls among others
  • 204. THE QUESTION OF ETHICS AND MORALITY AND EMANCIPATORY PEDAGOGY  Are ethics and morality one and the same? So what are ethics? And what does morality mean?  Simply put, they are not one and the same though often used interchangeably.  Morality may mean the valued judgements we make as individuals or in our collectiveness towards an action as being good or bad, right or wrong, ugly or beautiful, or just or unjust, or fair or unfair.  Ethics may simply mean descriptive roles of the 'do's' and 'donts' in a more simplistic sense.
  • 205. Ethics and Morality  This means, every organization has its own ethics meant to curtail social order and cohesion.  E.g: teachers have ethics set aside for them: one of which is don't propose a female or male student.  Why and how? That is a question for the next discourse.
  • 206. Ethics and Morality continued  Simply put, ethics are externally prescribed; while morality is internalized or emerges from within us whether in public or in private.  Ethics may come from outside sources/forces or from some other motivation.  Morality mostly emerges from internalisation, and within our consciousness and ‘will’  Essentially, questions of ethics and morality are tied to the notions of social justice; notions that are very broad and complex.  This way, emancipatory education finds its place in morality through its humanisation and democratic claims as you will see later.
  • 207. ETHICAL AND MORAL THEORIES Four theories inform the questions of ethics and morality: Utilitarianism or Consequentialism Subjectivism Relativism and Deontology also known as Duty for the Sake of Duty. We can judge an action as being ethical or unethical based on these four theories.