compilation

2. Lecture Scenario
•Basic language overview
–Advantages over assembly language programming
•Language elements
–The Structure of a program
–Keywords, Program Syntax
–Data types, Function declaration and Function calling
–String handling, assembly language statements
•The compiler preprocessor
•Using libraries
–C derivatives
–C++
–Embedded C++ (EC++)

3. C advantages over Assembly
language
• Knowledge of the processor instruction set is not
required (portable code; suitable for any µP)
(platform specific).
• Register allocation and addressing of memory and
data is managed by the compiler. (By developer)
• Programs get a formal structure and can be divided
into separate functions (Reusable code).
• Test time is drastically reduced, this increases
efficiency.
• C libraries contain many standard routines such as
numeric conversions.

4. Embedded C vs. C (Cont.)
Main characteristics of an Embedded programming
environment:
• Limited ROM.
• Limited RAM.
• Limited stack space.
• Hardware oriented programming.
• Critical timing (Interrupt Service Routines, tasks,
…).
• Many different pointer kinds (far / near / rom / uni /
paged / …).
• Special keywords and tokens (@, interrupt, tiny, ).

5. Embedded C vs. C (Cont.)
Successful Embedded C programs must keep the
code small and “tight”. In order to write efficient C
code there has to be good knowledge about:
• Architecture characteristics
• The tools for programming/debugging
• Data types native support
• Standard libraries
• Understand the difference between simple code
vs. efficient code

6. Advantage of Embedded C
• Efficient Memory Management.
• Timing centric operations.
• Direction Hardware/IO Control.
• Code size constrains.
• Optimized Execution.

7. Embedded C

8. Code compilation Process

9. • Cross compiler
1. A “native” compiler generates code for the architecture on which it
runs.
2. A “cross-compiler” generates code for a different architecture. The
code won't run on the same machine.

10. • Compiler

11. • Identifies the language (C, C++ …)
• Prevents syntax errors
• Takes account of the preprocessing
directives (macros and typedef resolutions,
conditional compilation etc...)
• Generate ROM-able code
• Generate optimized code according to the
requested compiler options
• Generate re-entrant code
• Support for different members in
microcontroller family
• Support for different memory models
Compiler

12. • Compiler

13. Compilation Errors
Always remember to fix the first few errors or warnings,
since they may be causing all the rest.
Compiler messages usually list the file and line number
where a problem occurs

14. Linker
• Merging segments of code
• Allocate target memory (RAM, ROM, stack, special areas)
• Produce files for debugging (symbols, line numbers...)
• Produce files for target (mirror of memory)

15. Linker Errors
If you receive a linker error, it means that your code
compiles fine, but that some function or library that is
needed cannot be found.
void Foo();
int main() {
Foo();
return 0; }
void Foo() { // do
something }
somefile.o(address): undefined reference to `Foo(void)'

16. Run-Time Errors
Divide by zero , Calculate sqrt for –ve numbers
Bad pointers; access local variables after released,
calculations on uninitialized arrays

17. Language Elements
• structure of a program
– C Editor writes at least the main
function and source files.
– The compiler automatically adds
startup code to initialize the underlying
processor.
– The linker adds library code as used
within the source code as needed.

18. Preprocessing
1. Preprocessing directives
2. Object-like Macro
3. Function-like Macro
4. Conditional compilation
5. #pragma
6. Preprocessor error
7. Stringification
8. Concentration

19. Intro
1. The preprocessors are the directives, which give
instructions to the compiler to preprocess the
information before actual compilation starts.
2. All preprocessor directives begin with #.
3. White-space characters may appear before a
preprocessor directive on a line.
4. Preprocessor directives are not C statements, so
they do not end in a semicolon (;).

20. #include "/usr/include/reg51.h"
The Compiler Preprocessor
Current
directory File
directory
is used to paste code of given file into current file.
Comments are invalid

21. Example
char *test (void);
int x;
#include "header.h"
int main (void) {
puts (test ()); }
int x;
char *test (void);
int main (void) {
puts (test ()); }
header.h
Program.c
Compiler vision

22. MISRA RULEs
Rule 19.1 (advisory):
#include statements in a file should only be preceded by other
preprocessor directives or comments.

23. Modular programming

24. Definition

25. Advantages Of Modular Programming
Some advantages ::
1.Faster development.
2.Easy debugging and maintenance.
3.faster re-compilation, since the modified files just only re-
compiled.
4.Several programmers can work on individual programs at
the same time.
5.Easy to understand as each module works independently
to another module.
6.The scoping of variables can easily be controlled.
7.changing the implementation details of a modules does not
require to modify the clients using them as far as the interface
does not change.

26. Search Path
There are a number of command-line options you can
use to add additional directories to the search path.
cpp -v /dev/null -o /dev/null

27. Object-like Macros
Replaces:
# define SYSTEM_H "system_1.h"
#include SYSTEM_H
#define MAXCOUNT 5
#define NUMBERS 1,
2,
3
int x[] = { NUMBERS };
int x[] = { 1, 2, 3 };
/* */ # /*
*/ defi
ne FO
O 10
20
#define FOO 1020

28. Object-like Macros(Cont.)
foo = X;
#define X 4
bar = X;
foo = X;
bar = 4;
#define BUFSIZE 1020
#define TABLESIZE BUFSIZE
#undef BUFSIZE
#define BUFSIZE 37
TABLESIZE = 37

29. Constant Vs. Define
const int TABLE_SIZE = 5;
#define TABLE_SIZE 5
Enum {var = 5}
Ignoring issues about the choice of name, then:
1. can change code that you didn't want changed because it is used
by the preprocessor; both (1) and (3) will not have unexpected side-
effects like that.

30. Function-like macros
(parenthesis)
Inline functions:
#define MIN(a,b) ((a<b) ? a : b)
parentheses

31. Function-like Macros
#define lang_init() c_init()
lang_init()
c_init()

32. Pitfalls and Subtleties of Macros
#define strange(file) fprintf (file, "%s %d",
: : :
strange(stderr) p, 35) fprintf (stderr, "%s %d", p, 35)'!
#define double(x) (2*(x))
#define call_with_1(x) x(1)
: : :
call_with_1 (double)
x(1)
x=double
double(1)
(2*(1))
(2*(1))

33. Pitfalls and Subtleties of Macros
#define ceil_div(x, y) (x + y - 1) / y
: : :
a = ceil_div (b & c, sizeof (int));
a = (b & (c + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);
#define ceil_div(x, y) ((x) + (y) - 1) / (y)
: : :
a = ceil_div (b & c, sizeof (int));
a = ((b & c) + sizeof (int) - 1)) / sizeof (int);
The operator-precedence rules of C

34. MISRA RULEs
Rule 19.1 (required):
C macros shall only expand to a braced initializer, a constant,
a string literal, a parenthesized expression, a type qualifier, a
storage class specifier, or a do-while-zero construct.

35. Guess result of i and z

36. Guess result of i and z

37. Guess result
#define square(x) x * x
square(z+1)
Call as :-

38. Check and give a reason

39. Function vs #define
Function #define
No type safety while working with
macros
Increase code size
Return not exist
save calling time
Always surround all symbols
inside your macro with parenthesis
Don't use macro when you can achieve the
same with function:

40. Typedef vs #define
Typedef #define
Interpretation is performed
by the compiler
Performed by preprocessor.
Terminated with semicolon. Terminated with nothing.
Define of a new type actually. Just copy-paste the definition
values at the point of use
Follows the scope rule When preprocessor encounters
#define, it replaces all the
occurrences, after that (no
scope rule is followed)

41. Example
// C program to demonstrate importance
// of typedef over #define for data types
#include <stdio.h>
typedef char* ptr;
#define PTR char*
int main()
{
ptr a, b, c;
PTR x, y, z;
printf("sizeof a:%un" ,sizeof(a) );
printf("sizeof b:%un" ,sizeof(b) );
printf("sizeof c:%un" ,sizeof(c) );
printf("sizeof x:%un" ,sizeof(x) );
printf("sizeof y:%un" ,sizeof(y) );
printf("sizeof z:%un" ,sizeof(z) );
return 0;
}
sizeof a:8
sizeof b:8
sizeof c:8
sizeof x:8
sizeof y:1
sizeof z:1

42. Example (Cont.)
typedef char* ptr;
ptr a, b, c;
char *a, *b, *c;
#define PTR char*;
PTR a, b, c;
char *a, b, c;

43. #undef
#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.1415
#undef PI main() {
printf("%f",PI);
}
Compile Time Error: 'PI' undeclared

44. Review
#include
#define (object , function)
#undef

45. Computed Includes
#if VERSION < 5 // condition
// this code is compiled if condition is true
#else
// this code is compiled if condition is false
#endif
#if SYSTEM_1
# include "system_1.h"
#elif SYSTEM_2
# include "system_2.h"
#elif SYSTEM_3 …
#endif

46. Conditional Compilation (why?)
Generally there are three kinds of reason to use a conditional.
1. Use different code depending on the machine or operating system .
2. Able to compile the same source into two different programs
(options).
3. Keep some code as a sort of comment for future reference.

47. Conditional Compilation
#include <stdio.h>
#include <conio.h>
#define NUMBER 1
void main() {
#if NUMBER==0
printf(“%d",NUMBER);
#elif NUMBER<0
printf(“negative”);
#else
printf("non-zero");
#endif
getch(); }

48. MISRA RULEs
Rule 2.4 (advisory):
Sections of code should not be “commented out”..
1. Using start and end comment markers for this purpose is
dangerous because C does not support nested comments,
and any comments already existing in the section of code
would change the effect.

49. #ifdef ; #ifndef
/* File foo. */
#ifndef FILE_FOO
#define FILE_FOO
#endif /* !FILE_FOO */
1. If you use #ifdef syntax, remove the brackets.
2. The difference between the two is
that #ifdef can only use a single condition,
while #if (NAME) can do compound
conditionals.

50. Once-Only Headers
/* File foo. */
#ifndef FILE_FOO
#define FILE_FOO
#endif /* !FILE_FOO */
#pragma once
#import

51. Preprocessor Error
#include<stdio.h>
#ifndef __MATH_H
#error First include then compile
#else
void main(){
float a; a=sqrt(7);
printf("%f",a); }
#endif
1. The #error preprocessor directive indicates
error.
2. The compiler gives fatal error if #error directive
is found and abort further compilation process.

52. Review
#include
#define (object , function)
#undef
#if ,#else ,#elif #endif,
#ifndef
#error

53. #assert
#include <assert.h>
void assert(int expression);
scanf(“%d”,&add);
assert(add == 100,”%cadd=10”);
In case add= 100
Error

54. Example
#include <assert.h>
#include <stdio.h>
int main () {
int a;
char str[50];
printf("Enter an integer value: ");
scanf("%d", &a);
assert(a >= 10);
printf("Integer entered is %dn", a);
printf("Enter string: ");
scanf("%s", str);
assert(str != NULL);
printf("String entered is: %sn", str);
return(0);
}

55. What a difference between assert and #error?

56. Run-time failures
arithmetic errors
1. Overflow, underflow.
2. Divide by zero.
3. Loss of significant bits through shifting.
4. negative numbers must not be passed to the sqrt or log
functions
5. some implementations can produce unexpected results
(check upper and lower limits)
6. Don’t concatenate bitwise not and shift in one statement.
7. Don’t use incremented and decremented variables
1. x = b[i] + i++;
2. x = func( i++, i );
3. p->task_start_fn (p++);

57. Run-time failures
pointer dereferencing
Always check that the pointer is not NULL.
1. When passed to function
2. When returned from function
pointer arithmetic
1. points somewhere meaningful.
2. Pointer arithmetic shall only be applied to pointers that
address an array or array element.
3. >, >=, <, <= shall not be applied to pointer types except
where they point to the same array.

58. Run-time failures
array bound errors
Ensure that array indices are within the bounds of the array
size before using them to
index the array.
• function parameters
The validity of values passed to library functions shall be
checked.
Produce “wrapped” versions of functions, that perform the
checks then call the original
function.
Don’t call two functions in one statement
x = f(a) + g(a);

59. Stringification
#define FOOBAR sub
#define IMMED(X) X##i
#define SUBI(X,Y) X ## Y
Main()
{
SUBI(FOO,BAR) r16,1
IMMD(FOOBAR);
}
FOOBAR r16,1
subi r16,1

60. Concatenation
#define COMMAND(NAME) { #NAME, NAME ## _command }
struct command commands[ ] =
{
COMMAND (quit),
COMMAND (help),
: : :
};
struct command commands[ ] =
{
{ "quit", quit_command},
{ "help", help_command},
: : :
}; https://www.includehelp.com/c-
programs/stringizing-operator-print-
variable-name-in-c.aspx

61. Embedded C

62. C introduces assembly
asm (“ljmp fct_error”);
// ljmp to fct_error
Multiple assembly lines:
asm(".LITERAL n"
"S:: db 40h n"
".ENDLITERAL n");

64. Assembly Code Calls C Function

66. • The compiler will not attempt to optimize such code. The
compiler assumes that the user has a good reason to
avoid the compiler's code generation and optimization.

67. Survey microcontrollers
that are used in automotive
industry

68. Reading Assignment
• Chapter 2 From Source to Binary
• Textbook: Extreme C. by Kamran Amini