3. Motivational Science
Representation
Theory Hypotheses
(As created by (As derived from the
motivational theory)
psychologists)
Applications; Application
Recommendations
Data
(How to support and enhance
motivation and emotion in
(To test the adequacy of
applied settings)
each hypothesis)
Figure 1.1 illustrates the function and utility of a good theory.
4. Table 1.1 Motivational Reasons to Exercise
Source of
Why Exercise? Motivation Illustration
Fun, enjoyment Intrinsic motivation Children exercise spontaneously—they run and
jump and chase, and they do so simply for the sheer fun of it.
Personal challenge Flow Athletes get “in the zone” when their sport
optimally challenges their skills.
Forced to do so External regulation Students exercise because their coach tells them to do so.
Paid to do so Extrinsic Motivation A coach or instructor is paid to exercise and to help others
exercise.
Accomplish a goal Goal Runners see if they can run a mile in 6 minutes or less.
Value its health Value People exercise to lose weight or to strengthen the benefits strengthen
the heart.
Inspired to do so Possible self People watch others exercising and becomes inspired to do the same.
A standard of Achievement Snow skiers race to the bottom of the mountain trying to beat their
excellence strivings previous best time.
Satisfaction from Perceived competence As exercisers make progress, they feel more competent, more effective.
a job well done
An emotional kick Opponent process Vigorous jogging can produce a runner’s high (a rebound to the pain).
Good mood Positive affect Beautiful weather can pick up exercisers’ moods and invigorate exercise
spontaneously, as they skip along without knowing why.
Alleviate guilt Introjection People exercise because they think that is what they should, ought to, or
have to do to feel good about themselves.
Relieve stress Personal control After a stressful day, people go to the silence depression gym, which they
see as a structured, controllable environment.
Hang out with friends Exercise is often a social event, a time simply to enjoy hanging out with
Relatedness
friends.
5. Two Perennial Questions
Why does behavior
What causes behavior?
vary in its intensity?
“Why does a person behave one
“Why did she do that?” way in a particular situation at
one time yet behave in a different
“Why do people do what they
way at another time?”
do?”
“What are the motivational
differences among individuals,
and how do such differences
arise?”
6. What starts behavior?
How is behavior sustained over time?
Specific questions
that constitute
Why is behavior directed toward some ends but
the core problems
away from others?
to be solved in
motivation study
Why does behavior change its direction?
Why does behavior stop?
12. Brain & Physiological Activity as Expressions of Motivation
Brain activity Activation of brain structures such as the amygdala (fear) or
prefrontal cortex (setting goals).
Chemicals in saliva or blood, such as cortisol (stress) or
Hormonal activity
catecholamines (fight‑or‑flight reaction).
Contraction and relaxation of the heart and blood vessels
Cardiovascular
(attractive incentives, difficult/challenging tasks).
activity
Eye behavior—pupil size (extent of mental activity),
Ocular activity
eye blinks (changing cognitive states), and eye
movements (reflective thought).
Electrical changes on the surface of the skin (expression of
Electrodermal
threat activity or stimulus significance).
Activity of the musculature, as with facial expressions (specific
Skeletal activity
emotion) and bodily gestures (desire to leave).
Table 1.3
13. Themes in the Study of Motivation
Types of motivation
exist.
Motivation includes
both approach and
avoidance tendencies.
14. Motives vary over time & Influence
The Ongoing Stream of Behavior
Motivation is a dynamic process-always changing, always rising and falling—
rather than a discrete event or static condition.
Table 1.4 How Motives Influence Behavior for a Student Sitting at a Desk
Environmental Aroused Motive‐Relevant Motive’s Urgency
Event Motive Course of Action Attention‐Getting Status
Interest Read chapter. *
Book
Thirst Drink beverage. *
Cola
Affiliation Talk with friends. ***
Familiar Voices
Pain avoidance Take aspirin. *****
Headache
Rest Lie down, nap. *
Lack Of Sleep
Achievement Practice skill. **
Upcoming
Competition
Note: The number of asterisks in column 4 represents the intensity of the aroused motive. One asterisk denotes
the lowest intensity level, while five asterisks denote the highest intensity level.
15. Figure 1.4
Stream Of Behavior And The Changes In The Strength Of
Its Underlying Motives
16. Framework To Understand
The Study Of Motivation
Energizing &
Directing
Sense of
Antecedent Motive “Wanting to”
Behavior
•
Conditions Status
Engagement
•
Urge to
Approach vs. Physiology
•
Avoid
Self-Report
•
Needs Cognitions Emotions
Figure 1.5
17. Using Motivational Theories
to Solve Practical Problems
Practical Given What I know About Proposed Solution/
Problem Human Motivation & Emotion Intervention, if any
*Do I have a strong reason
*Student dropout *Theories
to believe that my proposed
intervention will produce
*Mediocre *Empirical findings
positive benefits?
Performance
*Practical experience *Do no harm
18. Framing The Practical Problem:
Understanding The Motivational Agent
What is the phenomena?
What is its opposite?
Where does it come from?
Is it malleable or fixed?
What does it related to, or predict?
Identifying the motivational agent underlying the problem
(e.g., goals, efficacy, or helplessness)
19. Theoretical Understanding of Problem
Theory
to Be solved:
Why does it work?
How does it work? (Draw a diagram)
How does it change? What causes it to change?
Under what conditions does it change?
Where do high and low levels come from?
Theory: Set of variables and a specification of how they related to one another
