veterinary pharmacy

1. Veterinary pharmacy (I)
.

2. Introduction
• Vet. Pharmacy, in many aspects is
analogous to mainstream pharmacy. It is
aimed at pets (companion animals, e.g.
dogs and cats) and commercial livestock(
cattle, sheep,goats,camels, etc.) There are
also some very major differences. It is the
aim of this course to address as many as
possible of these differences. The course
is not aimed at contradicting the Vet.
Profession but to complement it.

3. Cont.
• Many pharmaceutical formulations and presentations for human and
animal use are similar in application, taking in cosideration:-
• In animals, dosage is directly related to weight and route of
administration.
• Species ( a modified release tab for a dog may not be that different
from that for man, but an anthelmintic bolus for a cow [ 50 gallon
rumen] may weigh about 150g) .
• Habitat (treating cat flea versus making a dip bath for treating
external parasites of sheep [2000 sheep].
• Whether it is food producing or not.
• Vaccinations of livestock for developing immunity and prevention of
disease are more important in animal medicine than treatment of
individual animals.
• Vet. Medicines although are subject to strict standards of quality,
safety, and efficacy can still produce adverse effects in man and
animal as a consequence of incorrect use.

4. Why study vet pharmacy
• Proper understanding of vet pharmacy will assist
in maintaining good health for both man and
animal:
• Eradication of zoonotic risks
• Answering enquires from uninformed animal
owners.
• It is a multimillion dollar business.
• Royal Pharmaceutical Society Diploma in
veterinary pharmacy.
• Veterinary formulary (pharmaceutical
press,1991).

5. Veterinary practice
• Dates to 5000 years ago in old Egypt and Mesopotamia.
• Ist. Vet. School in Lyon France in 1762
• London issued diplomas to practice vet art in 1794.
• Why? Importance of animal to man……
• Formulations were made as early as the 19 century. They depended on :
• Turpentine
• liquid paraffin
• Castor oil
• Common salt
• Soapy water enemas
• Carbolic acid disinfections
• Prontocil ( a sulphonomide to treat blood poisoning) 1930s.
• Vaccines 1935
• Calcium borogluconate for the treatment of milk fever.
• Benzimadazoles 1960 (tiabendazole) for parasitic infections.

7. Pharmacy involvement in the
distribution of vet drugs
• In 1920-1930 were distributed by local
pharmacies or sold nationally by pharmacy
connected companies.
• Farmers diagnosed their animal ailments and
bought drugs over the counter.
• Dips tended to by garages and hardware stores.
• Nowadays the volume of medicines value is 1/20
of total medicine value of £7246 million annually
in UK. Pets cost exceed the cost for livestock.

8. Definition of vet medicines
• Vet medicines are those products that
have been authorized by the agricultural
and health ministers under the marketing
authorizations for Veterinary Medicine
Regulation 1994.

9. Control of Vet. Medicines and their
use
• The veterinary medicine directorate (VMD)
has primary responsibility for the
authorization scheme for vet medicines
and their supply in UK. Now it is the
ministry of Animal resources in the Sudan
and the ministry of health that regulate
drug use and merchandizing.

10. Comparative Anatomy and
Physiology of the GIT
• GIT anatomy and physiology of animals is
basically similar to the one in humans.
• Where differences occur they reflect
changes in structure and function
necessary to allow for specialized diets
such as complete reliance on plants by
cattle, sheep and goats or predatory life
style e.g. in dogs and cats.

11. Anatomy
• Ruminants are mostly livestock, domesticated farm
animals of commercial value. They include bovines (
cattle i.e. cows and bulls), ovines ( sheep), camelidae
( camels), caprines ( goats). It is in ruminants that
there is the greatest difference:
• Absence of upper incisor teeth.
• Substantial amount of striated muscles in
oesophagus
• Production of large amounts of saliva
• Division of stomach into 4 compartments
• The last compartment is similar to human stomach.
It is preceded by rumen, reticulum and omasum. It is
suited for herbivores lifestyle.

12. • The horse, donkey ( equines ), rabbits and
kangaroos are herbivores but don’t have four
compartments. Instead they have an
enlarged caecum and colon (30L in a horse).
It is for the fermentation process. No
gurgitation because the process is at the end
of the tract. But rabbits sometimes come and
eat their droppings again.
• Pigs like man are omnivores (similar to man
in many ways) with a similar stomach.

13. Cont.
• In carnivores (dogs [canine] and cats [feline]) have
teeth that are spear like fitted to rip meat -off bones.
Their oesophagus is also striated to allow for
regurgitation of food swallowed in a hurry.
• At the end of the tract dogs and cats have anal sacks
having smelly sebaceous material to mark territory.
Dogs also have anal gland. Both the saks and glands
are susceptible to infection.
• Birds have gizzard, a muscular structure for grinding
seeds preceded by a proventriculus.
• At the end of the neck region they have a
diverticulum of the oesophagus to form the crop
used for storage of grains.

14. The rumen
• It is a effectively a large fermentation vat (50 gallons
[250L] )70% of GIT. It occupies a large proportion of the
body. It contains a large number of microorganisms
which digest celluloses and break cell walls of plants to
produce volatile fatty acids ( acetic, propionic and butyric
acids ). It undergoes regular contractions to mix and
force food into reticulum and omasum.
• VFA are absorbed across the striated squamous cell
epithelium of the rumen to provide energy and lactose
for milk. Food takes 4 days to pass as compared to 12
hours in cats. Cows have to eat daily but cats and dogs
may do without food for some days.

15. The reticulum
• It is much smaller
• Muscular
• Makes boluses, cuds, which are regurgitated to
be chewed and swallowed again “chewing the
cud”. Striated muscles in the oesophagus help in
the process.
• The reticular groove is an anatomical groove
that allows food to pass directly from
oesophagus into omasum. This allows milk in
the young to pass directly without going into the
rumen. Stores foreign bodies (stones,plastic
bags, metal scraps etc).

16. The omasum
• The omasum lies between the reticulum
and the abomasum. It is made of many
internal folds or leaves, suited for
squeezing fluids out of food and grinding
solid components and moving food into
the abomasum. It absorbs ions.

17. Abomasum
• This is similar to regular stomach of man
and carry similar functions of digestion and
passes the resulting chyme into the small
intestine for further digestion and
absorption. It is less acidic than in
monogastrics.

18. Digestion
• In ruminants large quantities of grass is
swallowed unchewed. It is regurgitated and
chewed latter at ease. Microbial fermentation (
bacteria and protozoa, a few millions per milliter)
results in formation of over 100L of gas,
methane, CO2 and NH3. Thus, ruminants have
to eructate continuously to expel these gases.
Failure to remove gas could kill an animal within
a few hours.
• Boluses for cud are made by reticulum,
squeezed into lower oesophagus stimulating
reverse peristalsis.

19. Metabolism
• Proteins: The presence of
microorganisms help in using non protein
nitrogen e.g. urea (recycling via saliva)
and other sources in food to make
bacterial proteins. When bacteria die, it is
either used by other growing bacteria or
passed down to the abomasum where it is
digested and its resulting amino acids
made use of by the animal.

20. • Vitamins:
• Microorganisms in the rumen have the
ability to synthesize all the vitamins they
need. Therefore healthy ruminants
withdraw all their needs of vitamins from
the GIT microorganisms. Thus ruminants’
liver is always recommended as a good
source of vitamins ( water soluble or fat
soluble).

21. Met.cont.
• Carbohydartes: Most of the carbohydrates are
celluloses of plant tissues that are digested by
bacterial ß-glycocidases and cellulases. The
resulting glucose is used by bacterial
metabolism to produce VFA, CO2,NH3 and
methane.
• VFA, acetic acid, propionic acid (80%) and
butyric acid are directly absorbed via rumenal
wall and used for energy and gluconeogenesis
(explain?).

22. Energy balance problems
• Ketosis, acetonemia , slow fever or milk fever
occurs at the peak of lactation 6-8 weeks after
calving. It is caused by the inability of a cow to
meet the high energy demands. The animal
passes through a stage of sickness ( lethargy,
reduced milk production and constipation ) that
could end up in ketoacidosis and death if not
treated.
It is detected by smell of acetone in milk, or by
its chemical testing in milk, urine or blood.

23. Treatment
• Corticosteroid injections ( stimulate
gluconeogenesis from proteins, how? )
• High energy feeds ( glucose is not used, Why?).
• A pharmaceutical preparation of ethylene glycol
( antifreeze) is a good high-energy drench.
• I/V glucose injections will be helpful.
• I/V infusion of glucose is the treatment of choice
in case of recumbency and coma.

24. Ewes
• In sheep, the ewes pregnant with twins (twin
lamb disease or pregnancy toxemia)
• Experience energy problems because of fetal
demands and limitations of abdominal cavity that
limits feed intake. It occurs during the last 3-4
weeks of pregnancy. It is characterized by:
lethargy, does not eat, condition worsen with
time as more fat is catabolized and approaching
severe metabolic acidosis.

25. Treatment
• Corticosteroids forbidden as they damage
fetus.
• Repeated I/V injections of glucose.
• Parenteral doses of multivitamins.
• Repeated ethylene glycol doses.

26. Abdominal problems associated
with feeding
• Traumatic reticuloperitonitis ( hardware disease)
caused by penetration by a sharp object; nails,
wire etc from reticulum into surrounding tissues
and organs. Therefore, the vagus nerve (vagus
indigestion), the diaphragm (diaphragmatic
hernia) , the heart (traumatic pericarditis), lung(
pneumonia), liver and spleen could be involved
leading to complex clinical signs. In all cases
there is peritonitis, abdominal pain, fever,
ruminal atony and a sharp fall in milk production.

27. Treatment
• Antibiotics:
• Penecillins
• Long-acting tetracyclines
• Trimethoprim- potentiated sulfonamides
• Oral administration of magnets may be
helpful in prevention of recurrence.
• Surgery not advisable?

28. Grain overload
• Ingestion of large amount of carbohydrate
by animals not accustomed to it leads to
acute carbohydrate engorgement (rumen
overload). Clinical symptoms are:
• Anorexia, depression, weakness,
diarrhoea and ruminal fluid becomes very
acidic.

29. Treatment
• Treatment is aimed at correcting the
ruminal and systemic acidity. It is treated
by:
• I/V infusion of a 5% sodium bicarbonate
solution (5L over a period of 30min.).
• Oral dose of 500g of magnesium oxide or
hydroxide.

30. Simple indigestion
• Less severe than above condition and can
be corrected by gastric stimulants
(rumenatorics) such as:
• Nux vomica (strychnine)a 21C alkaoid;
ginger; tartar emetic (toxic antimony also
antischiztozoma).(Sb tartarate K).
• Magnesium oxide for the acidity.
• Cud transfer using stomach tube.

31. Ulcerations
• Ulceration occur in all parts of the GIT.
• In the mouth by viruses such as foot and
mouth disease in Sudan. It can also occur
from mechanical and chemical insults and
from moldy hay. Ulcers may also occur in
the abomasum.

32. Treatment
• Treatment of a abomasal ulcers is by
antiacids:
• 2mg/kg MgO
• Up to 16g Mg trisilicate
• Aluminum hydroxide15-30g for cattle and
2g for sheep.
• Kaolin(coating aluminum silicates) and
pectin(coating heteropolysaccharides) can
be used.
• Mouth ulcerations are treated by topical

33. Bloat
• A distinctive form of abdominal discomfort
caused by trapping of gases resulting from
ruminal fermentation ( CO2, methane, NH3 and
volatile fatty acids) and excess saliva. It could be
caused by eating lush young green
pastures.The excess gases are removed by
eructation or belching during chewing the cud.
• Blockage of oesophagus or stable foam may
cause bloat.

34. Treatment
• Rumenoctomy to release the gas.
• Use of antifoaming agents:
• Poloxalene(ethylene, propylene glycols
and epoxides) solution 25-60 g introduced
into the rumen. It it is a surfactant that
break bubbles.
• Dimethicone (dimethylsiloxane polymer)
50-100 ml. antifoaming (skin antiparasitic)

35. Calcium deficiencies
• About 50 – 100 g of calcium are ingested daily by a cow
and about an equal amount is lost ( 35g/day in milk,
8g/day in feces, 5g/day by fetus). However, a condition
of high need develops about calving time and early days
of milking and ca level drops to a critical level that leads
to a disease similar to eclampsia in women. This clinical
condition caused by hypocalcemia in cows is known as
parturient paresis and in ewes as lambing sickness.
The two disease are closely associated with energy
disorders. It is characterized by neurological problems,
recumbence and may be death if not corrected.

36. Treatment
• Calcium borogluconate (non-irritant)
injections formulated as 20% and 40%
solutions in 400 ml bottles. In mild cases it
can be used as S/C injections. If the
condition is severe give the 20% I/V and
maintain it with the S/C injections. The
condition can quickly be corrected and the
results are dramatic.

37. Phosphorus deficiency
• Characterized by pica or craving as is
shown by licking on old bones or soil. This
could lead to botulism (toxicity caused by
Clostridium botulinum bacteria toxin). The
mal condition could lead to infertility as a
secondary problem. Phosphorus is always
looked at in correlation with ca. The ratio
should be Ca:P between 2:1 to 1:1 if Ca is
higher bone fractures occur. If Ca is lower
then rickets and osteomalacia occur.

38. treatment
• Salt-licks containing phosphate salts.

39. Magnesium
• About 30g is ingested in the diet. 24g is
lost in feces, 3g in urine and 3g lost in
milk. Bioavilabilty is affected by Na:K ratio
the higher the ratio the more is the
absorption of Mg. It is also affected by
amount of protein and type of fodder.
Deficiency causes staggers or grass
staggers. Occurs2-3 month after animals
are let free on spring grass.

40. Treatment
• MgSO4 solution. Treatment is by S/C
injections which could cause fatal seizure.
I/V could cause cardiac arrest. Oral preps
are not palatable.
• A Mg lactate is found to be palatable and
water soluble so it can be used in drinking
water. A Mg salts bullet, slow dissolving
[lasts for weeks] can be introduced in the
rumen.

41. Thiamine Vit B1
• Thiamine ( role? ) is degraded in the
rumen by thiaminase from futile bacteria.
When the condition occurs it causes brain
rot ( why ). It is treated by large amounts
of injections of the vitamin.

42. Vitamin B12 and Cobalt
• Both are discussed together because Co is used
by bacteria to synthesize B12. In monogastrics
the vit is mainly important as a 1-C donor and its
deficiency causes pernicious anemia; but in
ruminants it is mainly used for gluconeogenesis
from propionate (how?) . It is also involved in
FFA transport from GIT. In cattle symptoms are
energy deficiency and MMA ( methylmalonic
aciduria ).
• In sheep the disease is more common and is
known as pine. General malhealth in lambs and
stunt growth and parasitic infestations.

43. Treatment
• It is diagnosed by measuring serum B12
or urine MMA. It is treated with B12
injections. Cobalt salt drenches.
Parenteral treatment with Co injections are
ineffective. Why?
• Soil treatment with Cobalt sulfate or
chloride is helpful. Co is nontoxic.

44. Vit. E and selenium
• Selenium and vit. E ( tocopherol) can alleviate
the deficiency of each other although their
functions are different. Vit E an antioxidant
reduces the production of lipid free radicals
which cause cell death and converts them to
peroxides. But peroxides are usually converted
into the nontoxic alcohols by GSHPx a selenium
activated enzyme.
• Se also act as a cofactor for the iodinase the
converts T4 into the more active T3 hormone.

45. Effects of Se and vit E deficiency
• 1. On reproduction of cows and ewes:
• Failure to conceive
• Embryonic death
• Abortion
• Still birth
• Retention of fetal after birth
• Reduced semen quality in diluted frozen
samples.

46. Cont.
• 2. Effects on muscles:
• Both cause the degeneration of muscles and replacement with
white fibrous tissue thus, results in:
• White muscle disease (failure to move)
• Failure to chew.
• Respiratory problems.
• Cardiac problems.
• 3. Effects on production:
• Reduced growth
• Reduced milk production
• Reduced wool growth.

47. Cont.
• 3. Effect on resistance to disease:
• Thyroxine activates
polymorphonucleocytes, cellular and
innate immunity. Thus, the deficiency
reduces immunity and flares up infections.

48. Treatment
• Se is toxic and treatment is by:
• Long slow-release injection
• Oral treatment by feed supplementation.
• Slow release rumenal boluses.

49. Copper deficiency
• Copper acts as a cofactor for about 15
enzymes and Cu deficiency leads to a
variety of metabolic disorders such as
anemia and growth retardation
(ferroxidase); Amyleination (swayback in
lambs) and scouring (cytochrome oxidase)
etc
• Treatment with copper oxide injections or
rumenal formulations.

50. Iodine deficiency
• Causes abortion in animals and the fetus
has an enlarged thyroid gland. Treated
with iodized mineral licks. Or
supplementation of concentrate with
iodine.

51. Polyvit. injectable solution
• Hipravit-T (Spain)
• Composition per ml:
• Vit C 50mg; vit D3 2000 IU; vit B12, 0.03mg; vit
K 5mg, niacinamide 40mg; pantothenic acid
25mg; vit B6 5mg; riboflavin 4mg; thiamine (B1)
8mg; vit E 5mg; vit A 10,000IU.
• Generally indicated for anemia, stress, as
growth stimulant, for nutritional deficiencies and
after prolonged treatment with sulphonamides
and antibiotics.

52. Dosage
• Cattle: 20ml/adult animal; 10ml/calf
• Sheep: 8ml/ adult animal; 4ml/lamb
• Withdrawal period is not required.

53. Infectious diseases
• Animals are susceptible to all kinds of
infections: parasitic, bacterial; viral;
mycotic and others that are not classified
here.
• Some infections are transmitted from
animal to man and visa versa and are
called zoonotic diseases.

54. Sudden death Diseases &
causes
• Clostridial diseases : these are anaerobic spore
forming and toxin forming;
• C. chauvoei = blackleg disease
• C. haemolyticum = bacillary hemoglobinuria
(redwater disease)
• C. tetani = tetanus
• C. perfringens A = malignant edema
• D = pulpy kidney
• B = lamb dysentry,entrotoxemia

55. Cont.
• C. botulinum = botulism
• Anthrax
• Bacillus anthracis is a an anaerobic spore
forming bacteria that produces a
neurotoxin that causes paralysis,
convulsions and death.

56. Treatment
• Affected animals or those that are at risk
are treated by:-
• 25mg/kg procaine penicillin
• 5mg/kg oxytetracycline
• Vaccination of animals in endemic areas.

57. Liver flukes
• Fasciola hepatica and F. gigantica
• Snails are vectors
• Meracidium form cocoons on leaves.
• Causes sudden death although the
disease is chronic.

58. Treatment
• Triclabendazole 12mg/kg,sheep and cattle
• Closantel 10mg/kg
• Albendazole 7.5mg/kg
• Oxyclozanide 15mg/kg
• All given orally

59. Toxic plants
• Sorgum new plants contain cyanogenic
glycosides that are converted in the rumen
into HCN
• 5g Na nitrite +15g Na thiosulfate in 200 ml
given I/V.
• Nitrate in plants
• NO3 converted into NO2 that binds Hb to
form MHb causing cyanosis and death.
• Treated with methylene blue 2mg/kg I/V

60. Respiratory disorders
• Symptoms; coughing, nasal discharge, dyspnoea,
abnormal respiratory sounds and cyanosis.
• Bacterial and viral infections:
• Mycoplasma spp
• Chlamydia spp
• Pasteurella spp
• Mycobacterium bovis and M. tuberculosis (emaciation
and weight loss).
• Treatment:
• Long acting oxytetracycline 20mg/kg I/M
• Rinderpest a viral disease associated with high fever .
• Parainfluenza virus
• Prevention is by vaccination.

61. Encephalopathy
• Scrapie: In sheep; tremors, lack of coordination
and itching. Etiology is unknown. No treatment.
Transform into BSE in cattle.
• BSE : (bovine spongiform encephalopathy),
mad cow disease. Caused by eating meat and
bone meal derived from sheep affected with
scrapie (1986). Ataxia, disorientation, brain is
spongy. No treatment.
• Border disease: It occurs in newborn lambs
and is caused by a virus similar to swine fever
virus. Infection follows bites by rabid dogs. It is
caused by lyssavirus. Symptoms similar to
rabies. No treatment but antisera could be
helpful. Vaccination is the proper measure.

62. Some parasitic infestations of brain cause encephalopathy and
neurological symptoms:-
• Echinococuss granulosus adult worm in dogs, intermediate
hosts are man and animals. The bladder stage could be
located in the brain causing encephalopathy,liver causing
abdominal pain or lungs causing chest pain.
• Treatment of primary host,dogs ( worming) with albendazole
and mebendazole. Man and animals having the bladder form
could be treated with the same drugs but surgical treatment is
recommended.
• Coenurosis (larva of Taenea multiceps of dogs). Treating
dogs with praziquantel 5mg/kg orally.
• Sarcocytosis (protozoa of dogs) treatment with salinomycin,
4mg/kg orally for 30 days.
• Neurofilariasis
• Cerebrospinal nematodiasis
• Cerebral babes iosis ( caused by babesia spp).

63. Cont.
• Aspiration pneumonia:
• Caused by clumsy attempts to adminster
liquids by means of stomach tube or
drenches. Liquids could contain
microorganisms leading to infections and
pneumonia.
• Treatment with 20mg /kg oxytetracycline
I/M.

64. Cont.
Parasitic infestations:-
• Nasal bot: Oestrus ovis lay eggs inside
the nasal cavity of sheep and the
hatched maggots migrate into the nasal
cavity and frontal sinuses causing
nasal discharge and inflammations
(eggs,larvae,pupae,fly).
• Treatment: ivermectin 0.2mg/kg orally
or closantel 7.5mg/kg orally as a single
dose during periods of infestation.

65. Diarrhoea (scouring)
• Parasitic, Trichostrogylids group e.g.
• Haemonchus contortus
• Tristrongylus spp
• Cooperia spp.
• Nematodirus spp
• Cause diarrhoea, abdominal discomfort and loss of
weight and may be death.
• Treatment:
• Ivermectin, 0.2mg/kg orally or I/M
• Other anthelmintics such as the benzimidazole group
(albendazole, febantel, fenbendazole etc)

66. Cont.
• Protozoan, Coccidiosis;
• A disease of calves, lambs, kids and
chicken in damp crowded places.
Characterized by profuse fowl smelling
diarrhoea.
• Caused by protozoa of the Eimeria spp.
• Treatment: amprolium 25mg/kg orally,
sulfadimidine 140mg/kg orally etc.

67. Cont.
• Bacterial:
• Colibacillosis
• Diarrhoea caused by E. coli is very common and treatable with
antibiotics.
• Salmonellosis
• Diarrhoea caused by Salmonella spp e.g.
• S. typhimurium they cause acute diarrhoea and septicemia.
• Treatment: with trimethoprim- sulfonamide preparations.
• Johne’s disease caused by Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis.
• Bovine mucosal virus diarrhoea (BMVD)
• Acute enteritis, no treatment.
• Arsenic poisoning is one of the causes of diarrhea. It uncouples
substrate level phosphorylations and deprive cells of energy.