UNICEF Sustainable Energy for Children 2016_FINAL_A4

Sustainable Energy for
Children in Zimbabwe
2015
Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe
ZIMBABWE
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Suggested citation:
© UNICEF, 2015
Sustainable Energy for Children in Zimbabwe
Contact e-mail address
UNICEF Zimbabwe
6 Fairbridge Avenue
Belgravia
Harare
Zimbabwe
Tel: +263 4 703941/2 Ext: 2130
Email: harare@unicef.org
Website: www.unicef.org/zimbabwe
Design and Layout: Lucia Marisamhuka
Printed by: UNICEF Zimbabwe
ISBN 978-92-806-4850-8

Sustainable Energy for
Children in Zimbabwe
2015
ZIMBABWE

i
We dedicate this study to the late Lasten Mika
The production of this report was made possible through the generous financial,
technical and in-kind contributions of the following individuals and partners:
Principal investigator and lead author of the Sustainable Energy for Children in
Zimbabwe Report: Sara Feresu
Survey coordinators: Collen Matema and Doreen Tirivanhu
Energy survey supervisors: MufaroTamanikwa, Tafadzwa Mataruse, Patricia Nyabadza,
Itai Gwelo, Liberty Dube and Fiona Mundoga
Energy audit leader: The late Lasten Mika
Energy audit technicians: Nelson Banda and Livingstone Mutizwa
Energy survey data analysis: Collen Matema, Jacob Feresu and the late Lasten Mika.
Administrative and technical support: Doreen Tirivanhu, Spiwe Chirinda, Chipo
Nyandoro, Ellen Marufu, MufaroTamanikwa, Kingstone Mbonga and Benias Mandizvidza
UNICEF Zimbabwe Social Policy and Research Section
Engineer Mashamba, Chief Executive Officer, Rural Electrification Agency for technical
support and energy framework
The Provincial and District Education Officers of the Ministry of Primary and Secondary
Education
The Provincial and District Health Officers of the Ministry of Health and Child Care
District Administrators of the Ministry of Local Government, Public Works and National
Housing
Head teachers and teachers of primary and secondary education institutions
Health Care workers at clinics included in the study
The Ministry of Energy and Power Development, in particular the Department of
Renewable Energy
Last, but not least, sincere appreciation goes to all the school children, household heads,
communities and business people who participated in the survey.
Acknowledgements
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Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .i
List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .iv
List of Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .v
List of Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .vii
CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.1 Introduction to the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of
Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe . . . . . . .1
1.2 Deﬁnitions of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
1.3 Justiﬁcation for the Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of
Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe . . . . . .2
1.4 The Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions that
Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
CHAPTER 2: THE CONTEXTUAL BACKGROUND TO AVAILABILITY OF ENERGY
AND ITS GOVERNANCE IN ZIMBABWE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .8
2.1 Zimbabwe’s Energy Resource Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
2.2 Energy Governance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
CHAPTER 3: PREVIOUS EFFORTS TO PROVIDE MODERN ENERGY TO
RURAL AREAS OF ZIMBABWE AND LESSONS LEARNT FROM
PAST INTERVENTIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.1 Public Sector Service Providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .25
3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
3.3 The Private Sector . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
3.4 Enablers to Adoption of Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
CHAPTER 4: STUDY SITES, METHODS AND DATA ANALYSIS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
4.2 Desk Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
4.3 Study Sites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
4.4 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .47
CHAPTER 5: HOUSEHOLDS AND CHILDREN ENERGY STATUS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .56
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
5.2 Sample Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
5.3 Results of the Assessment of the Energy Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
5.4 Barriers to Access to Cleaner Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
5.5 Solutions to the Energy Crisis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .93
5.6 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .95
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CHAPTER 6: THE ENERGY STATUS OF INSTITUTIONS THAT SUPPORT
CHILDREN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .98
6.1 Definitions Used for the Energy Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .99
6.2 Scope of Energy Audit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
6.3 Characteristics of Energy Use in Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .100
CHAPTER 7: REFERENCES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .126
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1 A typical energy ladder for cooking fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
Figure 1.2 The Multiple Energy Mix/Stack Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Figure 2.1 A summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites . . . . . .12
Figure 22 Zimbabwe annual mean radiation (global extract) (MJ/m2
/day . . . . . . .13
Figure 2.3 Zimbabwe’s annual diffuse radiation (global extract) (MJ/m2
/day) . . .14
Figure 2.4 A map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
Figure 2.5 The Institutional arrangements and mandates within the
Ministry of Energy and Power Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
Figure 3.1 Examples of improved mud stoves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Figure 3.2 Examples of Jengetahuni stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29
Figure 3.3 Examples of tsotso stoves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Figure 3.4 Three stone/open fire stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Figure 3.5 Mbare stove . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
Figure 3.6 Chingwa stoves in Sedze, Nyanga . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Figure 4.1 Map of Zimbabwe showing districts sampled for the sustainable
energy for children study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .40
Figure 4.2 Map of Chiredzi District showing selected wards and location of
households sampled in the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .41
Figure 4.3 Map of Gutu District showing selected wards and location of
households sampled in the study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
Figure 4.4 Map of Hurungwe District showing selected wards and location of
Figure 4.5 Map of Nyanga District showing selected wards and location of
Figure 4.6 Map of Tsholotsho District showing selected wards and location of
Figure 5.1 Number of children per household . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Figure 5.2 Religious affiliation of household heads by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Figure 5.3 Household head education level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Figure 5.4 Usual residence of household heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .61
Figure 5.5 Monthly income categories (real) for the sample households . . . . . . . .64
Figure 5.6 Agricultural equipment ownership . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .65
Figure 5.7a Main sources of energy for lighting (adult household questionnaire) .67
Figure 5.7b Main energy sources of energy for lighting (children day scholars’
questionnaire) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .67
Figure 5.8 Energy mix for lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .72
Figure 5.9 Duration of light from clean energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75
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Figure 5.10 Time of day when children do their homework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .76
Figure 5.11 Types of stoves used for cooking by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Figure 5.12 Proportion of households with children in the kitchen when
preparing meals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .79
Figure 5.13 Households with knowledge of biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .81
Figure 5.14 Energy source for communication and information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .85
Figure 5.15 Knowledge of clean energy sources and technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . .86
Figure 5.16 Participation of energy organizations in surveyed districts . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 5.17 Proportion of households who reported that they were not
consulted before intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .89
Figure 5.18 Perceived mean cost of clean energy sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .90
Figure 5.19 Proposed energy business model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .97
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1 Energy dimensions, indicators, deprivations and sustainability . . . . . . . .6
Table 2.1 Hydro-electricity potential sites along the Zambezi River . . . . . . . . . . .10
Table 2.2 Hydro potential for existing dams in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Table 2.3 The hydro potential for future dams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Table 2.4 Hydro potential from run-oﬀ river schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
Table 2.5 Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources
in Zimbabwe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Table 2.6 Potential energy that can be harvested from the various Municipal
sewage treatment works in Zimbabwe (m3
/day) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Table 2.7 The potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure . . .16
Table 2.8 Classiﬁcation of wind’s potential to generate electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Table 3.1 Status of biogas digester plant installations as at 31 March 2015 . . . . .27
Table 4.1 A summary of the characteristics of the 5 chosen districts . . . . . . . . . .47
Table 4.2 Target survey sample size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .48
Table 4.3 Questionnaire survey yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .50
Table 4.4 Distribution of respondents to the household and children
questionnaires by district and type of school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .51
Table 4.5 Qualitative data collection yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .52
Table 4.6 Energy audit yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .53
Table 4.7 A summary of analysis outputs answering research questions . . . . . . .55
Table 5.1 Sample size and households composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .57
Table 5.2 Households’ size by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .58
Table 5.3 Household heads by gender . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 5.4 Household heads age by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .59
Table 5.5 Dominant ethnic groups by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .60
Table 5.6 Household livelihoods and income generating activities by district . . .62
Table 5.7 Sample households’ mean incomes by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .63
Table 5.8 Mean livestock ownership by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .64
Table 5.9 Solar panel and generator ownership by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .66
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Table 5.10 Access to clean energy source for lighting (electricity from solar,
main grid and generator powered) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .68
Table 5.11 Number of hours when light available from solar home system
by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .69
Table 5.12 Quality rating of the different types of lighting energy by
respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .73
Table 5.13 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74
Table 5.14 Status of household deprivation to energy for lighting by district . . . .74
Table 5.15 Willingness to change current energy source for lighting . . . . . . . . . . .76
Table 5.16 Household energy mix for cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .78
Table 5.17 Health impacts on children possibly contributed to by poor energy
sources for lighting and cooking (by gender and age) . . . . . . . . . . . . . .80
Table 5.18 Sample household energy for cooking deprivation status . . . . . . . . . . .82
Table 5.19 Proportion of households wanting to change from using fuel wood . .82
Table 5.20 Willingness to pay to change from using fuel wood for cooking
by district . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Table 5.21 Amount of money households are willing to pay to change from
fuel wood energy source for cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .84
Table 5.22 Cooling dimension by district (ownership of refrigerator and fan) . . . .84
Table 5.23 Deprivation of energy for information and communication . . . . . . . . . .85
Table 5.24 Affordability of cleaner energy technologies and price ranges . . . . . . .91
Table 6.1 Characteristics of audited secondary schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .101
Table 6.2 The energy mixes for Dewure and Tsholotsho Secondary Schools . . .103
Table 6.3 Student and staff statistics for Malipati and Nyafaru Secondary
Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .103
Table 6.4 The energy mix for Malipati and Nyafaru high schools . . . . . . . . . . . . .104
Table 6.5 Student and staff statistics for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa
Nkomo High Schools and Kapene Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . .105
Table 6.6 Energy mixes for Chikwanda, Sipepa and John Landa Nkomo High
Schools and Kapene Secondary Schools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .107
Table 6.7 Energy mix of Secondary day schools connected to grid electricity .109
Table 6.8 The energy mix of secondary day schools without grid electricity . . .110
Table 6.9 The energy mix of primary schools not connected to grid electricity .112
Table 6.10 The energy mix of primary schools with solar energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . .112
Table 6.11 Energy mix of primary schools connected to micro-hydro electricity .113
Table 6.12 Energy mix of primary schools generally not connected to grid
electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .115
Table 6.13 The energy mix at Chikombedzi and Sipepa Rural Hospitals . . . . . . . . .117
Table 6.14 The energy mix used by clinics connected to grid electricity . . . . . . . .120
Table 6.15 Energy mix of clinics not connected to the grid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .121
Table 6.16 Number of households that were audited (by district) . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
Table 6.17 Fuel wood consumption in households that were audited
(by district) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .123
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BEC Biomass Energy Conservation
CBM Coal Bed Methane
CNG Compressed Natural Gas
CREET Centre for Renewable Energy and Environmental Technology
CSP Concentrated Solar Power
CSPro Census Survey Program
EMA Environmental Management Agency
GPS Global Positioning System
GTZ/GIZ The Deutsche Gesellschaftfür Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ)
HIVOS Humanist Institute for Cooperation
(HumanistischInstituutvoorOntwikkelingssamenwerking)
InWent Capacity Building International (InternationaleWeiterbildung und
ntwicklunggGmbH)
IPPs Independent Power Producers
KWh Kilowatt hour
LED Light-Emitting Diode
LPG Liqueﬁed Petroleum Gas
MW Megawatt
NGOs Non-Governmental Organisations
NOIC National Oil Infrastructure Company
ODK Open Data Kit
OXFAM Oxford Committee for Famine Relief
ProBEC Programme for Biomass Energy Conservation
PV Photovoltaics
REA Rural Electriﬁcation Agency
SADC Southern African Development Community
SDG Sustainable Development Goal
SE4ALL Sustainable Energy for All
SNV The Netherlands Development Organisation
TV Television
UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund
W Watts
W/m2
Wind Power Density per square metre
WHO Wealth Health Organisation
ZENT ZESA Enterprises
ZERA Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority
ZESA Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
ZETDC Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and Distribution Company
Zim-Asset Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-economic Transformation
ZIMSTAT Zimbabwe Statistical Agency
ZPC Zimbabwe Power Company
List of Abbreviations
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IntroductionI t d
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1.1 Introduction to the Situational Analysis of the
Energy Status of Institutions that Support
Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe
This chapter provides a background to the situational analysis of the
energy status of institutions that support children in five purposively
selected representative districts of Zimbabwe, namely Chiredzi, Gutu,
Hurungwe, Tsholotsho and Nyanga. It introduces the concepts of
sustainable energy and the importance of access to clean and
renewable energy with a focus on children and their well being. It then
presents a general overview of energy access in Zimbabwe and how
children are affected by the energy poverty. It finally presents the
conceptual framework used in the study.
1.2 Definitions of Energy
In this study, three broad categories of energy are distinguished,
namely, conventional, renewable and alternative energy although some
of these categories overlap. Conventional energy sources include coal,
hydro, oil, natural gas and nuclear energy. In contrast renewable energy
is considered as energy that is generated from natural processes that
are continuously replenished. The energy cannot be exhausted and has
the potential of being constantly renewed. This includes sunlight,
geothermal heat, wind, tides, water and various forms of biomass.
Biomass, is a renewable organic matter, and can include biological
material derived from living, or recently living organisms, such as wood,
waste, and alcohol fuels. Wood energy is derived both from harvested
wood as a fuel and from wood waste products. Energy can be
generated from household, animal, municipal and manufacturing waste
as well as landfills. Biomass is the most used source of energy in Zimbabwe,
and although renewable there are issues of supply and demand as well
as management of the biomass which have to be sustainable.
Biofuels are made from plant materials which are converted into oils
and alcohols that can be used in engines. They are typically made of
renewable organic raw materials such as soya bean, rapeseed, maize,
sugarcane, animal fats, waste vegetable and microalgaes. In Zimbabwe
ethanol is derived mainly from sugarcane.
Alternative energy is a term used for any energy source that is an
alternative to using dirty fossil fuels. Generally, it includes energies that
are non-traditional and have a lower environmental impact compared
with dirty fossil fuels. These include natural gas, compressed natural
gas (CNG) (made by compressing natural gas to less than 1 per cent of
the volume it occupies at standard atmospheric pressure), liquefied
petroleum gas (LPG) and paraffin. Natural gas consists mostly of
methane and is drawn from gas wells. In Zimbabwe, there is confirmed
natural gas in the Lupane-Hwange area in Matebeleland as well as
Beitbridge and Chiredzi. Natural gas is a cleaner fossil fuel when
compared to coal. Liquefied petroleum gas consists mainly of propane,
propylene, butane and butylene in various mixtures. It is produced as
a by-product during natural gas processing and petroleum refining.
Liquefied petroleum gas can be used for cooking, heating and lighting;
similar to natural gas. It is not locally available in Zimbabwe and has to
be imported.
Introduction

2
I
1.3 Justification for the Situational Analysis of the Energy
Status of Institutions that Support Children in Five Districts
of Zimbabwe
“Access to energy is fundamental to improving the quality of life and is a key imperative
for economic development”. Lack of access to energy services dramatically affects and
undermines health, limits opportunities for education and development; and can reduce
a family's potential to rise out of poverty. Thus to those that have it, modern energy
unlocks access to improved healthcare, improved education, improved economic
opportunities and, even a longer life, while to those that do not have energy, it is a major
constraint on their social and economic development.
The problem of energy access for the poor has become even more acute because of
the increased vulnerability brought about by climate change, the global financial crisis
and volatile energy prices. Estimates point out that unless stronger commitments and
effective policy measures are taken to reverse current trends, half the population in sub-
Saharan Africa will still be without electricity by 2030, and the proportion of its
population relying on traditional fuels for household energy needs will remain the
highest among all world regions.
The energy mix in Zimbabwe has traditionally been coal, fuel wood, electricity (hydro,
thermal and solar) and petroleum fuels. According to the 2009 National Energy Balance,
fuel wood provided the bulk, 61 per cent, of the total energy supply, followed by liquid
fuels 18 per cent; electricity 13 per cent; and coal 8 per cent (Ministry of Energy and
Power Development, 2012). This energy mix has been the main contributor to the
country’s greenhouse gas emissions accounting for 60.7 per cent of the total emissions
in the country and is undesirable (Ministry of Environment, Water and Climate, 2015).
With the global urgent need for climate change mitigation, there are calls for increased
use of renewable sources of energy.
Zimbabwe has a population of 13,061,239 people (Zimbabwe National Statistics Agency
(ZIMSTAT), 2013) and it is estimated that 8 million are without access to electricity
(Africa Energy Outlook Report, 2014). Thus only about 40 per cent of the population
has access to electricity, with 37 per cent of households having access to electricity that
is connected via power lines. At a greater disadvantage are children below the age of
15 that make up 41 per cent of the population who have to grow under these constrained
conditions.
There are huge disparities between rural and urban areas in their access to electricity,
with 83 per cent of urban households being connected to electricity compared to
13 per cent in rural areas (ZIMSTAT, 2013). Rural communities get 94 per cent of their
cooking energy requirement from traditional fuels, mainly fuel wood while 20 per cent
of urban households use fuel wood as their main cooking fuel. The majority of urban
households use electricity for cooking (73 per cent) compared to only 6 per cent
of rural households (ZIMSTAT, 2013). Increased load shedding in urban areas has
resulted in an increase in use of fuel wood among even households that are connected
to electricity. Less that 1 per cent of households use coal, charcoal and liquefied
petroleum gas.
Fuel wood is normally collected in rural and peri-urban areas, while it is purchased in
urban areas. This has resulted in the depletion of tree resources in rural and peri-urban
areas and led to a decline in the households’ welfare caused by increased use of inferior
fuels; walking long distances in search of fuel wood; and a reduction in the quality and
frequency of cooked meals.
Women and children bear the brunt of collecting and using fuel wood, which seriously
compromises their time and capacity to undertake other activities. They are reportedly
Introduction

3
walking longer distances every year to fetch fuel wood as tree resources become further
apart. In Buhera for example, whereas five years ago women and children got fuel wood
within a kilometre radius, presently they have to walk between one and thirty kilometres
to fetch fuel wood.
There has been an increase in incidences of school children missing classes in rural
schools because of having to fetch fuel wood. Responses from the children included in
the “Children and Climate Change in Zimbabwe” study indicated that 50 per cent of the
children from rural areas and 40 per cent in urban areas assisted their families in
collecting fuel wood (Manjengwa et al., 2014). As the distances became longer and/or
the load became bigger, boys would be mainly responsible for fetching fuel wood.
Further, this fuel wood is burnt on inefficient three stone stoves. In most instances the
cooking is done inside poorly ventilated kitchens where dangerous air pollutants are
released affecting the health of women and girls who are responsible for preparing
family meals. Women often cook with babies on their backs and in the company of their
other young children. Continuous attendance to fire exposes women and children to
high indoor air pollution levels that are far above permitted WHO guidelines levels
(World Health Organization, 2014).
Smoke is the fourth greatest risk factor for death and disease in the world’s poorest
countries. It is linked to 4.3 million premature deaths per year, of which nearly 600,000
are in Africa and which can be attributed to household air pollution, a death toll greater
than that caused by malaria (World Health Organization, 2014). It is a known cause of
acute respiratory infections, low birth weight among other health challenges. According
to the Zimbabwe Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2014, about 5.3 per cent of the
children under 5 years had acute respiratory infection symptoms and one in ten of the
most recent live births in the last two years had low birth weight (ZIMSTAT, 2015).
With regards to energy for lighting, most households in rural areas use paraffin lamps,
candles, solar torches and cell phone torches. They spend much of their income on poor
sources of lighting. For example, households can typically spend 20-25 per cent of their
income on poor quality paraffin lamps. The quality of light given by a paraffin lamp
measured in lumens is lower than that of an incandescent light bulb or a compact
fluorescent bulb and costs 600 times higher than a compact fluorescent lamp when
costed per bulb output measured in $/lumen hour (Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development International Energy Agency, 2014).
Fuel-based light sources are also intrinsically more dangerous than electric ones
although electricity is not risk-free. The many potential health consequences of fuel-
based lighting include respiratory ailments from indoor air pollution (bronchitis and
asthma); burns from direct contact with flames; injuries from explosions caused by
adulterated fuels; dermatitis from contact with fuel; poisoning and pneumonia from fuel
ingestion; and adverse impacts on visual health. A study of eight major urban hospitals
in Zimbabwe, including Mpilo Hospital, found that paraffin was the main cause of
childhood poisonings (Tagwireyi et al., 2002).
Other studies show that the light levels recommended by professional illuminating
engineering societies for electric lighting, based on visual health and eyestrain
considerations, are often 10 to 100 times greater than the levels achieved by lanterns
(Mill and Borg, 1999). Insufficient illumination is one of many factors that can lead to
long-term development of myopia (near-sightedness) (Kittle, 2008; Gaumam, 2013).
Lack of clear sources of lighting has an effect on children’s studies and the teachers’
ability to deliver quality service as it is straining to read, mark or plan after sun set.
Teachers and nurses have been known to shun rural schools and clinics without electricity.
Introduction
I

4
I
Lack of adequate lighting has also caused poor maternity delivery in remote rural clinics
resulting in high mortalities especially of premature children and for complicated
pregnancies. According to the Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey of 2014, the infant
mortality is 55 deaths per 1,000 live births and has been above 50 for the past 15 years
(ZIMSTAT, 2015).
Energy demand is growing gradually in Zimbabwe, with the growth estimated to be
2 per cent annually. The long term scenario predicts that the electricity demand of the
country will have doubled by 2020 and to meet this demand energy generation capacity
should increase by more than twice the current capacity. There are already shortages
of electricity caused by internal generation shortfalls that are expected to continue
because of the high demand by the current connected customers and the increasing
population. Internal generation supplemented by imports is only meeting 60 per cent
of the 2,000 MW demand per day (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012).
There has been stagnation in new power infrastructure development because of lack
of financing, non-viable energy pricing and a slowdown in adoption of new and
renewable sources of energy. It is projected that grid extension will take time to reach
the most isolated of rural communities because of generation capacity constraints
within the region and lack of financial resources.
1.4 The Situational Analysis of the Energy Status of Institutions
that Support Children in Five Districts of Zimbabwe
It is against this background that UNICEF Zimbabwe Country Office commissioned a
study to determine the situational analysis of the energy status of institutions that
support children in five districts of Zimbabwe. The Sustainable Energy for Children
Study was targeted at designing innovative energy solutions to address environmentally
sustainable energy issues affecting children, with the aim of having communities
empowered to address challenges and associated negative impacts of barriers to
energy. This would enable them to come up with solutions that maximize the use of
indigenous, clean and plentiful renewable energy found in Zimbabwe to ensure long
term sustainability.
Thus a detailed study on the impacts of energy access on children in Zimbabwe was
conducted that was aimed at trying to understand the linkages between energy access
in households and public institutions that support children and how it impacts on
provision of basic services to the children. The study attempted to establish the root
causes and barriers to enhancing energy access, a step that is critical towards facilitating
the development of innovative environmentally sustainable energy solutions for
children.
1.4.1 Conceptual Framework
The following conceptual framework was used to guide the design and analysis of the
findings of the study. The framework recognizes that energy has multiple uses that
include lighting; cooking and water heating; cooling of food, medicines and other
supplies as well as space cooling; space heating; and information and communication.
Embedded in the overall framework are four sub-frameworks, the child deprivation; the
energy deprivation, the multiple fuel/energy mix and the sustainability frameworks.
The basis of the framework is that energy is critical for the wellbeing of children. Lack
of access to energy at household level and at institutions that service children especially
schools and clinics can lead to child deprivations. Therefore the study took into
consideration the Child Deprivation Framework when considering energy access
because lack of access to energy can lead to child deprivations such as lack of access
to adequate and properly prepared nutrition; education; communication; water and
sanitation.
Introduction

5
With regards to energy deprivation, the energy ladder envisions that households are
exposed to a number of fuel choices that could be arranged in an order of increasing
technological sophistication and efficiency. For example for cooking, biomass fuels
occupy the bottom of the ladder while electricity is at the top. As a household or
institution increases its prosperity, there is an increase in their energy source efficiency
and cleanliness (Figure 1.1).
Introduction
I
It is assumed that energy transition occurs linearly from the bottom to the top with
increasing socio-economic status of households either through a rise in income or a fall
in price (United Nations Development Fund, 2007). However, for rural households use
of energy sources tends to be in mixes rather than unitary and linear as suggested by
the energy ladder. Also because of the many uses of energy, households and institutions
usually do not rely on one type of energy but use a multiple fuel/energy mix or a
portfolio of energies that are embedded in an energy mix approach or multiple-fuel
model (Hosier and Dowd, 1987). Thus, a multi-criteria framework is the most suitable
model for assessing energy poverty which is multi-dimensional in nature. The study
therefore adopted the Practical Action Framework for Energy Poverty. Embedded in
this framework is the use of the energy mix approach or multiple-fuel model that stems
from a further development/improvement of the energy ladder approach.
This “multiple-fuel” model (Hosier and Dowd, 1987) for stove and fuel management
more accurately depicts cooking fuel use patterns in rural households based on the
observed pattern of household accumulation of energy operations, rather than the
simple progression depicted in the traditional energy ladder scenario. The “multiple-
fuel” model integrates four factors demonstrated to be essential in household decision
making under conditions of resource scarcity or uncertainty:
a) Economics of fuel and stove type and access conditions to fuels.
b) Technical characteristics of cook-stoves and cooking practices.
c) Cultural preferences.
d) Health impacts.
The model also incorporates the fact that there is a transition and overlaps when moving
from primitive to transition and to advanced fuels, thus it is also referred to as the
Ethanol, methanol
LPG, gas
Kerosene
Charcoal
Wood
Crop, waste, dung
Increasingefficiencyandcleanliness
Increasing prosperity
Figure 1.1 A typical energy ladder for cooking fuels
Source: United Nations Development Fund (UNDP), 2007.

Cooling Food Households
appliance
ownership
Not owning and using a
refrigerator
Policy
Enabling policies
Space Not owning and using a
space cooling fan
Space heating Not owning and using an
electric heater Using
traditional heater (without
chimney)
Environment
Environmentally
clean energy
Sustainable yields
Information and
communication
Education and
entertainment
Gadget
ownership
Has no radio, TV or
computer
Communication Has no phone
6
I
Mix/Stack Approach (Figure 1.2). This model also allows better estimates of the
expected fuel wood demand and indoor air pollution in rural households. Thus we
adopted the model to understand energy issues that affect households and children.
The study also assessed the community’s access to sustainable energy for economic
purposes since energy is a driver of economic development. Therefore the overall
conceptual framework that was used to interrogate the impacts of energy access for
children in Zimbabwe considered these aspects and used the indicators given in
Table 1.1.
Introduction
Figure 1.2 The Multiple Energy Mix/Stack Model
Source: Kroon et al, (2012)
Socio-econom
icstatus
Advanced fuels
l LPG
l Electricity
l Biofuels
Transition fuels
l Charcoal
l Kerosene
l Coal
Primitive fuels
l Firewood
l Agricultural
l Animal waste
Advanced fuels
l LPG
l Electricity
l BiofuelsTransition fuels
l Charcoal
l Kerosene
l Coal
Primitive fuels
l Firewood
l Agricultural
l Animal waste
Table 1.1 Energy dimensions, indicators, deprivations and sustainability
Dimension Variable Deprivation cut-off (poor
if...), quantity, quality and
clean [Mix]
Sustainability
Lighting Access to
electricity
No access to electricity Supply side
Economically
viable
Availability
Access to solar
or generator
powered
lighting
Has less than 4 hours of
light from solar or generator
powered lights at night
Cooking and water heating Type of
cooking
fuel
Use any fuel other than
electricity, LPG, paraffin
natural gas or biogas
Demand side
Efficiency
Affordability
Culturally
acceptable
Pollution/
risk factor/
exposure
Cooking using stove/
open fire (no chimney) if
using any fuel other than
electricity, LPG, paraffin,
natural gas or biogas

7
With regards to lighting, the children were judged to be energy poor if their household
and/or school did not have electricity; or if they had less than 4 hours of light in
circumstances where they were using solar or generator powered lighting at night
(Table 1.1).
In terms of cooking and water heating two aspects were considered, the type of cooking
fuel they used and its pollution/risk factor/exposure. The household or institution was
considered energy poor if it used any fuel other than electricity, LPG, paraffin, natural
gas or biogas and the household members and children were considered at risk if they
cooked using a un-improved stove on an open fire with no chimney or if they used any
fuel other than electricity, LPG, kerosene, natural gas or biogas (Table 1.1).
For cooling (food and space) and space heating, energy poverty was judged by
ownership of household appliances such as not owning and using a refrigerator or fan
for cooling; and not owning and using a heater or using a traditional heater for space
heating. The energy deprivation for information and communication was also measured
through not possessing a radio or TV, not having a landline or mobile phone and not
having and using computers (Table 1.1).
Sustainability is affected by the supply and demand sides, the environment as well as
affordability and is impacted by energy policies pertaining in a country.
The minimum international requirements for electricity, cooking and lighting are as
follows:
Electricity – Provision of 1 unit of electricity per day per household is considered a basic
energy requirement. In many developing countries the 30 units of electricity per month
category is provided at a very concessionary rate to enable access to electricity (World
Health Organization, 2006).
Cooking – Minimum standard for cooking - 1 kilogramme fuel wood or 0.3 kilogrammes
charcoal or 0.04 kilogrammes LPG or 0.2 litres of paraffin per person per day, taking
less than 30 minutes to obtain per household per day (GTZ-HERA, 2009; World Health
Organization, 2006).
Lighting – Effective or standard lighting requires a minimum of 300 lumens, an
equivalent of 30 W incandescent bulb (Reich et al., 2010). This is sufficient for reading
and doing other household tasks. It has been proven that lighting below 300 lumens is
associated with an increase in work related accidents in a workplace. According to
Practical Action 300 lumens should be available for at least four hours per night.
The overall conceptual framework was used to assist in answering the following
questions:
l What is the current energy poverty status of households, schools and clinics?
l What is their energy mix and how sustainable is it?
l Does the energy mix include renewable/ sustainable energy?
l How does the energy status affect children?
l What are the barriers/opportunities to adoption of renewable energy?
l What is the best energy mix option and how can we introduce innovative
solutions to make it sustainable?
The main aim of the study was for the energy used by rural communities to move
towards sustainable energy sources that are both efficient and renewable.
Recommended sustainable energy solutions should allow communities to evolve and
grow the mix of resources needed to meet their energy needs of present and future
generations while enhancing the environment, the economic viability of the community
and achieving equitable treatment of people.
Introduction
I

The Contextual Background to
Availability of Energy and its
Governance in Zimbabwe
Th C
2

9
As noted in Chapter 1 this study aimed to gather evidence on the root
causes and barriers associated with energy access to enable the
designing of innovative energy solutions to address environmental
sustainability issues affecting children. It also aimed to have
communities empowered to enable them to address the challenges
and associated negative impacts of barriers to energy access using
innovative solutions which maximize the use of indigenous, clean and
plentiful renewable energy to ensure long-term sustainability.
Therefore the starting point is to review energy availability in
Zimbabwe and its governance.
2.1 Zimbabwe’s Energy Resource Base
According to the National Energy Policy (Ministry of Energy and Power
Development, 2012), Zimbabwe is well endowed with sources of both
fossil fuels and renewable energy. It has:
l Twelve billion metric tonnes of proven coal resources.
l Approximately 1,132 terra cubic metres of coal bead
methane.
l Hydro-power potential concentrated along the Zambezi
river, with potential also at many micro-hydro sites in the
Eastern Highlands and dams across the country. Existing in-
land dams have an estimated 20 MW potential; run-off-river
schemes could generate 150 MW; and proposed dams have
a potential of 260 MW. However, more accurate figures
would require feasibility studies.
l An annual daily average solar radiation of 20 megajoules
per square metre which is greatly under-exploited and
which at 3,000 hours a year could produce 10,000 Gwh of
electrical energy per year.
l An annual yield of fuel wood from natural forests estimated
at 4.6 million tonnes.
The Rural Electrification Agency has carried out an assessment on the
availability and utilization of the various renewable energy sources in
Zimbabwe whose results follow.
2.1.1 Installed and Potential Hydro- Electricity
Generation Capacity
The potential of developing Large Hydro Schemes in Zimbabwe is
limited because the Zambezi River is the only source available for the
generation of large scale hydro-power. Thus, Zimbabwe has only one
large hydro-electricity plant with a capacity of 750 MW which is
located along the Zambezi River. There are, however, other potential
sites along the Zambezi River (Table 2.1).
The Contextual Background to Availability of Energy and its Governance in Zimbabwe

10
2
Planning, development and operation of dams on the river is the responsibility of the
Zambezi River Authority, a body jointly owned by Zimbabwe and Zambia. According
to the Zambezi River Authority Act, each country is entitled to 50 per cent of the
available power generation.
There is potential for small scale hydro-electricity in Zimbabwe and this is likely to be
an important source of future growth in capacity. The country has other isolated
decentralized mini- and micro-hydro schemes of capacity less than 100 kW. Water
availability, competition for scarce water resources and broader environmental factors
are key constraints on the future growth of hydro-electricity generation in Zimbabwe.
The assessment of power potential from mini- and small hydro-generating stations
attached to storage reservoirs is based on the yield and height of dams where data is
available. Of the 253 dams registered as large dams (basically structures over 15 m in
height) in Zimbabwe the majority fall far short of the requirements of the yield and
head necessary for the generation of over 100 kW.
Most of Zimbabwe’s inland dams already have infrastructure adaptable to mini-hydro
power. With the exception of the schemes along the Zambezi river (Table 2.1), all other
proposed power plants have the advantage of lower water requirements and smaller
environmental impacts than larger schemes. The potential of Zimbabwe’s dams remain
largely unexploited despite the conﬁrmed potential. Only Siya dam in Bikita has been
developed with a small decentralised 75 kW system.
The hydro potential of existing dams is given in Table 2.2, while that of the potential
future dams is given in Table 2.3.
Table 2.1 Hydro-electricity potential sites along the Zambezi River
Dam Power MW Energy GWh
Present
1. Kariba 750 5,150
Total 750 5,150
Future
1. Katombora 390 2,000
2. Batoka 800 4,370
3. Devils Gorge 600 3,000
4. Mupata 600 3,000
Total 2,390 12,370
Source: The Rural Electriﬁcation Agency

11
2
Table 2.2 Hydro potential for existing dams in Zimbabwe
No Name River Province Power (MW)
Energy
(GMWh)
1 Mazoe Mazoe Mashonaland Central 0.17 0.74
2 Sebakwe Sebakwe Midlands 0.82 3.59
3 Mutirikwe Mutirikwe Masvingo 5.00 26.67
4 Bangala Mutirikwe Masvingo 5.51 24.13
5 Manjirenji Chiredzi Masvingo 1.43 6.26
6 Ingwenzi Ingwenzi Matebeleland South 0.11 0.48
7 Mwenji Mwenje Mashonaland Central 0.25 1.09
8 Lesapi Lesapi Manicaland 0.20 0.88
9 Upper Ncema Ncema Matebeleland South 0.15 0.66
10 Manyuchi Mwenezi Masvingo 1.40 5.00
11 Siya Turgwe Masvingo 0.65 2.85
12 Ruti Nyanyadzi Manicaland 0.88 3.85
13 Ngezi Ngezi Midlands 0.45 1.97
14 Mazvikadei Mukwadzi Mashonaland West 0.98 4.29
15 Biri Manyame Mashonaland West 0.75 3.28
16 Masembura Pote Mashonaland Central 0.10 0.44
17 Arcadia Pote Mashonaland Central 0.12 0.53
18 Mteri Mteri Masvingo 0.18 0.79
19 Mundi Matanga Mundi Midlands 0.10 0.44
20 Lilstock Ruya Mashonaland East 0.10 0.44
Total 19.35 86.99
Table 2.3 The hydro potential for future dams
No Name River Province Power (MW)
Energy
(GMWh)
1 Condo Save Manicaland 24 105.12
2 Mukosi Tokwe Masvingo 12 52.56
3 Tende Runde Masvingo 7.20 31.50
4 Mozwa Tuli Matebeleland South 1.90 8.50
5 Glyn – Mel Manyame Mashonaland West 1.50 6.60
6 Mhondoro Mapfure Mashonaland West 1.60 7.00
7 Dande Dande Mashonaland Central 0.70 3.07
8 Silverstroom Musengedzi Mashonaland Central 0.66 2.89
9 Lions Head Mubvunzi Mashonaland Central 0.97 4.25
10 Muda Mupfure Mashonaland East 0.27 1.18
11 Kudu Munyati Midlands 6.94 30.40
12 Bindura Mazowe Mashonaland East 0.58 2.54
13 Manyange Tuli Matebeland South 0.20 0.88
14 Marovanyati Mweihavi Manicaland 0.19 0.83
15 Silobela Gweru Midlands 0.18 0.79
Total 58.93 258.11

Figure 2.1 A summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites
12
2
There is also potential to harness run-off river schemes for electricity (Table 2.4).
Figure 2.1 shows a summary of the existing and potential hydro-electricity sites.
Exiting Large Hydro Potential Sites
Existing Large Hydro Site
Proposed Dam sites with Mini Hydro Potential
Existing Dam sites with Mini Hydro Potential
Key
Proposed Mini Hydro Runoff river schemes Potential
Area with Micro hydro potential (Runoff river schemes)
Table 2.4 Hydro potential from run-off river schemes
Site Power (MW) Energy (GMWh)
Gairezi 30.0 70.0
Tsanga 3.3 8.0
Rusitu 2 4.5 30.7
Rusitu 1 1.0 7.2
Duru 2.3 6.0
Micro Hydro (Manicaland Province)
Total 14.1 121.9

13
The data for annual normal beam radiation for Zimbabwe were obtained using all data
on global direct and diffuse radiation presently available. Generally the beam radiation
in Zimbabwe can be expected to average about 20 MJ/m2
/day (2.03 kWh/m2
/year)
with a peak of 26 MJ/m2
(2.64 kWh/m2
/year) around Victoria Falls. The upward gradient
towards the western end of the country is based on observations from one station only
(Victoria Falls). More extended measurements should be carried out to confirm or
correct these figures. Zimbabwe has 300 days of sunshine a year which is more than
twice that in some European countries.
Zimbabwe has about 0.01 per cent (39 km2
) of its total land surface area (390,000 km2
)
from which solar radiation is collectible (Figure 2.3). The net effect is that a total of 202
kWh/m2
/year and 7.91*1010
kWh/year is collectable.
2.1.2 Solar Power Capacity
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using
photovoltaics (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated
solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of
sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric current using the
photoelectric effect.
Zimbabwe’s annual mean radiation is shown in Figure 2.2.
2
Figure 2.2 Zimbabwe annual mean radiation (global extract) (MJ/m2
/day)

14
2
2.1.3 Biomass Resources
Biomass can be used as a renewable energy on condition that the use is sustainable.
The National Energy Policy, however, notes that most rural areas in Zimbabwe are facing
fuel wood shortages as a result of agricultural land-use and unsustainable harvesting
of fuel wood (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012). Demand for fuel wood
is noted to exceed supply in Manicaland, Mashonaland East, the Midlands and Masvingo
Provinces which are heavily populated while Mashonaland Central and Matebleland
North are approaching the same situation. Estimates are that more than 6 million tonnes
of fuel wood are harvested annually when the sustainable output of natural forests is
4.6 million tonnes. This translates to a loss of 330,000 ha of forest area, or over 60
million trees per year.
Inspite of celebrating tree planting day in Zimbabwe, the current annual tree planting
rate is only 10 million trees. However, fuel wood will continue to be used for cooking
and space heating by rural and low-income urban households for the foreseeable future.
Thus the National Energy Policy proposes to establish an institutional and funding
framework for developing implementing strategies to deal with the fuel wood crisis.
An estimated 1.5 million tonnes of bagasse is produced annually from waste in the
production of sugar in the Lowveld at Triangle and Hippo Valley Estates. The two estates
generate 72.5 MW of electricity for their own consumption and can sell 10 MW of this
to the national grid. Additional bagasse has come on stream from Chisumbanje and
Middle Save areas where sugarcane plantations are being developed for ethanol
production.
About 70,000 tonnes of forest residue are produced from commercial forests that have
potential for generating 150 MW power and for creation of a more formalized fuel wood
and charcoal market. Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources
and outputs are given in Table 2.5.
Figure 2.3 Zimbabwe’s annual diﬀuse radiation (global extract) (MJ/m2
/day)

15
2.1.4 Biogas Resources
Methane can be harvested from Municipal Sewage Treatment Plants and from bio-
digesters. The potential energy that can be harvested from the various sewage
treatment works in Zimbabwe is given in Table 2.6.
2
Table 2.5 Biomass resources currently used and potential future resources in
Zimbabwe
Biomass Groups Current Resources Future Resources
Agricultural related
wastes and their
products
Livestock wastes:
-Manure
-Abattoir wastes solids by-
products
Crop and food residues from
harvesting and processing:
-Large scale wheat husks
-Cotton ginning and cereal straw
-Small-scale maize cobs and nut
shells
Sugar cane Bagasse, fibrous residue of the
sugar cane milling process and
C-mollasses
Trash, leaves and tops from
harvesting
Energy crops High yield crops
-Sugar cane and starch crops
-Oil bearing – sunflower, soya
beans
Jatropha
Algae
New seed oils
Forest residues Wood from plantation forests Wood from plantation forests
and indigenous forests
Wood related waste -Sawmill residues (wood chips
and saw dust)
-Pulp and paper mill residue
(black liquor and wet wastes)
-
Urban solid waste -Biodegradable waste Food related wastes, garden
organics, paper and cardboard
materials
Landfill Methane emitted from landfills
from mainly Municipal and
industrial solid wastes
-
Table 2.6 Potential energy that can be harvested from the various Municipal
sewage treatment works in Zimbabwe (m3
/day)
Sewage (m3
/day) Biogas (m3
/day) Methane(m3
/day)
Harare Firle 1,800 17,000 46,500
Harare Crowbrough 940 8 ,500 23,500
Mutare 30,000 1,07 554
Masvingo 16,800 621 311
Total 72,340

16
2
Energy Production from Livestock
Table 2.7 shows the potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure.
2.1.5 Wind Resources
Wind power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form of energy, using
technologies such as wind turbines to make electrical power. Wind speed determines
wind power density (W/m2
), which in turn becomes the measure of the wind’s potential
to generate electricity. Wind power density is categorized as shown in Table 2.8.
Wind energy has been used for a power-generation project at Temaruru in Rusape and
for water pumping at various sites around the country. However, generally wind speed
over Zimbabwe, averaging 3 metres per second is too low for most wind-based power
generation technologies.
Figure 2.4 is wind power map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation. As indicated
in the map, Zimbabwe’s density is classiﬁed as poor with a highest density in the
80-90 W/m2
range. This density is only concentrated in the central Midlands Province
and extends to North Western Masvingo. Investing in wind power generation will
therefore be uneconomical for the country given the possible minimum wind speed to
produce power output.
Table 2.7 The potential energy that can be produced from livestock manure
Livestock type Population Annual biogas yield Energy (GWh)
Cattle 25,000 10.0 22
Sheep and Goats 435,000 2.0 95
Pigs 131,000 1.5 30
Poultry 5,428,000 0.1 71
Total 219
Table 2.8 Classiﬁcation of wind’s potential to generate electricity
Wind Power Density (W/m2
) Output
< 150 Poor
150 – 250 Fair
250 – 350 Good
>350 Excellent

17
Uranium and geothermal energy resources exist but need more exploration work to
quantify amounts.
2.2 Energy Governance
2.2.1 The Ministry of Energy and Power Development
The Ministry of Energy and Power Development has the overall responsibility for energy
issues in Zimbabwe. The Ministry’s mandate includes policy formulation, performance
monitoring and regulation of the energy sector; as well as research, development and
promotion of new and renewable sources of energy. In addition, the Ministry supervises
and oversees the performance of state-owned enterprises which include the Zimbabwe
Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA), the National Oil Infrastructure Company (NOIC),
Petrotrade, and the Rural Electrification Agency (REA). It also regulates Independent
Power Producers (IPPs) such as the Rusitu Power Corporation.
The Government of Zimbabwe subscribes to the Sustainable Development Goals
(SDGs). The proposed SDG number 7 – “Ensure access to affordable reliable, sustainable,
and modern energy for all” aims to address this issue by:
l increasing the share of renewable energy in the global energy mix;
l doubling the global rate of improvement in energy efficiency;
l enhancing international cooperation to facilitate access to clean energy
research and technologies;
l promoting investment in energy infrastructure and clean energy
technologies; and,
l expanding infrastructure and upgrading technology for supplying modern
and sustainable energy services for all in developing countries by 2030.
2
Figure 2.4 A map depicting Zimbabwe’s wind power situation

18
2
Zimbabwe has domesticated some of these objectives in its national energy policies
and objectives. The mission of the Ministry of Energy and Power Development is to
achieve universal access to sustainable energy in Zimbabwe by 2030. Its vision is to
ensure the provision of adequate and sustainable energy supply through formulating
and implementing effective policies and regulatory frameworks.
The right to energy is not captured in the Constitution of Zimbabwe (Government of
Zimbabwe, 2013a). However, energy is defined as a key enabler to productive socio-
economic development in the Zimbabwe Agenda for Sustainable Socio-economic
Transformation (Zim-Asset) which is Zimbabwe’s mid-term strategy for the period 2013-
2018 (Government of Zimbabwe, 2013b). During this period the energy sector will
prioritize attainment of optimal generation of power; the production and use of biofuels
as enablers for economic productivity; and growth through the following:
a) Raising the installed generation capacity of existing power stations to their
optimum.
b) Expanding existing power stations such as Hwange and Kariba.
c) Completing new big and mini-hydro-power projects such as Batoka and
Gairezi, respectively.
d) Resuscitating small thermal power stations of Harare, Bulawayo and Munyati
to full power generation capacity.
e) Utilizing fully alternative forms of energy such as coal bed methane gas.
f) Deliberate development of solar and wind energy initiatives.
The energy sector belongs to the Infrastructure Cluster in the Zim-Asset. The target for
power generation is to increase power generation by 300 MW by December 2015;
increase power access to rural households and institutes by constructing and upgrading
sub-stations; and to complete grid expansion in rural areas.
With regards to renewable energy, the target is to increase usage of alternative forms
of energy through implementing the Biogas Digesters Programme for institutions,
households and farms with a target of 1,250 biogas plants installed by 2018. Another
target on renewable energy is to initiate a Mini-hydro Programme for integrated mini-
hydro schemes which should be functional by 2015 as well as installing a 10 MW solar
plant. These projects are already being either planned or underway through either REA
or Non-governmental organizations in partnership with REA.
Energy and power fall under the Value Addition and Beneficiations Cluster where the
Sector is envisaged to improve supply of liquid fuels; reduce gas imports using
strategies such as promotion of alternative sources of energy (biogas, solar and wind);
and to encourage and enforce the use of solar energy for lighting and heating.
Zimbabwe launched a National Energy Policy in 2012 (Ministry of Energy and Power
Development, 2012). The Energy Policy’s objective is to ensure that Zimbabwe promotes
research and development and the use of renewable sources of energy to support
regional and international goals for increasing access to socially and environmentally
sustainable energy services.
The Zimbabwe National Energy Policy is aligned to the strategic goal of the Southern
African Development Community (SADC) Regional Energy Access Strategy and Action
Plan of 2010(Southern African Development Community,2010) which is “to harness
regional energy resources to ensure, through national and regional action, that all the
people of the SADC Region have access to adequate, reliable, least-cost, environmentally
sustainable energy services and at the operational level that the proportion of people
without such access is halved within 10 years for each end-use and halved again in
successive 5 year periods until there is universal access for all end users.”

19
The National Energy Policy notes that since it is unlikely that there is a single technology
that can meet all the end-use needs for a given consumer, it is necessary to consider a
portfolio of energy sources. Thus the ultimate objective of the National Energy Policy
is to ensure universal access to a portfolio of modern energy services that fulfill the light,
heat, static and motive power needs for enhancing economic productivity and quality
of life.
The challenges noted for rural energy supply and adoption of renewable energy are
lack of aggressive promotion in the households and commercial market; poor back up
service; limited local experience and expertise for some technologies; high-up-front
costs for adoption of technology; resistance to new technologies; lack of awareness of
available options by end-users; as well as uncoordinated and unfocussed research in
renewable energy.
Policy objectives include increasing usage of, and investment in renewable energy;
promoting renewable energy as an environmentally friendly form of energy; diversifying
supply options and increasing access to modern energy in rural areas. Several policy
measures are enounced including adopting a long-term government-driven renewable
energy technology programme; instituting innovative funding mechanisms and tapping
into financing opportunities such as the Clean Development Mechanism, feed-in tariffs
etc; capacity building programmes; raising awareness; encouraging local production
and commercialization of technology; promoting investment into stand-alone solar
energy systems to cater for rural communities; promoting the efficient use of biomass
cooking and use of waste biomass for energy purposes; developing incentives for
investment in renewable energy; and strengthening the institutional framework for
research and development in renewable energy technologies.
Some of the strategies for biomass include increasing the tree-planting rate from the
current 10 million to 20 million trees per year by 2015 and promoting rural fencing using
live trees; supporting end-user-focussed research, awareness and education
programmes to increase the efficiency of fuel wood use; and promoting the use of
alternative heating and cooking fuels such as coal, solar and biogas in rural households
and institutions (boarding schools and hospitals) and in rural commercial applications
such as bakeries, brick moulding and tobacco curing. Strategies for solar relating to
rural areas include promotion of solar technologies such as solar pumping for off-grid
boreholes and river irrigation; and solar PV-charged lights.
The National Energy Policy also notes that there is unexploited potential for using LPG
and paraffin to address cooking fuel challenges for the majority of the population, who
either have no access to electricity or are unable to afford the cost of using it for cooking
and heating. This will be targeted at urban households as most rural households are
unlikely to have access to LPG. However, they could use biogas as an alternative fuel.
Government is planning to roll out the use of biogas in rural institutions (schools and
hospitals) for heating and cooking. It also plans to promote use of suitable alternatives
to fuel wood such as LPG, paraffin, electricity, fuel wood briquettes and solar cookers.
The National Energy Policy separated policy-making, policy-monitoring and policy-
implementation functions by creating an independent regulator and public/
private-sector providers. Currently the policy-monitoring is vested in the Zimbabwe
Energy Regulatory Authority (ZERA) while the implementation is by ZESA and its
subsidiaries. The institutional arrangements within the Ministry of Energy and Power
Development are shown in Figure 2.5.
2

20
2
2.2.2 Regulatory Institution
The Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority
The Government of Zimbabwe established the Zimbabwe Energy Regulatory Authority
(ZERA) to deal with regulation of the electricity and petroleum sub-sectors by
promulgating the Energy Regulatory Authority Act of 2011. The Act regulates the two
sub-sectors and any other sub-sector. Previously there were two Acts the Electricity
Act of 2002 and the Petroleum Act of 2006 that dealt with the two sub-sectors
separately.
ZERA was established to regulate the production, procurement, importation,
transmission, distribution, transportation and exportation of energy derived from any
energy source. Thus ZERA was created for policy monitoring and enforcement. The Act
gives ZERA independent decision- making authority for clearly defined functions that
are critical for ensuring operational, financial and investment efficiency in the energy
sector. The decision making role of ZERA is concerned with the development,
monitoring and enforcement of product and service standards; energy prices; dispute
resolution; and the issuing, enforcement, renewal, amendment or cancellation of
licences.
ZERA’s key objectives include ensuring the security of energy supply, encouraging
energy efficiency at utility and consumer levels and encouraging use of renewable
energy and environmental protection, among others.
To this end ZERA has developed the renewable energy feed-in tariff scheme which is
yet to be implemented. The renewable energy feed-in tariff is a policy instrument that
mandates power utilities operating the national grid to purchase electricity from
renewable energy sources at a pre-determined price so as to stimulate investment in
the renewable energy sector. The feed-in tariffs were developed for renewable energy
MINISTRY OF ENERGY AND POWER DEVELOPMENT
RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
FUND BOARD
ZERA
INSTITUTIONAL ARRANGEMENTS
ZESA HOLDINGS
BOARD
ZESA HOLDINGS RURAL ELECTRIFICATION
AGENCY
• Generation
• Transmission
• Distribution
Facilitate rapid &
equitable electrification
of rural areas in Zimbabwe
Regulate operations
of the energy
sector
• National Energy policy formulation
• Performance monitoring
• Administration of the energy sector
Figure 2.5 The Institutional arrangements and mandates within the Ministry of
Energy and Power Development

21
technologies applicable to Zimbabwe such as solar PV, small hydro, biomass, bagasse
and biogas. The scheme is meant to promote renewable energy projects up to a
maximum capacity of 10 MW.
The Authority has also developed net-metering regulations to support the feed-in-tariff
scheme. Net-metering is a billing mechanism that credits renewable energy system
owners for the electricity they add to the grid. The objectives of net-metering are to
generate additional power from renewable energy resources onto the national grid,
reducing the investment requirement of utilities and conventional independent power
producers. It also allows customer-generators to reduce their off-take from distribution
networks through generating for own consumption, and to export to distribution
networks excess renewable energy generated. Net-metering also promotes sustainable
renewable energy sources and small-scale investments in the electricity sector. The net-
metering regulations are soon to be promulgated.
ZERA has developed a solar PV integration code. The code establishes the basic rules,
procedures, requirements and standards that govern the operation, maintenance and
development of solar PV systems in the country to ensure the safe, reliable and efficient
operation of the Electricity System. The code includes governance; off-grid connections;
grid connections; protection (to minimize damage to plant and consumer appliances);
metering and information exchange requirements.
The Authority is also working with the Standards Association of Zimbabwe and other
stakeholders to develop standards for solar PV system components such as batteries,
panels, charge controllers, inverters, lighting kits and lanterns, system installation
standards and for geysers. Once these standards are in place ZERA will enforce them
through a Statutory Instrument on Solar PV regulations. In addition ZERA is set to fund
the establishment of a dedicated solar PV equipment testing laboratory at the
Standards Association of Zimbabwe to certify solar PV system components.
The Authority is also registering all renewable energy and energy efficiency providers
operating in Zimbabwe with a view of developing a database and providing
recommended suppliers.
2

22
2
2.2.3 Other Government Policies and International Agreements that
Support Provision of Renewable Energy
The Ministry of Energy and Power Development is currently working with ZERA to
develop a Renewable Energy Policy for Zimbabwe. The Policy is going to give guidelines
and the roadmap for the renewable energy sector in Zimbabwe and will address gaps
such as legislation and incentives for increased uptake and investment in renewable
energy, among other issues. The Renewable Energy Policy is meant to create a more
conducive environment for investment in the renewable energy sector.
The biofuels and climate policies are also being developed and will complement the
Renewable Energy Policy. Zimbabwe has recently launched its National Climate Change
Response Strategy which has, among many others, actions to mitigate climate change
through adopting cleaner and renewable energy (Ministry of Environment, Water and
Climate, 2015).
The country has joined the global effort to eliminate energy poverty by committing to
the UN goal of universal energy access (SE4ALL) by 2030. SE4ALL is a response to
resolution 65/151 of the United Nations General Assembly that declared 2012 as the
International Year of Sustainable Energy for all. In that resolution the General Assembly
recognized that access to modern and affordable energy services in developing
countries was essential for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals and
for sustainable development, which would help reduce poverty and improve the
conditions and standard of living for the majority of the world’s population. The initiative
is meant to mobilize action from all sectors of society to realize sustainable energy for
all by 2030.
In 2012 the UN General Assembly declared 2014-2024 as the Decade for Sustainable
Energy for all through resolution 67/215. The resolution stresses the need to improve
access to reliable, affordable, economically-viable, socially acceptable and
environmentally-sound energy services and resources for sustainable development. The
Zimbabwe National Energy Policy has adopted this resolution in its objectives. However,
sector stakeholders do not think that it will be possible to have universal energy access
by 2030 because of the current state of the economic environment in Zimbabwe which
is stifling energy generation expansion. It is hoped that all these policies will lead to
increases in the share of renewable energy in the energy mix of the country, one of the
key objectives of SE4ALL.
The key question is to what extent are these policies sensitive to the needs and
aspirations of the children in Zimbabwe and in what ways are they enabling the
transition to clean energy and mitigation of climate change that are negatively
impacting on the children in urban and rural areas? The renewable energy and climate
change mitigation nexus is a double edged sword as addressing one developmental
challenge has a direct impact on the other, leading to multiple benefits.

23
2

Previous Efforts to Provide Modern
Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and
Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions
P i
3

25
A review of previous efforts to provide modern energy to rural areas
of Zimbabwe was made to help inform the design and choice of study
districts of the situational analysis of the energy status of institutions
that support children. These efforts are being made by governmental
institutions, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private
sector.
3.1 Public Sector Service Providers
As noted earlier, the Ministry of Energy and Power Development
supervises and oversees the performance of state-owned enterprises;
the ZESA; NOIC; Petrotrade and the REA as well as Independent Power
Producers (See 2.2.1).
3.1.1 The Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority
(ZESA) Holdings
The Electricity Act of 1988 [Chapter 13:05] and the Zambezi River
Authority Act of 1987 [Chapter 20:23] provided for the amalgamation
of all existing power utilities into one integrated parastatal called ZESA.
These were the reforms through the Electricity Act of 2002 [Chapter
13:19] and the Electricity Amendment Acts of 2003 and 2007 that
restructured ZESA into a state-owned holding company consisting of
four subsidiary companies; the Zimbabwe Power Company (ZPC)
(power generation); the Zimbabwe Electricity Transmission and
Distribution Company (ZETDC) (transmission, bulk supply, distribution
and retail of electricity); ZESA Enterprises (ZENT) (manufacturing and
support services, mainly for ZETDC and to a lesser extent, the general
public); and Powertel (telecommunications support mainly to ZETDC
and the general public).
Of special interest to the Sustainable Energy for Children Project is
ZETDC which is responsible for connecting electricity once it has been
delivered to rural institutions by the Rural Electrification Agency.
3.1.2 The Rural Electrification Agency
ZESA’s rural electrification functions were unbundled by the Rural
Electrification Fund Act [Chapter 13:20] of 2002.This resulted in the
establishment of the Rural Electrification Agency (REA) whose main
focus is to spearhead rapid and equitable electrification of rural areas
in Zimbabwe. The mandate of REA is to provide energy to rural areas
especially through the main electricity grid. The provision of electricity
to rural areas was initially the responsibility of ZESA from 1987 to 2002.
Initial expansion of the grid to rural areas was haphazard until 1995
when a Master Plan Study was carried out. Implementation of the Plan
started in 1997. The initial target from the Master Plan was to electrify
415 rural centres, and did not include schools, clinics or any other public
institutions except those within one kilometre radius of the business
centre. Business centres were provided with access to electricity and
all they had to do was internal wiring of their properties.
When REA was established as a stand-alone entity in 2002 its objective
was to provide electricity to all public institutions including all
government extension offices, schools, clinics and chiefs’ homes
through two main programmes, the Expanded Rural Electrification
Previous Efforts to Provide Modern Energy to Rural Areas of Zimbabwe and Lessons Learnt from Past Interventions

26
3
Programme and the Electricity End-Use Infrastructure Development. Since its
establishment REA has installed electricity at 7,703 public institutions in the rural areas
and has a backlog of 5,327 primary schools; 2,188 secondary schools; 1,338 health
centres and 266 chiefs’ homes.
All the rural public institutions qualify for 100 per cent capital subsidy through the
Expanded Rural Electrification Programme. Entities other than public institutions such
as Community Group Schemes (business centres and villages), qualify for 50 per cent
subsidy while individual households qualify for a 40 per cent capital subsidy. This has
meant that although households have potential access to electricity as electric cables
“pass-over their homesteads”, they still are not connected to electricity since they
cannot afford the 60 per cent of the cost they have to pay to get connected to the grid.
In some communities, villagers have formed cooperatives to raise the funds to enable
their homesteads to be connected to the grid because they then pay 50 per cent instead
of 60 per cent of the cost. In some instances the cooperatives have negotiated payment
plans. However, when connected, end-users have reported long periods without
electricity when their transformers get faulty as REA was reportedly taking long to
repair faults. This was mentioned by many end-users similar to a school headmaster
who said:
“There was an accident in which a car got hooked to the electricity line and
since then we have called ZESA and it has not responded…” (P34:21; 138:138),
KII; High school headmaster).
In some cases REA has not been able to catch up with the waiting list because of the
pertaining economic situation in the country as expressed by a village head in
Hurungwe:
“We actually joined REA in 2002 but it is now 2015 and still we have not yet
been connected to the main grid.” (P36:71 197:197), village head Hurungwe.
The Rural Electrification Fund Act provides for the funding of the programme through
levies, loans, fiscal allocations, customer contributions (50:50 scheme, 40:60 scheme),
income generating activities grants and donations. Currently the rural electrification
programmes are primarily funded by the 6 per cent levy collected from all electricity
consumers in the country as well as fiscal allocations. However, these funds are not
adequate and external support is needed.
The Electricity End Use Infrastructure Development component endeavours to empower
rural communities socio-economically by promoting productive use of electricity in
irrigation and cottage industries etc. In spite of these efforts electrification remains low
in Zimbabwe with access rates currently estimated at 20 per cent.
The major challenge to extension of the grid in order to achieve total electrification of
the country is the sparse distribution of the rural population. Furthermore, some areas
have a topography that is not favourable to the main grid with some having haphazard,
dispersed and isolated settlement patterns.
These challenges can however be overcome by promoting use of alternative
technologies such as micro-hydro, solar, biogas and biomass as enounced in the
National Energy Policy. To this end, REA’s expanded mandate is to facilitate rapid and
equitable provision of modern energy which includes renewable energy. As a result REA
installed 415 donated solar systems in rural schools and clinics between 2006 and 2013.
This was in addition to the five systems which were installed prior the 2006 intervention.
However, the equipment was old and the design capacity of the equipment was too
small for the institutions. Some of the major challenges faced included lack of clear

27
ownership of the equipment by the community as well as maintenance of the solar kits.
As a result the majority of the installed systems are not functioning. The installations
made by the Biomass Users’ Network Programme that was supported by the Global
Environmental Fund in the 1980s and 1990s were more successful and sustainable. Thus
lessons should be learnt from this programme. ZERA has further distributed 437 mobile
solar units to public institutions.
REA has been installing bio-digesters at public institutions. Table 3.1 shows the status
of biogas digester plants installed by REA whereby it commissioned 24 bio-digesters
between 2013 and 31 March 2015.
REA availed data bases of all its renewable and non-renewable interventions to this
consultancy. This information was supplemented by information from key informants
and focus group discussions during this study.
3
Table 3.1 Status of biogas digester plant installations as at 31 March 2015
Province District Name of Institution
Date
Commissioned
2013
Harare Harare Roosevelt High School 2013
Harare Central Hospital 2013
Chikurubi Prison 2013
Harare Central Prison 2013
Mashonaland East Goromonzi Domboshava homestead 2013
Pig Industry Board 2013
2014
Midlands Gweru Fletcher High School 24/04/14
Matabeleland South Mangwe
St Annes Brunapeg
Mission Hospital
27/06/14
Mashonaland East Seke Ruz Farm 03/07/14
Matabelaland North Lupane St Lukes Hospital 21/08/14
Matabeleland South Gwanda Mtshabezi High School 01/10/14
Midlands Gweru Lower Gwelo Mission 30/10/14
Mashonaland West Chegutu Sandringham High School 10/11/14
Matabeleland South Insiza Empandeni High School 21/11/14
Matabelaland North Nkayi Mbuma Mission Hospital 03/12/14
Midlands Kwekwe Shungu High School 10/12/14
Manicaland Chipinge
Mt Selinda Mission
High School
11/12/14
Matabeleland South Umzingwane Mzinyathini High School 18/12/14
2015
Matabelaland North Tsholotsho Tsholotsho High School 21/01/15
Matabeleland South Insiza J Z Moyo High School 21/01/15
Midlands Gweru Nkululeko High School 14/02/15
Mashonaland West Zvimba Kutama High School 27/02/15
Mashonaland Central Mt Darwin Mt Darwin Hospital 06/03/15
Muzarabani St Albert’s Hospital 06/03/15

Figure 3.1 Examples of improved mud stoves
28
3
As an executing Agency of the Ministry responsible for Energy, REA is responsible for
implementing the National Energy Policy and for meeting targets in the Zim-Asset;
hence its new strategy is that of a shift from grid extension to promotion of off-grid
supply of renewable energy. Thus REA is supposed to be transformed from a Rural
Electrification Agency into a Rural Energy Agency so that they can take on board this
new and expanded mandate (Ministry of Energy and Power Development, 2012).
REA has commissioned a study to develop a new Energy Master Plan that will guide
the expansion of energy access to rural areas. The Plan will be informed by an
assessment of the current grid, available resources and demand for energy. It will
provide recommendations for best technologies for specific areas. The Master Plan will
provide scope for expansion of partnerships of players in the energy sector as some of
the ventures could be taken up commercially. Currently REA has partnerships with NGOs
with interest in renewable energy such as Practical Action, the Humanist Institute
Cooperation (HIVOs) and Netherlands Development Organization (SNV) on some
renewable energy projects.
3.2 Non-Governmental Organizations
There have been several efforts by NGOs to introduce cleaner and renewable energy in
Zimbabwe. For example the GTZ/GIZ introduced fuel wood saving technologies and
systems. ProBEC supported Biomass Energy Conservation demonstration projects
during 1999-2004. This was a joint programme between SADC, the European
Commission and the German Government that was implemented by GTZ/GIZ in six
countries that included Zimbabwe.
Demonstration projects were piloted in Hurungwe District in Mashonaland West;
Chimanimani District in Manicaland; and Epworth in the Greater Harare Metropolitan
Area. The project was aimed at introducing and promoting fuel wood saving stoves and
improved methods of cooking and managing fuel wood. In Hurungwe, the programme
promoted the use of improved fixed mud-stoves (3 sticks) (Figure 3.1) that reduced fuel
wood consumption at household level by over 50 per cent. The focus of the
programmes was on saving fuel wood and trees but did not also highlight the health
benefits accrued from using the stoves.

29
The Institute of Environmental Studies carried out an economic analysis of fuel wood
saving technologies and systems of the ProBEC demonstration projects in 2002
(Institute of Environmental Studies, 2002). The aim of the economic assessment was
to identify; attach value; and compare the costs and benefits of adopting biomass
energy stoves (mud stoves) to both households and producers of the stoves in
Hurungwe District.
Results from the economic analysis using seven economic ratios (pay-back period; total
net benefit; rate of return; ratio of net benefit of improved stove to expenditure on food
and groceries; total annual cost; net present value and dynamic rate of return)
suggested very high incentives for the households to adopt the improved mudstoves.
The net benefits that accrued to the households were high and compared favourably
with other household budget items. The fuel wood saving stoves reduced the time spent
collecting fuel wood and conserved the resource base as they used very small amounts
of fuel wood and shortened the time spent preparing food.
Despite the economic and time-saving advantages of the cookstoves adaptation was
poor because of critical social and cultural challenges in the adoption of the stoves. As
a result there were about 500 improved stoves in Hurungwe and less than 50 in
Chimanimani District not long after the end of implementation of the PROBEC
programme (Mangwandi, 2002). However, the trained women in Manicaland are still
active in production and distribution of the portable clay stoves. They are supplying
them as far as Harare, but are limited by the volume of production and the level of
awareness which is low.
GOAL Zimbabwe and other development partners have also tried to promote the use
of improved cook-stoves such as jengetahuni (Figure 3.2) and tsotso stoves (Figure
3.3), which consume less fuel wood in Hurungwe. The stoves were introduced in
Hurungwe because of the looming scarcity of fuel wood in the district as a result of
massive deforestation because of use of fuel wood for curing tobacco.
3
Figure 3.2 Examples of Jengetahuni stove

30
3
GOAL carried out a Community Centred Prevention of Malnutrition Project in three
districts that included a pilot study to improve the design of improved cook-stoves with
support from UNICEF during October 2014 to January 2015. Project beneficiaries
included a total of 480 households and six health facilities. The main aim of the project
was to promote improved cookstoves by raising awareness on the benefits of using the
technology.
The project’s main objective was to test the performance of four cook stove types (three
stone/open fire (Figure 3.4), Tsotso (Figure 3.3), Mbare (Figure 3.5) and jengetahuni
stove (Figure 3.2) and the intervention focused on cook-stoves’ performance and their
adoption.)
Figure 3.3 Examples of tsotso stoves
Figure 3.4 Three stone/open fire stove

UNICEF Sustainable Energy for Children 2016_FINAL_A4

UNICEF Sustainable Energy for Children 2016_FINAL_A4

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