education

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RKMFILES CENTER FOR
COMPREHENSIVE STUDIES
Room 309, 3rd
Floor A-Building, Main AUF Campus, Angeles University Foundation
Email: rkmfiles@yahoo.com Website: www.rkmfiles.net CP: 09088849680
COMPILED BY:
LUCIA M. HIPOLITO -- ROMMEL K. MANWONG -- ALFIE P. SARMIENTO
REVIEW NOTES IN
CRIMINAL SOCIOLOGY, ETHICS
& HUMAN RELATIONS
INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
HUMAN BEHAVIOR & CRISIS MANAGEMENT
STUDY ON JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
CRIMINOLOGICAL (POLICE) ETHICS
CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM

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INTRODUCTION TO CRIMINOLOGY
CRIMINOLOGY defined
Criminology is a body of knowledge regarding delinquency and crime as a social phenomenon (Tradio,
1999). It may also refer to the study of crimes and criminals and the attempt of analyzing scientifically their causes and
control and the treatment of criminals.
Criminology is a multidisciplinary study of crimes (Bartol, 1995). This means that many disciplines are
involved in the collection of knowledge about criminal action, including, psychology, sociology, anthropology, biology,
neurology, political science and economics. But over the years, sociology, psychology, and psychiatry have dominated
the study of crime.
Sub-Fields of Criminology
Sociological Criminology – the study of crime focused on the group of people and society as a whole. It is
primarily based on the examination of the relationship of demographic and group variables to crime. Variables such as
socioeconomic status, interpersonal relationships, age, race, gender, and cultural groups of people are probed in
relation to the environmental factors that are most conducive to criminal action, such as time, place, and circumstances
surrounding the crime.
Psychological Criminology – the science of behavior and mental processes of the criminal. It is focused on
the individual criminal behavior-how it is acquired, evoked, maintained, and modified. Both the environmental and
personality influences are considered, along with the mental processes that mediate the behavior.
Psychiatric Criminology – the science that deals with the study of crime through forensic psychiatry, the
study of criminal behavior in terms of motives and drives that strongly relies on the individual. (Psychoanalytic Theory -
Sigmund Freud – traditional view). It also explains that criminals are acting out of uncontrollable animalistic,
unconscious, or biological urges (modern view).
Scope of the Study of Criminology
1. Criminal Behavior or Criminal Etiology - the scientific analysis of the causes of crime;
2. Sociology of Law - the study of law and its application;
3. Penology or Correction - the study that deals with punishment and the treatment of criminals;
4. Criminalistics or Forensic Science - one more area of concern in crime detection and investigation.
Nature of Criminology
Understanding crime is as complex as other fields of interest. It requires therefore a systematic and balanced
knowledge in the examination of why they exist. In this sense, criminology is:
1. An Applied Science – Anthropology, psychology, sociology and other natural sciences may be applied in
the study of the causes of crime while chemistry, medicine, physics, mathematics, etc. maybe utilized in
crime detection.
2. A Social Science – Inasmuch as crime is a societal creation and that it exists in a society, its study must be
considered a part of social science.
3. Dynamic – Criminology changes as social condition changes. That means the progress of criminology is
concordant with the advancement of other sciences that have been applied to it.
4. Nationalistic – The study of crime must always be in relation with the existing criminal law with in the
territory.

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OBJECT OF INTEREST IN CRIMINOLOGY
CRIME
In as much as the definition of crime is concerned, many field of study like law, sociology and psychology
have their respective emphasis on what crime is.
Crime may be defined as:
 An act or omission in violation of a criminal law in its legal point of view.
 An anti-social act; an act that is injurious, detrimental or harmful to the norms of society; they are the
unacceptable acts in its social definition.
 Psychologically, crime is an act, which is considered undesirable due to behavioral maladjustment of the
offender; acts that are caused by maladaptive or abnormal behaviors.
CRIME is also a generic name that refers to offense, felony and delinquency or misdemeanor.
 Offense – is an act or omission that is punishable by special laws ( a special law is a statute enacted by
Congress, penal in character, which is not an amendment to the Revised Penal Code) such as Republic
Acts, Presidential Decrees, Executive Orders, Memorandum Circulars, Ordinances and Rules and
Regulations ( Reyes, 1960)
 Felony – is an act or mission that is punishable by the Revised Penal Code, the criminal law in the
Philippines (Reyes, 1960).
 Delinquency/Misdemeanor – acts that are in violation of simple rules and regulations usually referring to
acts committed by minor offenders.
Criminological Classification of Crime
Crimes are classified in order to focus a better understanding on their existence. Criminologists consider the
following as criminological classification of crimes (Criminology Reviewer, 1996).
 Acquisitive and Extinctive Crimes - Acquisitive Crime is one which when committed, the offender
acquires something as a consequence of his criminal act. The crime is extinctive when the result of criminal
act is destruction.
 Seasonal and Situational Crimes - Seasonal crimes are those that are committed only at certain period of
the year while situational crimes are those that are committed only when given a situation conducive to its
commission.
 Episodic and Instant Crimes - Episodic crimes are serial crimes; they are committed by series of act within
a lengthy space of time. Instant crimes are those that are committed the shortest possible time.
 Static and Continuing Crimes - Static crimes are crimes that are committed only in one place. Continuing
crime are crimes that are committed in several places.
 Rational and Irrational Crimes - Rational crimes are those committed with intent; offender is in full
possession of his mental faculties /capabilities while Irrational crimes are committed without intent; offender
does not know the nature of his act.
 White Collar and Blue Collar Crimes - White Collar Crimes are those committed by a person of
responsibility and of upper socio-economic class in the course of their occupational activities. Blue Collar
Crimes are those committed by ordinary professionals to maintain their livelihood.
 Upper World and Underworld Crimes - Upper World Crimes are those committed by individuals belonging
to the upper class of society. Under World Crime are committed by members of the lower or under privilege
class of society.
 Crimes by Imitation and Crimes by Passion - Crimes by Imitation are crimes committed by merely
duplication of what was done by others. Crimes by Passion are crimes committed because of the fit of great
emotions.

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 Service Crimes - Service Crime refers to crimes committed through rendition of a service to satisfy desire of
another.
Legal Classification of Crimes
Under the law, crimes are classified as:
 Crimes against National Security and the Law of Nations -
Example – Treason, Espionage, Piracy
 Crimes against the Fundamental Law of the State.
Example – Arbitrary Detention, Violation of Domicile
 Crimes against Public Order.
Example – Rebellion, Sedition, Coup d’tat
 Crimes against Public Interest.
Example – Forgery, Falsification, Fraud
 Crimes against Public Morals
Example – Gambling and betting, offences against decency and good customs like scandals,
obscenity, vagrancy, and prostitution
 Crimes Committed by Public Officers
Example – Malfeasance and Misfeasance
 Crimes against Person
Example – Murder, Rape, Physical Injuries
 Crimes against Properties
Example – Robbery, Theft
 Crimes against Personal Liberty and Security
Example – Illegal Detention, Kidnapping, Trespass to Dwelling, Threat and Coercion
 Crimes against Chastity
Example – Concubinage, Adultery, Seduction, Abduction, Acts of Lasciviousness
 Crimes against Civil Status of Persons
Example – Bigamy and Other Illegal Marriages
 Crimes against Honor
Example – Libel, Oral Defamation
 Quasi-offenses or Criminal Negligence
Example – Imprudence and Negligence
THE CRIMINAL
On the basis of the definition of crime, a criminal may be defined in three ways:
 A person who committed a crime and has been convicted by a court of the violation of a criminal law. (legal
definition)
 A person who violated a social norm or one who did an anti-social act. (social definition)
 A person who violated rules of conduct due to behavioral maladjustment. (psychological definition)
Criminological Classification of Criminals
Based on Etiology
 Acute Criminal is one who violates a criminal law because of the impulse or fit of passion. They commit
passionate crimes.
 Chronic Criminal is one who commits crime acted in consonance of deliberated thinking. He plans the crime
ahead of time. They are the targeted offenders.

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Based on Behavioral System
 Ordinary Criminal is considered the lowest form of criminal in a criminal career. He doesn’t stick to crime as
a profession but rather pushed to commit crimes due to great opportunity.
 Organized Criminal is one who associates himself with other criminals to earn a high degree of organization
to enable them to commit crimes easily without being detected by authorities. They commit organized crimes.
 Professional Criminal is a person who is engaged in criminal activities with high degree of skill. He is
usually one who practices crime as a profession to maintain a living.
Based on Activities
 Professional Criminals are those who practice crime as a profession for a living. Criminal activity is
constant in order to earn skill and develop ability in their commission.
 Accidental Criminals are those who commit crimes when the situation is conducive to its commission.
 Habitual Criminals are those who continue to commit crime because of deficiency of intelligence and lack of
self – control.
Based on Mental Attitudes
 Active Criminals are those who commit crimes due to aggressiveness.
 Passive Inadequate Criminals are those who commit crimes because they are pushed to it by reward or
promise.
 Socialized Delinquents are criminals who are normal in behavior but defective in their socialization process
or development.
Based on Legal Classification
 Habitual Delinquent is a person who, with in a period of ten years from the date of his release or last
conviction of the crimes of serious or less serious physical injuries, robbery, estafa, or falsification, is found
guilty of any of the said crimes or a third time oftener.
 Recidivist is one who, at the time of his trial for one crime, shall have been previously convicted by final
judgment of another crime embraced in the same title of the Revised Penal Code.
CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
Crime in its legal definition may constitute an intentional act in violation of the criminal law and penalized by
the state a felony, offense or misdemeanor. Criminal behavior, therefore, is an intentional behavior that violates a
criminal code (Bartol, 1995).
Criminal behavior may also refer to the study of the human conduct focused on the mental processes of the
criminal: the way he behaves or acts including his activities and the causes and influences if his criminal behavior.
VICTIMS OF CRIME
Victimology is simply the study of victims of crimes and contributory role, if any, in crime causation. It is also
the scientific process of gaining substantial amounts of knowledge on offender characteristics by studying the nature of
victims. (Schmalleger, 1997).
PENOLOGY (CORRECTION)
This is another object of interest of criminology that deals with punishment of criminal offenders.
Punishment is justified by deterrence, retribution, atonement, societal protection, and reformation of criminals.

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APPROACHES AND THEORIES OF CRIME
SUBJECTIVE APPROACHES - deals mainly on the biological explanation of crimes, focused on the forms
of abnormalities that exist in the individual criminal before, during and after the commission of the crime (Tradio, 1999).
Included under this approach are:
1. Anthropological Approach – the study on the physical characteristics of an individual offender with non-
offenders in the attempt to discover differences covering criminal behavior (Hooton).
2. Medical Approach - the application of medical examinations on the individual criminal explain the mental
and physical condition of the individual prior and after the commission of the crime (Positivist).
3. Biological Approach –the evaluation of genetic influences to criminal behavior. It is noted that heredity is
one force pushing the criminal to crime (Positivist).
4. Physiological Approach – the study on the nature of human being concerning his physical needs in order
to satisfy his ants. It explains that the deprivation of the physical body on the basic needs is an important
determiner of the commission if crime (Maslow).
5. Psychological Approach – it is concerned about the deprivation of the psychological needs of man, which
constitute the development of deviations of normal behavior resulting to unpleasant emotions (Freud,
Maslow).
6. Psychiatric Approach – the explanation of crime through diagnosis of mental diseases as a cause of the
criminal behavior (Positivist).
7. Psychoanalytical Approach – the explanation of crimes based on the Freudian Theory, which traces
behavior as the deviation of the repression of the basic drives (Freud).
OBJECTIVE APPROACHES - The objective approaches deal on the study of groups, social processes and
institutions as influences to behavior. They are primarily derived from social sciences (Tradio, 1999). Under this are:
1. Geographic Approach – this approach considers topography, natural resources, geographical location, and
climate lead an individual to commit crime (Quetelet).
2. Ecological Approach – it is concerned with the biotic grouping of men resulting to migration, competition,
social discrimination, division of labor and social conflict as factors of crime (Park).
3. Economic Approach – it deals with the explanation of crime concerning financial security of inadequacy and
other necessities to support life as factors to criminality (Merton).
4. Socio – Cultural Approach – those that focus on institutions, economic, financial, education, political, and
religious influences to crime (Cohen).
THEORIES OF CRIME AND THE PIONEERS
PRE-CLASSICAL ERA
The Demonological Theory - Before the development of more scientific theories of criminal behavior, one of
the most popular explanations was Demonology (Hagan, 1990). According to this explanation individuals were thought
to be possessed by good or evil spirits, which caused good or evil behavior. The theory maintains that criminal
behavior was believed to be the result of evil spirits and demons something of natural force that controls his/her
behavior. Centuries ago, Guilt and innocence were established by a variety of procedures that presumably called forth
the supernatural allies of the accused. The accused were innocent if they could survive an ordeal, or if miraculous
signs appeared. They were guilty if they died at stake, or if omens were associated with them (Bartol, 1995). Harsh
punishments were also given.
PRE-TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES (18th C – 1738 - 1798)
In the eighteenth century, criminological literature, whether psychological, sociological, or psychiatric in bent,
has traditionally been divided into three broad schools of thought about the causes of crime: the classical, neo-classical
and the positivist schools of criminology.

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The Classical School of Criminology
This is the school of thought advocated by Cesare Beccaria whose real name is Cesare Bonesara Marchese
de Beccaria together with Jeremy Bentham (1823) who proposed “Utilitarian Hedonism”, the theory, which explains
that a person always acts in such a way as to seek pleasure and avoid pain.
Cesare Beccaria in his “ESSAY on Crimes and Punishment” presented his key ideas on the abolition of
torture as a legitimate means of extracting confessions. The Classical theory maintains that man is essentially a moral
creature with absolute free will to choose between good and evil therefore tress is placed upon the criminal himself;
that every man is responsible for his act. Freewill (Beccaria) – a philosophy advocating punishment severe enough for
people to choose, to avoid criminal acts. It includes the belief that a certain criminal act warrants a certain punishment
without any punishment without any variation. Hedonism (Bentham) – the belief that people choose pleasure and
avoid pain.
The Neo-Classical School of Criminology
The neo-classical school of criminology argued that situations or circumstances that made it impossible to
exercise freewill are reasons to exempt the accused from conviction. This school of thought maintains that while the
classical doctrine is correct in general, it should be modified in certain details, that children and lunatics should not be
regarded as criminals and free from punishment, it must take into account certain mitigating circumstances.
The Positivist/Italian School (1838 – 1909)
It maintained that crime as any other act is a natural phenomenon and is comparable to disaster or calamity.
That crime as a social and moral phenomenon which cannot be treated and checked by the imposition of punishment
but rather rehabilitation or the enforcement of individual measures. Cesare Lombroso and his two students, Enrico
Ferri and Rafaele Garofalo advocated this school.
Cesare Lombroso (1836 – 1909) – The Italian leader of the positivist school of criminology, was criticized
for his methodology and his attention to the biological characteristics of offenders, but his emphasis on the need to
study offenders scientifically earned him the “father of modern criminology.” His major contribution is the
development of a scientific approach to the study of criminal behavior and to reform the criminal law. He wrote the
essay entitled “CRIME: Its Causes and Remedies” that contains his key ideas and the classifications of criminals.
Classifications of Criminals by Lombroso
1. Born Criminals – there are born criminals according to Lombroso, the belief that being criminal behavior is
inherited.
2. Criminal by Passion – are individuals who are easily influenced by great emotions like fit of anger.
3. Insane Criminals – are those who commit crime due to abnormalities or psychological disorders. They should
be exempted from criminal liability.
4. Criminoloid – a person who commits crime due to less physical stamina/self self control.
5. Occasional Criminal – are those who commit crime due to insignificant reasons that pushed them to do at a
given occasion.
6. Pseudo-criminals – are those who kill in self-defense.
Enrico Ferri (1856 – 1929) – He was the best-known Lombroso’s associate. His greatest contribution was
his attack on the classical doctrine of free will, which argued that criminals should be held morally responsible for their
crimes because they must have made a rational decision to commit the crime.
Raffaele Garofalo ( 1852 – 1934) – Another follower of Lombroso, an Italian nobleman, magistrate, senator,
and professor of law. Like Lombroso and Ferri, he rejected the doctrine of free will and supported the position that the
only way to understand crime was to study it by scientific methods. Influenced on Lombroso’s theory of atavistic
stigmata (man’s inferior/ animalistic behavior), he traced the roots of criminal behavior not to physical features but to
their psychological equivalents, which he called “moral anomalies”.

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The Classical and Positivist School Compared
Classical School
 Legal definition of crime
 Punishment fit the crime
 Doctrine of free will
 Death penalty allowed
 No imperical research
 Definite sentence
Positivist School
 No to legal definition
 Punishment fit the criminal
 Doctrine of determinism
 Abolition of death penalty
 Inductive method
 Indeterminate sentence
EARLY TWENTIETH CENTURY THEORIES
1. David Emile Durkheim (French, 1858 - 1917) - He advocated the “Anomie Theory”, the theory that
focused on the sociological point of the positivist school, which explains that the absence of norms in a
society provides a setting conductive to crimes and other anti-social acts. According to him, the explanation
of human conduct lies not in the individual but in the group and the social organization.
2. Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1969) - Psychologists have considered a variety of possibilities to account for
individual differences – defective conscience, emotional immaturity, inadequate childhood socialization,
maternal deprivation, and poor moral development. The Freudian view on criminal behavior was based on
the use of Psychology in explaining an approach in understanding criminal behavior – the foundation of the
Psychoanalytical theory.
3. Robert Ezra Park (1864 - 1944) - Park is a strong advocate of the scientific method in explaining criminality
but he is a sociologist. He advocated the “Human Ecology Theory”. Human Ecology is the study of the
interrelationship of people and their environment. This theory maintains that crime is a function of social
change that occurs along with environmental change. It also maintains that the isolation, segregation,
competition, conflict, social contract, interaction and social hierarchy of people are the major influences of
criminal behavior and crimes.
MIDDLE TWENTIETH CENTURY
1. Ernest Kretschmer (1888 – 1964) - The idea of somatotyping was originated from the work of a German
Psychiatrist, Ernest Kretschmer, who distinguished three principal types of physique as:
a. Asthenic – lean, slightly built, narrow shoulders
b. Athletic – medium to tall, strong, muscular, course bones
c. Pyknic – medium height, rounded figure, massive neck, broad face
Kretschmer related these body physique to various pychotic behavioral patterns: Pyknic to manic
depression, asthenics and athletics to schizophrenia.
2. William H. Sheldon (1898 – 1977) - Sheldon is an influenced of the Somatotype School of Criminology,
which related body built to behavior. He became popular of his own Somatotyping Theory. His key ideas
are concentrated on the principle of “Survival of the Fittest” as a behavioral science. He combines the
biological and psychological explanation to understand deviant behavior. Sheldon’s “Somatotyping Theory”
maintains the belief of inheritance as the primary determinants of behavior and the physique is a reliable
indicator of personality.
Classification of Body Physique by Sheldon
a. Endomorphy – a type with relatively predominance of soft, roundness through out the regions of
the body. They have low specific gravity. Persons with typically relaxed and comfortable
disposition.

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b. Mesomorphy – athletic type, predominance of muscle, bone and connective tissue, normally
heavy, hard and firm, sting and tough. They are the people who are routinely active and
aggressive, and they are the most likely to commit crimes.
c. Ectomorphy – thin physique, flat chest, delicacy through the body, slender, poorly muscled. They
tend to look more fatigue and withdrawn.
3. Edwin Sutherland (1883 - 1950) - Sutherland has been referred to as “the most important criminologist of
the twentieth century” because his explanation about crime and criminal behavior can be seen as a corrected
extension of social perspective. For this reason, he was considered as the “Dean of Modern Criminology.”
He said that crime is learned and not inherited.
He advocated the DAT – Differential Association Theory, which maintain that the society is composed of
different group organization, the societies consist of a group of people having criminalistic tradition and anti-
criminalistic tradition. And that criminal behavior is learned and not inherited. It is learned through the
process of communication, and learning process includes technique of committing the crime, motive and
attitude.
4. Walter Reckless (1899 - 1988) - The Containment Theory assumes that for every individual there exists a
containing external structure and a protective internal structure, both of which provide defense, protection or
insulation against crime or delinquency. According to Reckless, the outer structure of an individual are the
external pressures such as poverty, unemployment and blocked opportunities while the inner containment
refers to the person’s self control ensured by strong ego, good self image, well developed conscience, high
frustration tolerance and high sense of responsibility. (Adler, 1995)
5. Karl Marx, Frederick Engel, Willem Bonger (1818 -1940) -They are the proponents of the Social Class
Conflict and Capitalism Theory. Marx and Engel claim that the ruling class in a capitalist society is
responsible for the creation of criminal law and their ideological bases in the interpretation and enforcement
of the laws. All are reflected in the ruling class, thus crime and delinquency are reflected on the demoralized
surplus of population, which is made up of the underprivileged usually the unemployed and underemployed.
Willem Bonger, a Marxist-Socialist, on the other hand, placed more emphasis on working bout crimes of
economic gain. He believes that profit -motive of capitalism generates an egoistic personality. Hence, crime
is an inevitable outcome.
LATE 20TH CENTURY: THE CONTEMPORARY PIONEERS
1. Robert King Merton (1910) - Robert Merton is the premier sociologist of the modern days who, after
Durkheim, also related the crime problem to anomie. He advocated the Strain Theory, which maintains that
the failure of man to achieve a higher status of life caused them to commit crimes in order for that status/goal
to be attained. He argued that crime is a means to achieve goals and the social structure is the root of the
crime problem. Merton’s explanation to criminal behavior assumes that people are law abiding but when
under great pressure will result to crime.
2. Albert Cohen (1918) - He advocated the Sub-Culture Theory of Delinquency. Cohen claims that the lower
class cannot socialize effectively as the middle class in what is considered appropriate middle class
behavior. Thus, the lower class gathered together share their common problems, forming a subculture that
rejects middle class values. Cohen called this process as reaction formation. Much of this behavior comes to
be called delinquent behavior; the subculture is called a gang and the kids are called delinquents. He put
emphasis on the explanation of prevalence, origins, process and purposes as factors to crime.
3. Gresham Sykes (1922) - He advocated the Neutralization Theory. It maintains that an individual will obey
or disobey societal rules depending upon his or her ability to rationalize whether he is protected from hurt or
destruction. People become law abiding if they feel they are benefited by it and they violate it if these laws
are not favorable to them.
4. Lloyd Ohlin (1928) - He advocated the DOT – Differential Opportunity Theory. This theory explained that
society leads the lower class to want things and society does things to people. He claimed that there is

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differential opportunity, or access, to success goals by both legitimate and illegitimate means depending on
the specific location of the individual with in the social structure. Thus, lower class groups are provided with
greater opportunities for the acquisition of deviant acts.
5. Frank Tennenbaum, Edwin Lemert, Howard Becker (1822 - 1982) - They are the advocates of the
Labeling Theory – the theory that explains about social reaction to behavior. The theory maintains that the
original cause of crime cannot be known, no behavior is intrinsically criminal, behavior becomes criminal if it
is labeled as such.
6. Earl Richard Quinney (1934) – He was a Marxist criminologist who advocated the Instrumentalist Theory
of capitalist rule. He argued that the state exist as a device for controlling the exploited class – the class that
labors for the benefit of the ruling class. He claims that upper classes create laws that protect their interest
and t the same time the unwanted behavior of all other members of society. Quinney major contribution is
that he proposed the shift in focus from looking for the causes of crime from the individual to the examination
of the Criminal Justice System for clues.
OTHER THEORISTS
1. Charles Darwin’s Theory (1809 - 1882) - In the theory of evolution, he claimed that humans, like other
animals, are parasite. Man is an organism having an animalistic behavior that is dependent on other animals
for survival. Thus, man kills and steal to live.
2. Charles Goring’s Theory (1870 - 1919) - The medical officer in prison in England who accepted the
Lombroso’s challenge that body physique is a determinant to behavior. Goring concluded that there is no
such thing a physical chemical type. He contradicted the Lombroso’s idea that criminality can be seen
through features alone. Nevertheless, Goring accepted that criminals are physically inferior to normal
individuals in the sense that criminals tend to be shorter and have less weight than non-criminals.
3. Earnest Hooton’s Theory (1887 - 1954) - An Anthropologist who reexamined the work of Goring and found
out that “Tall thin men tend to commit forgery and fraud, undersized men are thieves and burglars, short
heavy person commit assault, rape and other sex crimes; where as mediocre (average) physique flounder
around among other crimes.” He also contended that criminals are originally inferior; and that crime is the
result of the impact of environment.
4. Adolphe Quetelet (1796 - 1874) - Quetelet was a Belgian Statistician who pioneered Cartography and the
Carthographical School of Criminology that placed emphasis on social statistics. He discovered, basing on
his research, that crimes against persons increased during summer and crimes against property tends to
increase during winter.
HISTORICAL TIMELINE OF THE THEORIES
The history of criminology dates back from the works of criminological thinkers or theorists in criminology.
The origins of criminology are usually located in the late-eighteenth-century writings of those who sought to reform
criminal justice and penal systems that they perceived as cruel, inhumane, and arbitrary. These old systems applied
the law unequally, were subject to great corruption, and often used torture and the death penalty indiscriminately.
THEORY MOTIVE
Demonology (5,000 BC-1692 AD) Demonic Influence
Astrology (3500 BC-1630 AD) Zodiac/Planetary Influence
Theology (1215 BC-present) God's will
Medicine (3000 BC -present) Natural illness
Education (1642-present) Academic underachievement/bad teachers
Psychiatry (1795-present) Mental illness
Psychoanalysis (1895-present) Subconscious guilt/defense mechanisms

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Classical School of Criminology (1690--) Free will/reason/hedonism
Positive School of Criminology (1840--) Determinism/beyond control of individual
Phrenology (1770-1875) Bumps on head
Cartography (1800-present) Geographic location/climate
Mental Testing (1895-present) Feeble-mindedness/retardation/low IQ
Osteopathy (1892-present) Abnormalities of bones or joints
Chiropractics (1895-present) Misalignment of spine/nerves
Imitation (1843-1905) Mind on mind crowd influences
Economics (1818-present) Poverty/economic need/consumerism
Case Study Approach (1909-present) Emotional/social development
Social Work (1903-present) Community/individual relations
Sociology (1908-present) Social/environmental factors
Castration (1907-1947) Secretion of androgen from testes
Ecology (1927-present) Relation of person with environment
Transexualism (1937-1969) Trapped in body of wrong sex
Psychosurgery (1935-1959) Frontal lobe dysfunction/need lobotomy
Culture Conflict (1938-1980) Conflict of customs from “old” country
Differential Association (1939-present) Learning from bad companions
Anomie (1938-present) State of normlessness/goal-means gap
Differential Opportunity (1961-present) Absence of legitimate opportunities
Alienation (1938-1975) Frustration/feeling cut off from others
Identity (1942-1980) Hostile attitude/crisis/sense of sameness
Identification (1950-1955) Making heroes out of legendary criminals
Containment (1961-1971) Outer temptation/inner resistance balance
Prisonization (1940-1970) Customs and folkways of prison culture
Gang Formation (1927-present) Need for acceptance, status, belonging
Behavior Modification (1938-1959) Reward/Punishment Programming
Social Defense (1947-1971) Soft targets/absence of crime prevention
Guided Group Interaction (1958-1971) Absence of self-responsibility/discussion
Interpersonal Maturity (1965-1983) Unsocialized, subcultural responses
Sociometry (1958-1969) One’s place in group network system
Dysfunctional Families (1958-present) Members “feed off” other’s neurosis
White-collar Crime (1945-present) Cutting corners/bordering on illegal
Control Theory (1961-present) Weak social bonds/natural predispositions
Strain Theory (1954-present) Anger, relative deprivation, inequality
Subcultures (1955-present) Criminal values as normal within group
Labeling Theory (1963-1976) Self-fulfilling prophecies/name-calling
Neutralization (1957-1990) Self-talk, excuses before behavior
Drift (1964-1984) Sense of limbo/living in two worlds
Reference Groups (1953-1978) Imaginary support groups
Operant Conditioning (1953-1980) Stimuli-to-stimuli contingencies
Reality Therapy (1965-1975) Failure to face reality
Gestalt Therapy (1969-1975) Perception of small part of "big picture"
Transactional Analysis (1961-1974) No communication between inner parent-adult-child
Learning Disabilities (1952-1984) School failure/relying on "crutch"
Biodynamics (1955-1962) Lack of harmony with environment
Nutrition and Diet (1979-present) Imbalances in mineral/vitamin content

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Metabolism (1950-1970) Imbalance in metabolic system
Biofeedback (1974-1981) Involuntary reactions to stress
Biosocial Criminology (1977-1989) Environment triggers inherited "markers"
The "New Criminology" (1973-1983) Ruling class oppression
Conflict Criminology (1969-present) Structural barriers to class interests
Critical Criminology (1973-present) Segmented group formations
Radical Criminology (1976-present) Inarticulation of theory/praxis
Left Realism (1984-present) Working class prey on one another
Criminal Personality (1976-1980) Errors of thinking
Criminal Pathways Theory (1979-present) Critical turning/tipping points in life events
Feminism (1980-present) Patriarchial power structures
Low Self Control Theory (1993-present) Impulsiveness, Sensation-seeking
General Strain Theory (1994-present) Stress, Hassles, Interpersonal Relations
CRIMES OF THE MODERN WORLD
The crimes in the modern world represent the latest and the most dangerous manifestations of the
something-for-nothing-complex problems of society. This includes Organized Crimes, White-Collar Crimes,
Conventional Cries, Victimless Crimes and the so-called Transnational Crimes. The transnational character of many
crimes in this modern world, although not new, has not been fully recognized until recently. Crime was traditionally
viewed as a purely domestic law enforcement issue and, therefore, treated and addressed as an exclusive concern of
individual states. As such crimes, being a new threat to domestic and international interest and security, has given
recognition to be known as Transnational Crimes.
Transnational crime is an offense that has an international dimension and implies crossing at least one
national border before, during or after the fact. This include but not limited to illegal drug trafficking, money laundering,
terrorism, arm smuggling, piracy, kidnapping, trafficking in persons, and cyber crimes. Most of these crimes falling
under this category reflect connection with organized and white-collar criminals.
ORGANIZED CRIMES
An organized Crime is a criminal activity by an enduring structure or organization developed and devoted
primarily to the pursuit of profits through illegal means. It is sometimes referred to as the “MOB”, “MAFIA”,
“SYNDICATE” or the “COSA NOSTRA”, which are known as “the enemy with in”, “the 2nd government“, “the 5th estate”
or the “crime confederation.”
The term Cosa Nostra (literally means “one thing”) or mafia is use to signify organized crimes, and one of the
varieties names for either mob or syndicate. A strict code of conduct governs their behavior called the “Omerta” – the
mafia’s code of secrecy, and informal, unwritten code of organized crime, which demand silence and loyalty, among
other thing, of family members. (Abandinsky, 1991). Whatever be the name, the organization is known to be formal,
with division of labor, with coordination of activities through rules and codes and with allocation of task in order to
achieve illegitimate goals. The organization seeks profit from crimes and tries to prevent itself from threats,
prosecution, and even punishment from legal authorities.
Criminal organizations keep illegal actions secret, and members communicate by word of mouth, therefore
police will never be able to trace phone calls or letters. Many organized crime operations have legal fronts, such as
licensed gambling, building construction, and trash hauling, or which operate in parallel with and provide cover for drug
trafficking, money laundering, prostitution, extortion, murder for hire, hijacking, fraud, and insider trading. Other criminal
operations engage in human trafficking, political corruption, black marketeering, political violence, racist and religiously
motivated violence, terrorism, abduction, prison break and crimes against humanity.

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In order for a criminal organization to prosper, some degree of support is required from the society in which it
lives. Thus, it is often necessary to corrupt some of its respected members, most commonly achieved through bribery,
blackmail, and the establishment of symbiotic relationships with legitimate businesses. Judicial and police officers and
legislators are especially targeted for control by organized crime via bribes.
Globalization occurs in crime as much as it does in business. Criminal organizations easily cross boundaries
between countries. This is especially true of organized groups that engage in human trafficking. The newest growth
sectors for organized crime are identity theft and online extortion. These activities are troubling because they
discourage consumers from using the Internet for e-commerce. E-commerce was supposed to level the playing ground
between small and large businesses, but the growth of online organized crime is leading to the opposite effect; large
businesses are able to afford more bandwidth (to resist denial-of-service attacks) and superior security. Furthermore,
organized crime using the Internet is much harder to trace down for the police (even though they increasingly deploy
cybercops) since police forces and law enforcement agencies in general operate on a national level while the Internet
makes it even more simple for criminal organizations to cross boundaries and even to operate completely remotely.
Organized Crime Families
Perhaps the best-known criminal organizations are the Sicilian and American Cosa Nostra, most
commonly known as the Mafia. The Neopolitan Camorra, the Calabrian 'Ndrangheta, and the Apulian Sacra
Corona Unita are similar Italian organized crime groups.
Other notable groups include the Colombian drug cartels, the Mexican drug cartels, The Irish Mob, the
Japanese Yakuza, the Chinese Triads, the Russian Mafia, the Mexican Mafia, the Indian Mafia, the Bulgarian Mafia,
the Chechen mafia, the Brazilian Comando Vermelho (CV) and Primeiro Comando da Capital (PCC), and the Central
American Mara Salvatrucha (MS-13). Prisoners may also be involved in criminal organizations. Many terrorist groups,
such as Hezbollah, Al Qaeda, the Provisional IRA and the Ulster Defence Association also engage in criminal activity
such as trafficking and money laundering as well as terrorism.
World leaders throughout history who have been accused of running their country like a criminal organization
include Adolf Hitler, Joseph Stalin, Mao Zedong, Augusto Pinochet, Idi Amin, Mobutu Sese Seko, Nicolae Ceauşescu,
Francisco Franco, Hugo Banzer, Chiang Kai-shek, Slobodan Milošević, Vladimir Putin, Silvio Berlusconi, Alberto
Fujimori (in league with his advisor Vladimiro Montesinos), Senior General Than Shwe of Burma and various other
dictators and military juntas. Corrupt political leaders may have links to existing organized crime groups, either
domestic or international, or else may simply exercise power in a manner that duplicates the functioning and purpose
of organized crime.
In the past criminal organizations have naturally limited themselves by their need to expand. This has put
them in competition with each other. This competition, often leading to violence, uses valuable resources such as
manpower (either killed or sent to prison), equipment and finances. The Irish Mob boss of the Winter Hill Gang (in the
1980s) turned informant for the FBI. He used this position to eliminate competition and consolidate power within the
city of Boston which led to the imprisonment of several senior organized crime figures including Gennaro "Jerry"
Anguilo underboss of the Patriarca crime family. Infighting sometimes occurs within an organization, such as the
Castellamarese war of 1930-31 and the Irish Mob Wars of the 1960s and 70s.
Today criminal organizations are increasingly working together, realizing that it is better to work in
cooperation rather than in competition with each other. This has led to the rise of global criminal organizations such as
Mara Salvatrucha. The Sicilian Mafia in the U.S. have had links with organized crime groups in Italy such as the
Camorra, the 'Ndrangheta and the Sacra Corona Unita. The Sicilian Mafia has also been known to work with the Irish
Mob (John Gotti of the Gambino family and James Coonan of the Westies are known to have worked together, with the
westies operating as a contract hit squad for the Gambino family after they helped Coonan come to power) , the
Japanese Yakuza and the Russian Mafia.

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How the Organized Crime Group Works?
For the organization to work there must be:
1. An Enforcer – one who make arrangements for killing and injuring (physically, economically,
psychologically) the members or non-members.
2. A Corrupter – one who bribes, buys, intimidates, threatens, negotiates, and “sweet talks” into a relationship
with the police, public officials or any else who might help the members security and maintain immunity from
arrest, prosecution and punishment.
3. A Corruptee – a public official, usually not a member of the organization family, who can wield influence on
behalf of the organization’s interest.
Sources of Illegal Profit
The organization gains from goods and services that are of great demand by the society but are prohibited
by law. It includes but not limited to most victimless crimes such as illegal drugs, alcohol, gambling, pornography, and
including bank fraud, extortion or racketeering and others.
Characteristics of Organized Crimes
1. It is a conspiracy activity involving coordination of members.
2. Economic gain is the primary goal.
3. Economic gain is achieved through illegal means.
4. Employs predatory tactics such as intimidation, violence and corruption.
5. Effective control over members, associates, and victims.
6. Organized crimes does not include terrorist dedicated to political change.
Generic Types of Organized Crimes
1. Political Graft – manned by political criminals (Political Graft), who use of force and violence of a means to
obtain profit or gain, and or achieving political aims or ambitions. An example of this is vote buying, and the
employment of private armies to control a certain political area.
2. The Mercenary/Predatory Organized Crime – crimes committed by groups for direct personal profit but prey
upon unwilling victims. Example: extortionist/racketeer
3. In – Group Oriented Organized Crime – groups manned by semi organized individual whose major goals are
for psychological gratification such as adolescent gangs. Example: Motorcycle Gangs
4. Syndicated Crime – the organization that participates in illicit activity in society by the use of force, threat, or
intimidation. The group with a formal structure – whose purpose is to provide elicit services, which are in
strong public demand through the use of secrecy on the part of the associates. There is assurance of
protection necessary for its operations through political corruption or avoidance of prosecution.
Essential Composition of Organized Crime
Organized crime needs professional criminals to successfully operate in the organization. Professional
crimes refer to occupations or their incumbents, which possesses various traits including useful knowledge that
requires lengthy training, service orientation and code of ethics that permits occupations to attempt to obtain autonomy
and independence with high prestige and remuneration.

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Characteristics of Professional Crimes (Sutherland)
1. Crime is a sole means of livelihood.
2. Careful planning, and reliance upon technical skills and methods.
3. Offenders are of migratory life style.
4. The groups have shared sense of belongingness, rules, codes of behavior, and mutual specialized language.
Criminological Types of Organized Crimes
1. Traditional Crime Syndicates.
2. Non-traditional Crime Syndicates
3. Semi- Organized Crime
4. Politically Controlled Organized Crime
Controlling Organized Crimes
Organized crimes can be controlled through: Law Enforcement Effort, Organization of Anti-Organized Crime
measures, Community Awareness and Cooperation
Philippine Center for Transnational Crime
In response to organized criminal activities, the Philippine government has instituted programs and projects
to address these threats to national and international interest and security. It has created the Philippine Center on
Transnational Crime (PCTC) (E.O. No.62 s1999) to establish a shared central database among concerned agencies
for information on criminals, methodologies, arrests, and convictions on transnational crime in all its forms. Apart from
this, the Center is mandated to discharge the following:
1. Supervise and control conduct of anti-transnational crime operations of all government agencies and
instrumentalities:
2. Establish a central database on national as well as international legislations and jurisprudence on
transnational crime, with the end in view of recommending measures to strengthen responses and provide
immediate intervention for the prevention, detection and apprehension of criminals operating in the country;
3. Establish a center for strategic research on the structure and dynamics of transnational crime, predict trends
and analyze relationships of given factors for the formulation of strategies to combat the same;
4. Design programs and projects aimed at enhancing national capacity-building in combating transnational
crime, as well as supporting the related programs and projects of other ASEAN and international centers;
and
5. Explore and coordinate information exchanges and training with other government agencies, foreign
countries and international organizations involved in containing and eliminating transnational crime.
Executive Order No. 100 s1999
To further strengthen the operational, administrative and information support system of the PCTC, E.O. No.
100 s1999 empowered the Center to exercise general supervision and control over the following:
1. Loop Center of the National Action Committee on Anti-Hijacking and Terrorism (NACAHT) whose primary
mission is to assist and support the NACAHT in integrating and orchestrating the efforts of all law
enforcement agencies against international and domestic terrorism;
2. International Criminal Police Organization ICPO-INTERPOL NCB-Manila which has been reconstituted to
serve as the national liaison office and main coordinating body for international police cooperation against
transnational crime;
3. Police Attachés of the Philippine National Police (PNP); and
4. Political Attachés/ Counselors for Security Matters of the Department of the Interior and Local Government
(DILG)

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WHITE COLLAR CRIMES
Edwin Sutherland defined white-collar crime as criminal acts committed by a person of respectability and
high social status in the course of his or her occupation.
Forms of White Collar Crimes
1. Corporate crimes - the violation of a criminal statute either by a corporate entity or by its executives,
employees or agents, acting on behalf of and for the benefit of the corporation, partnership or other business
entity.
2. Environmental crimes - violation of criminal law which, although typically committed by businesses or by
business officials, may also be committed by other persons or organizational entities, and which damage
some protected or otherwise significant aspect of the natural environment.
3. Occupational crimes - any act punishable by law, which is committed through opportunity created in the
course of an occupation that is legal.
 Organizational Occupational Crime - crimes committed for the benefit of the entire organization in
such instances only the organization or the employer, not individual employees.
 State Authority Occupational Crime - crimes by officials through the exercise of their state-based
authority. Such crime is occupation specific, and can only be committed by person in public office
or by working for such persons.
 Professional Occupational Crime - crimes by professionals in their capacity as professionals. The
crimes of physicians, attorneys, psychologists, and the like are included here.
 Individual Occupational Crime - crimes by individuals as individuals which include income tax
evasion, theft of goods and services by employees, the filing of false expense report, and the like.
Occupational crimes also refer to:
 White-collar crime (Sutherland)
 Avocational crime - committed by one who does not think for himself as criminal and whose major source of
income is something other than crime.
 Corporate crime - committed by corporate officials for their corporations and the offenses of the corporation
and the offenses of the corporation itself.
 Economic crime - illegal activity that principally involves deceit, misrepresentation, concealment,
manipulation, breach of trust and illegal circumvention.
 Organizational crime - illegal actions taken in accordance with operative organizational goals that seriously
harm employees or the general public.
 Upper-world crime - law-breaking acts, committed by those who, due to their positions in the structure, have
obtained specialized kinds of occupational slots essential for the commission of these offenses.
Types and Schemes of White Collar Crimes
1. Bank Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity where the purpose is to defraud a bank of funds.
2. Blackmail: A demand for money or other consideration under threat to do bodily harm, to injure property, to
accuse of a crime, or to expose secrets.
3. Bribery: When money, goods, services, information or anything else of value is offered with intent to
influence the actions, opinions, or decisions of the taker. You may be charged with bribery whether you offer
the bribe or accept it.
4. Cellular Phone Fraud: The unauthorized use, tampering, or manipulation of a cellular phone or service. This
can be accomplished by either use of a stolen phone, or where an actor signs up for service under false
identification or where the actor clones a valid electronic serial number (ESN) by using an ESN reader and
reprograms another cellular phone with a valid ESN number.
5. Computer fraud: Where computer hackers steal information sources contained on computers such as: bank
information, credit cards, and proprietary information.

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6. Counterfeiting: Occurs when someone copies or imitates an item without having been authorized to do so
and passes the copy off for the genuine or original item. Counterfeiting is most often associated with money
however can also be associated with designer clothing, handbags and watches.
7. Credit Card Fraud: The unauthorized use of a credit card to obtain goods of value.
8. Currency Schemes: The practice of speculating on the future value of currencies.
9. Embezz1ement: When a person who has been entrusted with money or property appropriates it for his or
her own use and benefit.
10. Environmental Schemes: The over billing and fraudulent practices exercised by corporations which purport
to clean up the environment.
11. Extortion: Occurs when one person illegally obtains property from another by actual or threatened force,
fear, or violence, or under cover of official right.
12. Forgery: When a person passes a false or worthless instrument such as a check or counterfeit security with
the intent to defraud or injure the recipient.
13. Health Care Fraud: Where an unlicensed health care provider provides services under the guise of being
licensed and obtains monetary benefit for the service.
14. Insider Trading: When a person uses inside, confidential, or advance information to trade in shares of
publicly held corporations.
15. Insurance Fraud: To engage in an act or pattern of activity wherein one obtains proceeds from an insurance
company through deception.
16. Investment Schemes: Where an unsuspecting victim is contacted by the actor who promises to provide a
large return on a small investment.
17. Kickback: Occurs when a person who sells an item pays back a portion of the purchase price to the buyer.
18. Larceny/Theft: When a person wrongfully takes another person's money or property with the intent to
appropriate, convert or steal it.
19. Money Laundering: The investment or transfer of money from racketeering, drug transactions or other
embezzlement schemes so that it appears that its original source either cannot be traced or is legitimate.
20. Racketeering: The operation of an illegal business for personal profit.
21. Securities Fraud: The act of artificially inflating the price of stocks by brokers so that buyers can purchase a
stock on the rise.
22. Tax Evasion: When a person commits fraud in filing or paying taxes.
23. Telemarketing Fraud: Actors operate out of boiler rooms and place telephone calls to residences and
corporations where the actor requests a donation to an alleged charitable organization or where the actor
requests money up front or a credit card number up front, and does not use the donation for the stated
purpose.
24. Welfare Fraud: To engage in an act or acts where the purpose is to obtain benefits (i.e. Public Assistance,
Food Stamps, or Medicaid) from the State or Federal Government.
25. Weights and Measures: The act of placing an item for sale at one price yet charges a higher price at the
time of sale or short weighing an item when the label reflects a higher weight.
26. Advanced Fee Schemes: Actor induces victim to give him some type of advanced fee in return for a future
benefit. The future benefit never occurs and victim never receives the advanced fee back.
27. Airport Scam: Actor approaches victim in an airport stating that the newspaper stand cannot change his one
hundred dollar bill and asks the victim for change. Victim provides actor with the change, actor returns to the
store to get the one hundred dollar bill back, however, never returns to victim.
28. Auto Repair: Actor hangs out around an auto repair shop and approaches victims who leave after getting
estimates. Actor claims to do work off duty at a very low cost. Once actor has the car, inferior work is
completed and victim cannot get the return of the car until the very high bill is paid.
29. Check Kiting: A bank account is opened with good funds and a rapport is developed with the bank. Actor
then deposits a series of bad checks but prior to their discovery, withdraws funds from the bank.
30. Coupon Redemption: Grocery stores amass large amounts of coupons and redeem them to manufacturers
when in fact merchandise was never sold.
31. Directory Advertising: Actor either impersonates sales person from a directory company like the yellow
pages or fraudulently sells advertising which the victim never receives.
32. Fortune Telling: Actor advises victim that victim is cursed. Actor advises victim that the curse must be
removed. Actor advises that she must meditate to the spirits and will require payment. Over a period of time,
victim pays fortune teller thousands of dollars to remove curse.

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33. Gypsies: Actor states that victims’ money is cursed. In order to remove the curse, the money must be placed
into a bag or box that the actor provides. The bag or box is switched. Actor advises victim to perform certain
rituals over the money and the curse will be removed. The bag or box cannot be opened for a period of time
when it is opened, the money is gone.
34. Home Improvement: Actor approaches a home owner with a very low estimate for a repair or improvement.
Inferior or incomplete work is performed. Once the repairs are completed, actor intimidates the victim to pay
a price much greater than the original estimate.
35. Inferior Equipment: Actors travel around selling inferior equipment such as tools at high prices.
36. Jamaican Switch: Actor #1 approaches a victim looking for the address of a prostitute. Actor #1 shows a
large sum of money to the victim. Actor #2 arrives and tells Actor #1 where he can find the prostitute but
cautions on taking all the money as the prostitute might rob him. Actor #1 asks the victim to hold the money
for him. Actor #1 puts his money into a handkerchief with the victim’s money. Actor #1 shows the victim how
to hide the money under his arm, inside his shirt while switching handkerchiefs. Victim takes the
handkerchief and the parties split up, however, Actor #1 leaves with victim’s money.
37. Land Fraud: Actor induces victim to purchase tracks of land in some type of retirement development which
does not exist.
38. Odometer Fraud: Unscrupulous used car salesman purchased used cars and turns back the odometers.
The used car is sold at a higher price due to its low mileage.
39. Pigeon Drop: Actor #1 befriends the victim. Actor #2 shows both Actor #1 and victim a "found" package
containing a large amount of cash. Actor #1 insists that the found money be divided equally but only after
each person puts up his own money to demonstrate good faith. All the money is put in one package and the
package is later switched.
40. Police Impersonation: Actor tells victim that his bank is being operated by fraudulent bank officers. Actor
instructs victim to take money out of bank and place it into a good bank. After the money is withdrawn, the
actor allegedly takes the money to the police station for safe keeping. The victim never sees the money
again.
41. Ponzi: An investment scheme where the actor solicits investors in a business venture, promising extremely
high financial returns or dividends in a very short period of time. The actor never invests the money,
however, does pay dividends. The dividends consist of the newest investors funds. The first investors,
pleased to receive dividends, encourage new investors to invest. This scheme falls apart when the actor no
longer has sufficient new investors to distribute dividends to the old investors or the actor simply takes all the
funds and leaves the area.
42. Pyramid: An investment fraud in which an individual is offered a distributorship or franchise to market a
particular product. The promoter of the pyramid represents that although marketing of the product will result
in profits, larger profits will be earned by the sale of franchises. For example, if a franchise price is P10,
000.00, the seller receives P3, 500.00 for every franchise sold. Each new franchise purchaser is presented
with the same proposal so that each franchise owner is attempting to sell franchises. Once the supply of
potential investors is exhausted, the pyramid collapses. Many times, there are no products involved in the
franchise, simply just the exchange of money.
43. Quick Change: Victim is confused by actor’s speedy series of money exchanges and in the end, is short
changed.
44. Shell Game: Actor #1 manipulates a pea beneath three walnut shells or bottle caps. Actor #1 moves the
caps around and shows victim the cap with the pea under it. With the encouragement of another player, also
Actor #2, victim places larger and larger bets as to which cap contains the pea. The game is ended by Actor
#1 when the take is large enough.
45. Utilities Impersonators: Actor impersonates utilities employees by wearing jumpsuits with name tags. Actor
approaches victim with story about a gas leak or electrical surge to gain entry to the home. Valuables are
taken by actor.
46. VCR Scam: Actor purports to sell new VCR's or televisions at an extremely low cost due to his connections.
Victim pays for the VCR or television only to discover that the box has been filled with rocks.
47. West African Investment Scams: Actors target businesses and obtain business' bank account information
from which all funds are later withdrawn.

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Dealing with White-Collar Crimes
Gary Green pointed out that professional criminals would probably continue to enjoy immunity from
prosecution. Hence, they are unlikely to be deterred by sanction or threat and are unlikely to be formally disqualified by
their professional organizations. They will there fore feel free and are free to continue or begin their activities
(Schmallenger, 1999). James W. Coleman suggests four areas of reform, which white-collar crime might be effectively
addressed:
1. Ethical Reforms - reform include such things as working to establish stronger and more persuasive codes of
business ethics. Courses in ethical businesses might be offered in universities, and corporations could
school their employees in right livelihood.
2. Enforcement Reforms - reform center on the belief that white-collar criminals must be severely published, but
also include such things as better funding for enforcement agencies dealing with white-collar crime, and
insulation of enforcement personnel from undue political violations.
3. Structural Reforms - involve basic changes in corporate structure to make white-collar crime more difficult to
commit such as selective nationalization of firms that have long records of criminal violations.
4. Political Reforms - focus on eliminating campaign contributions from corporations and businesses, but also
include the level of fairness in determining government grants and contracts, the government must serve as
a police itself. This includes the enforcement of laws and the regulation of the activities of elected officials
and administrative personnel.
THE CONVENTIONAL CRIMES
Conventional crimes are those traditional, illegal behaviors that most people think of as crime. Most crime is
conventional crime. Non-conventional crime may be organized crime, white-collar crime, political crime, etc.
Conventional crimes are groups of crimes categorized as violent crimes (index crimes) and property crimes. It has
been argued that cyber crime is just a conventional crime committed with high-tech devices.
Violent Crimes - Violent crimes are criminal acts, which in the threat of or actual physical harm by an
offender to a victim. It presents not only index offenses that every one recognizes as violent (murder, rape, robbery) or
other acts involving force and intimidation but also “violent crimes” that are commonly categorized as “social problem”
such as domestic violence, child abuse, elder abuse, etc.
Violent acts are in the forms of:
1. Interpersonal Violence - Forcible Rape. Murder, Serious Assault, Family Violence, Robbery
2. Political Violence - Terrorism
3. Collective Violence - Riots, Mobs, Crowds, Urban Violence
Property Crimes - are crimes of economic interest. It includes those crimes that would most commonly be
categorized as theft in ordinary language. It also includes but not limited to offenses such as unlawful entry to commit
theft, shoplifting, vandalism, and arson. Property crimes are also in the forms of:
1. Occasional Property Crimes - Shoplifting, Vandalism, Motor vehicle theft, Check Forgery
2. Conventional Property Crimes - Burglary/unlawful entry to commit theft, Fence, Larceny/Theft
Violent Crimes (Index Crimes)
Murder – is the unlawful killing of human being with malice and with the “act of violence”. Serial Murder –
an act involving killing of several victims in three or more separate incidents over a week, a month or year. Mass
Murder – it is the killing of four or more victims at one location with one event. Spree Murder – the killing of in two or
more locations with almost no time break between murders.

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Homicide and Assault - Homicide is also unlawful killing with out the qualifying circumstances of murder. It
is generally regarded as the most commonly committed of all the index crimes (based on the UCR offenses). Assault is
called “unlawful attack” to another person purposely to harm or inflict physical injuries. It is a crime that involves
offering to give bodily harm to a person or placing the person in fear.
Robbery - INTERPOL defined robbery as “violent theft”. It is the taking of property belonging to another with
intent to gain by means of force upon things, violence of intimidation against the person. It could be in the form of:
1. Robbery of person – “hold up cases”
2. Robbery in open place following sudden attack – “snatching cases”
3. Robbery in private premises – “forcible entry”
4. Robbery after preliminary association of short duration between victims and offender
5. Robbery in case of previous association between victim and offender.
Types of Robbers
1. The Professional Robber – robber who has long-term commitment to the crime of robbery as a major source
of livelihood.
2. The Opportunist – the commonly known as “bandits”, one who has little commitment to or specialization in
robbery and one who is all purpose property offender.
3. The Addict Robber – one who committed the crime of robbery to support the drug habit. (Unplanned)
4. The Alcoholic Robber – like the addict robber who engages to robbery occasionally in order to support his
habit. (Unplanned)
5. The Muggers – they are the most feared robbers. They are semi-professional robbers who are sometimes
called “strong armed robbers” – the street robbers who commit everything from snatching to the brutalization
of the victim.
Rape - is commonly defined as “carnal knowledge of a woman against her will”. Rape is the fastest growing
of all UCR index crime. It could be in the form of:
1. Real Rape – aggravated rape involving violence, weapons and attackers.
2. Simple Rape – anything else not fall as “real rape” such as: victims are viewed as suspicious, particularly if
the victim did not physically resist.
Rape is a violent crime due to the means employed usually characterized by violence, aggression and
domination. It has the general effect of “Rape Trauma Syndrome” – refers to the adverse psychological impacts rape
victims continue to suffer long after the incident. It includes:
1. Sexual anxiety
2. Pervasive fear to the opposite sex
3. Problems in interpersonal relationship
4. General problem of unhappiness
Classification of Men who Rape
1. Anger Rape – sexual attack becomes a means of expressing anger or rage and involves more physical
assault upon the victim.
2. Power Rape – assailant primarily wishes to express his domination over the victim.
3. Sadistic Rape – perpetrator combines the sexuality and aggression aims in psychic desires to often torture or
otherwise abuse the victim.

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Family Violence - Family violence are violent crimes involving physical assault by a family member to
another family members such as the following:
1. Child Abuse – an attack or assault of an adult against the defenseless or people who cannot defend
themselves, usually by a parent to a child.
2. Spouse Abuse – “husband vs wife battering”
Types of Violent Offenders
1. Culturally Violent Offenders – those who live in cultures which violence is an acceptable problem
mechanism.
2. Criminally Violent Offenders – those who use violence as a means to accomplish criminal acts.
3. Pathological Violent Offenders – those who commit violent crimes due to mental disturbances.
4. Situational Violent Offenders – those who commit acts of violence on rare occasions, often under
provocations. They are the criminals “by passion”.
Property Crimes (Non-Index Crimes)
Occasional Property Crimes - Occasional Property crimes are group of property crimes committed by
ordinary property criminals with little progressive knowledge on criminal techniques. Offenders injure or steal property
on an infrequent basis. They tend to commit crimes such as Auto theft of motor vehicle theft, Shoplifting or good
pilferage, Vandalism, Check Forgeries
Conventional Property Crimes - These are group of property crimes committed by professional criminals
on a persistent basis, which constitute form of career criminality. Conventional property crimes include:
1. Burglary (Robbery) – unlawful entry of forcible entry in order to commit a felony of theft.
2. The Fence – dealers of stolen properties, the act of “buy and sale of stolen properties”
3. Larceny (theft) – simple taking of properties with intent to gain and without the consent of the owner.
Destructive Property Crime – includes Arson – unlawful burning of property on another such as:
1. Profit-motivated Arson – illustrated by insurance fraud
2. Revenge Arson – burning of properties due to hatred or spell jealousy
3. Vandalism Arson – fire is employed as a means of expressing vindictive vandalism toward the property of a
group of people or an individual.
4. Excitement Arson – those set by “pyromaniacs”
5. Sabotage Arson – fires during civil disturbances.
Cybercrime
Although the term cybercrime is usually restricted to describing criminal activity in which the computer or
network is an essential part of the crime, this term is also used to include traditional crimes in which computers or
networks are used to enable the illicit activity.
Examples of cybercrime which the computer or network is a tool of the criminal activity include spamming
and criminal copyright crimes, particularly those facilitated through peer-to-peer networks. Examples of cybercrime in
which the computer or network is a target of criminal activity include unauthorized access (i.e, defeating access
controls), malicious code, and denial-of-service attacks. Examples of cybercrime in which the computer or network is a
place of criminal activity include theft of service (in particular, telecom fraud) and certain financial frauds. Finally,
examples of traditional crimes facilitated through the use of computers or networks include Nigerian 419 or other
gullibility or social engineering frauds (e.g., hacking "phishing", identity theft, child pornography, online gambling,
securities fraud, etc. Cyberstalking is an example of a traditional crime- harassment - that has taken a new form when
facilitated through computer networks.

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Additionally, certain other information crimes, including trade secret theft and industrial or economic
espionage are sometimes considered cybercrimes when computers or networks are involved. Cybercrime in the
context of national security may involve hacktivism (online activity intended to influence policy), traditional espionage,
or information warfare and related activities.
Another way to define cybercrime is simply as criminal activity involving the information technology
infrastructure, including illegal access (unauthorized access), illegal interception (by technical means of non-public
transmissions of computer data to, from or within a computer system), data interference (unauthorized damaging,
deletion, deterioration, alteration or suppression of computer data), systems interference (interfering with the
functioning of a computer system by inputting, transmitting, damaging, deleting, deteriorating, altering or suppressing
computer data), misuse of devices, forgery (ID theft), and electronic fraud.
THE VICTIMLESS CRIMES
In common understanding of what crime means is that the act implies that there is both perpetrator and a
victim of the wrongful behavior. With victimless crimes, this general rule does not apply. Victimless crimes refer to
those crimes in which no clear victim is readily identifiable. In other words, the only injured party is the offender, who
engages in self-destructive behavior. These crimes are also called moral offenses or vice. Many of these crimes
generally refer to Public Order Crimes – an offense that is consensual and lacks a complaining participant. It is rare in
these cases are victims who week prosecution.
Examples of Victimless Crimes
 Related to Sex Crimes (against Chastity): Adultery and, in general, sex outside marriage where all those
involved, including spouses, give consent. Adultery without the spouse's consent is arguably not victimless,
as it violates the spouse's marriage contract rights, but it is also arguable that the non-consenting spouse is
the victim of a civil wrong, not a criminal wrong; Bigamy and other non-traditional marital and family
practices; Prostitution, other sex work, and related acts. According to some people, prostitutes are "victims"
of economic circumstances; others point out that many strippers and ditch diggers are "victims" of economic
circumstances, and arguably so is anyone who performs a service only for the money, but that doesn't mean
stripping, ditch digging or performing any other services solely for the money is or should be a crime; Incest
between legal adults where offspring cannot result from the sexual activity.
 Related to Religion: Practice of religions or cults or superstitions other than those locally sanctioned.
Practices involving banned substances (such as hallucinogens) or banned social arrangements (such as
polygamy); Blasphemy; Apostasy.
 Related to Financial Matters: Ticket scalping
 Related to Political Matters: In general, most specifically political crimes are necessarily victimless, as they
by definition are against the body politic such as Flag Desecration or expressing negative opinion of
prominent national figure (e.g. Turkey, North Korea); Public obscenity, though offense (damage) to others is
possible; Treason; High Crimes and Misdemeanors, and other abuses of Political power that do not involve
specific persons; Electoral fraud, where such fraud does not involve the votes of specific persons
 Related to Self-Preservation and Public Safety: Suicide; attempted suicide; euthanasia.

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STUDY OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
CRIMINAL PSYCHOLOGY
In general, psychology is the science of behavior and mental processes. This means that psychologists use
the methods of science to investigate all kinds of behavior and mental processes, from the activity of a single nerve cell
to the social conflict in a complex society (Bernstein, et al, 1991). In particular, criminal Psychology is a sub-field of
general psychology where criminal behavior is only, in part by which phenomena psychologists choose to study. It may
be defined as the study of criminal behavior, the study of criminal conduct and activities in an attempt to discover
recurrent patterns and to formulate rules about his behavior.
A major description of criminal psychology is the word behavior. Behavior refers to actions or activities
(Kahayon, 1985). To the criminologist, behavior is the observable actions because he is more interested in actions and
reactions that can be seen and verified than in concepts, which cannot be directly verified.
Classification of Behavior
1. Normal Behavior (adaptive or adjusted behavior) – the standard behavior, the totality accepted behavior
because they follow the standard norms of society. understanding criminal behavior includes the idea of
knowing what characterized a normal person from an abnormal one. A normal person is characterized by:
Efficient perception of reality, Self-knowledge, Ability to exercise voluntary control over his behavior, Self-
esteem and acceptance, Productivity, Ability to form affectionate relationship with others.
2. Abnormal Behavior (maladaptive/maladjusted behavior) - A group of behaviors that are deviant from
social expectations because they go against the norms or standard behavior of society.
A maladaptive (abnormal) person may be understood by the following definitions:
Abnormal behavior according to deviation of statistical norms based in statistical
frequency: Many characteristics such as weight, height, an intelligence cover a range of values when,
measured over a population. For instance, a person who is extremely intelligent or extremely happy would be
classified as abnormal.
Abnormal behavior according to deviation from social norms: A behavior that deprives from
the accepted norms of society is considered abnormal. However, it is primarily dependent on the existing
norm of such society.
Behavior as maladaptive: Maladaptive behavior is the effect of a well being of the individual and
or the social group. That some kind of deviant behavior interferes with the welfare of the individual such as a
man who fears crowd can’t ride a bus. This means that a person cannot adopt himself with the situation
where in it is beneficial to him.
Abnormal behavior due to personal distress: This is abnormally in terms of the individual
subjective feelings of distress rather than the individual behavior. This includes mental illness, feeling of
miserably, depression, and loss of appetite or interest, suffering from insomnia and numerous aches and
pains.
Abnormality in its legal point: It declares that a person is insane largely on the basis of his
inability to judge between right and wrong or to exert control over his behavior (Bartol, 1995).
KINDS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Overt or Covert Behavior - Behaviors that are outwardly manifested or those that are directly observable
are overt behaviors. On the other hand, covert behavior are behaviors that are hidden – not visible to the
naked eye.
2. Conscious or Unconscious Behavior - Behavior is conscious when acts are with in the level of awareness.
It is unconscious when acts are embedded in one’s subconscious – unaware.
3. Simple or Complex Behavior - These are acts categorized according to the number of neurons involved in
the process of behaving. Simple behavior involves less number of neurons while complex behavior involved
more number of neurons, a combination of simple behaviors.

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4. Rational or Irrational Behavior - There is rational behavior when a person acted with sanity or reason and
there is irrational behavior when the person acted with no apparent reason or explanation – as when a man
loses his sanity and laugh out loud at nobody or nothing in particular.
5. Voluntary or Involuntary Behavior - Voluntary behavior is an act done with full volition or will such as when
we discriminate, decide or choose while involuntary behaviors refers the bodily processes that foes on even
when we are awake or asleep like respiration, circulation and digestion.
ASPECTS OF BEHAVIOR
1. Intellectual Aspect – this aspect of behavior pertains to our way of thinking, reasoning, solving, problem,
processing info and coping with the environment.
2. Emotional Aspect – this pertains to our feelings, moods, temper, and strong motivational force.
3. Social Aspect – this pertains to how we interact or relate with other people
4. Moral Aspect – this refers to our conscience and concept on what is good or bad.
5. Psychosexual Aspect - this pertains to our being a man or a woman and the expression of love
6. Political Aspect – this pertains to our ideology towards society/government
7. Value/Attitude – this pertains to our interest towards something, our likes and dislikes
THE CRIMINAL FORMULA
Where:
C – Crime/Criminal Behavior (the act)
T – Criminal Tendency (Desire/Intent)
S – Total Situation (Opportunity)
R – Resistance to Temptation (Control)
The formula shows that a person’s criminal tendency and his resistance to them may either result in criminal
act depending upon, which of them is stronger. This means that a crime or criminal behavior exist when the person’s
resistance is insufficient to withstands the pressure of his desire or intent and the opportunity (Tradio, 1983).
In understanding this, the environment factors such as stress and strains are considered because they
contribute in mobilizing a person’s criminal tendency and the individual’s psychological state while resistance t
temptation arises from the emotional, intellectual and social upbringing and is either manifestation of a strong or weak
character.
DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
The answer to these questions requires the study and understanding of the influences of HEREDITY and
ENVIRONMENT. As cited by Tuason:
Heredity (Biological Factors) - This refers to the genetic influences, those that are explained by heredity,
the characteristics of a person acquired from birth transferred from one generation to another. It explains that certain
emotional aggression, our intelligence, ability and potentials and our physical appearance are inherited. It is the
primary basis of the idea concerning criminal behavior, the concept that “criminals are born”. It also considers the
influences of genetic defects and faulty genes, diseases, endocrine imbalances, malnutrition and other physical
deprivations that can be carried out from one generation to another.
C = T + S
R

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Environmental Factors (Socio-Cultural Influences)
Family Background – it is a basic consideration because it is in the family whereby an individual first
experiences how to relate and interact with another. The family is said to be the cradle of personality development as a
result of either a close or harmonious relationship or a pathogenic family structure: the disturbed family, broken family,
separated or maladjusted relations.
Pathogenic Family Structure – those families associated with high frequency of problems such as:
 The inadequate family – characterized by the inability to cope with the ordinary problems of family living. It
lacks the resources, physical of psychological, for meeting the demands of family satisfaction.
 The anti-social family – those that espouses unacceptable values as a result of the influence of parents to
their children.
 The discordant/disturbed family – characterized by non-satisfaction of one or both parent from the
relationship that may express feeling of frustration. This is usually due to value differences as common
sources of conflict and dissatisfaction.
 The disrupted family – characterized by incompleteness whether as a result of death, divorce, separation or
some other circumstances.
Childhood Trauma – the experiences, which affect the feeling of security of a child undergoing
developmental processes. The development processes are being blocked sometimes by parental deprivation as a
consequence of parents or lack of adequate maturing at home because of parental rejection, overprotection,
restrictiveness, over permissiveness, and faulty discipline.
In the environment, the following are also factors that are influential to one’s behavior:
1. Institutional Influences such as peer groups, mass media, church and school, government institutions,
NGO’s, etc.
2. Socio-Cultural Factors such as war and violence, group prejudice and discrimination, economic and
employment problems and other social changes.
3. Nutrition or the quality of food that a person intake is also a factor that influences man to commit crime
because poverty is one of the may reasons to criminal behavior.
OTHER DETERMINANTS OF BEHAVIOR
In order to further understand and provide answers on the question that why do some people behave
criminally, it is important to study the other determinants of behavior. These are needs, drives and motivation.
Needs and Drives - Need, according to a drive reduction theory, is a biological requirement for well being of
the individual. This need creates drives – a psychological state of arousal that prompts someone to take action
(Bernstein, et al, 1991). Drive therefore is an aroused state that results from some biological needs. The aroused
condition motivates the person to remedy the need. For example, If you have had no water for some time, the chemical
balance of the body fluids is disturbed, creating a biological need for water. The psychological consequence of this
need is a drive – thirst – that motivates you to find and drink water. In other words, drives push people to satisfy needs.
Motivation - Motivation on the other hand refers to the influences that govern the initiation, direction,
intensity, and persistence of behavior (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Thus motivation refers to the causes and “why’s” of
behavior as required by a need. Motivation is the hypothetical concept that stands for the underlying force impelling
behavior and giving it s direction (Kahayon, 1975). Drives are states of comfortable tension that spur activity until a
goal is reached. Drive and motivation are covered in the world of psychology, for they energize behavior and give
direction to man’s action. For example, a motivated individual is engaged in a more active, more vigorous, and more
effective that unmotivated one, thus a hungry person directs him to look for food.

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Biological needs Motivational Systems
Food Hunger – the body needs adequate supply of nutrients to
function effectively. “An empty stomach sometimes drives a
person to steal.”
Water Thirst – just like food, the body needs water.
Sex A powerful motivator but unlike food and water, sex is not
vital for survival but essential to the survival of species.
Pain Avoidance The need to avoid tissue damage is essential to the survival
of the organism. Pain will activate behavior to reduce
discomfort.
Stimulus seeking Curiosity is most people and animal is motivated to explore
the environment even when the activity satisfies no bodily
needs.
Psychological Needs - are influenced primarily by the kind of society in which the individual is raised. Psychological
motives are those related to the individual happiness and well being, but not for he survival, unlike the biological
motives that focuses on basic needs – the primary motives.
Abraham Maslow has suggested that human needs form a hierarchy from the most basic biological
requirements to the needs for self-actualization – the highest of all needs The pyramidal presentation shows that from
the bottom to the top of the hierarchy, the levels of needs or motive according to Maslow, are:
1. Biological or Physiological Needs – these motives include the need for food, water, oxygen, activity,
and sleep.
2. Safety Needs – these pertains to the motives of being cared for and being secured such as in income
and place to live.
3. Love/Belongingness – Belongingness is integration into various kinds of social groups or social
organizations. Love needs means need for affection.
4. Cognitive Needs – our motivation for learning and exploration
5. Esteem Needs – our motivation for an honest, fundamental respect for a person as a useful and
honorable human being.
6. Aesthetic Needs - our motivation for beauty and order
7. Self- actualization – pertains to human total satisfaction, when people are motivated not so much by
unmet needs, as by the desire to become all they are capable of (self-realization).
According to the Maslow”s formulation, the levels that commands the individuals attention and effort is
ordinarily the lowest one on which there is an unmet need. For example, unless needs for food and safety are
reasonably well-met behavior will be dominated by these needs and higher motives are of little significant. With their
gratification, however, the individual is free to devote time and effort to meet higher level. In other words, one level must
at least be partially satisfied before those at the next level become determiners of action.
Frustration, Conflict and Anxiety
Frustration refers to the unpleasant feelings that result from the blocking of motive satisfaction. It is a form
of stress, which results in tension. It is a feeling that is experienced when something interferes with our hopes, wishes,
plans and expectations (Coleman, 1980). Conflict refers to the simultaneous arousal of two or more incompatible
motives resulting to unpleasant emotions. It is a source of frustration because it is a threat to normal behavior (Berstein,
et al, 1991).
Types of Conflicts
1. Double Approach Conflict – a person is motivated to engage in two desirable activities that cannot be
pursued simultaneously.
2. Double Avoidance Conflict – a person faces two undesirable situations in which the avoidance of one is
the exposure to the other resulting to an intense emotion.

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3. Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a person faces situation having both a desirable and undesirable feature. It
is sometimes called “dilemma”, because some negative and some positive features must be accepted
regardless which course of action is chosen.
4. Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict – a situation in which a choice must be made between two or more
alternatives each has both positive and negative features. It is the most difficult to resolve because the
features of each portion are often difficult to compare.
Anxiety is an intangible feeling that seems to evade any effort to resolve it. It is also called neurotic fear. It
could be intense, it could be low and can be a motivating force (Coleman, 1980). Stress is the process of adjusting to
or dealing with circumstances that disrupts, or threatens to disrupt a person’s physical or psychological functioning
(Bernstein, et al, 1991)
The Ego Defense Mechanisms
The defense mechanisms are the unconscious techniques used to prevent a person’s self image from being
damaged. When stress becomes quite strong, an individual strives to protect his self-esteem, avoiding defeat. We all
use ego defense mechanisms to protect us from anxiety and maintain our feeling of personal worth. We consider them
normal adjustive reactions when they are use to excess and threaten self-integrity (Bernstein, et al, 1991). Example:
Denial of Reality – protection of oneself from unpleasant reality by refusal to perceive or face it. Simply by avoiding
something that is unpleasant. Fantasy – the gratification of frustration desires in imaginary achievement. Paying
attention not to what is going on around him but rather to what is taking place in his thoughts.
Perspective on the Causes of Criminal Behavior
1. Anxiety (Psychological Perspective) – stressful situations that when become extreme may result to
maladaptive behavior.
2. Faulty Learning (Behavior Perspective) – the failure to learn the necessary adaptive behavior due to
wrongful development. This usually result to delinquent behavior based on the failure to learn the necessary
social values and norms.
3. Blocked of Distorted Personal Growth (Humanistic Perspective) - presumably, human nature tends
towards cooperation and constructive activities, however, if we show aggression, cruelty or other violent
behavior, the result will be an unfavorable environment.
4. Unsatisfactory interpersonal relationship - self concept in early childhood by over critical parents or by
rigid socialization measures usually causes deviant behaviors among individuals because they are not
contented and even unhappy among individuals because they are not contented and even unhappy to the
kind of social dealings they are facing.
5. Pathological social conditions – poverty, social discrimination, and destructive violence always results to
deviant behavior.
PATTERNS OF CRIMINAL BEHAVIOR
NEUROTIC OR PSYCHONEUROTIC PATTERNS - are groups of mild functional personality disorders in which
there is no gross personality disorganization, the individual does not lose contact with reality, and hospitalization is not
required.
Anxiety Disorders - Anxiety disorders are commonly known as “neurotic fear”. When it is occasional but
intense, it is called “panic”. When it is mild but continuous, it is called “worry” which is usually accompanied by
physiological symptoms such as sustained muscular tension, increased blood pressure, insomnia, etc. They are
considered as the central feature of all neurotic patterns. These disorders are characterized by mild depressions, fear
and tensions, and mild stresses.
1. Obsessive-compulsive disorders - Obsessions usually centered on fear that one will submit to an
uncontrollable impulse to do something wrong. Compulsion on the other hand resulted from repetitive acts
(Wicks, 1974). An obsessive-compulsive disorder is characterized by the following: When an individual is
compelled to think about something that he do not want to think about or carry some actions against his will,

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and the experience of persistent thoughts that we cannot seem to get out of our minds such as thoughts
about haunting situations.
2. Asthenic Disorders (Neurasthenia) - An anxiety disorder characterized by chronic mental and physical
fatigue and various aches and pains. Symptoms include spending too much sleep to avoid fatigue but to no
avail, even feel worse upon awake, headaches, indigestion, back pains, and dizziness.
3. Phobic Disorders - These refer to the persistent fear on some objects or situation that present no actual
danger to the person. Examples of Phobia: Acrophobia - fear of high places
Somatoform Disorders - Complaints of bodily symptoms that suggest the presence of physical problem but
no organic basis can be found. The individual is pre-occupied with his state of health or diseases.
1. Hypochondriasis - This refers to the excessive concern about state of health or physical condition
(multiplicity about illness)
2. Psychogenic Pain Disorder - It is characterized by the report of severe and lasting pain. Either no physical
basis is apparent reaction greatly in excess of what would be expected from the physical abnormality.
3. Conversion Disorders (Hysteria) - It is a neurotic pattern in which symptoms of some physical malfunction
or loss of control without any underlying organic abnormality.
Dissociative Disorders - A response to obvious stress characterized by amnesia, multiple personality, and
depersonalization.
1. Amnesia - The partial or total inability to recall or identify past experiences following a traumatic incident.
Brain pathology amnesia – total loss of memory and it cannot be retrieved by simple means. It requires long
period of medication. Psychogenic amnesia – failure to recall stored information and still they are beneath
the level of consciousness but “forgotten material.”
2. Multiple Personality - It is also called “dual personalities.” The reason manifests two or more symptoms of
personality usually dramatically different.
3. Depersonalization - The loss of sense of self or the so-called out of body experience. There is a feeling of
detachment from one’s mental processes or body or being in a dream state. Cases of somnambulism (sleep
walking) may fall under this disorder.
Mood Disorders (Affective Disorders) - often referred to as affective disorders however the critical
pathology in these disorders is one of mood which is the internal state of a person, and not of affect, the external
expression of emotional content (Manual of Mental Disorder).
1. Depressive Disorders (Major Depressive Disorder) – Patients with depressed mood have a loss of energy
and interest, feeling of guilt, difficulty in concentrating, loss of appetite, and thoughts of death or suicide, they
are not affected with manic episodes.
2. Dysthymic Disorder – a mild form of major depressive disorder
3. Bipolar Disorders - those experienced by patients with both manic and depressive episodes.
4. Cyclothymic Disorder – a less severe form of bipolar disorder
PSYCHOPATHIC PATTERNS - group of abnormal behaviors, which typically stemmed from immature and
distorted personality development, resulting in persistent maladaptive ways of perceiving and thinking. They are
generally called “personality or character disorders”. These groups of disorders are composed of the following:
Personality Disorders - The disorders of character, the person is characterized as a “problematic” without
psychoses. This disorder is characterized disrupted personal relationship, dependent or passive aggressive behavior.
 Paranoid Personality Disorder - It is characterized by suspicious, rigidity, envy, hypersensitivity, excessive
self-importance, argumentativeness and tendency to blame others of one’s own mistakes.
 Schizoid Personality Disorder - This is characterized by the inability to form social relationship and lack of
interest in doing so. The person seem to express their feelings, they lack social skills. They are the so-called
“loners”.
 Schizotypal Personality Disorder - It is characterized by seclusiveness, over sensitivity, avoidance of
communication and superstitious thinking is common.