With the continued expansion of cultured fish and shellfish species, aquaculture has become a key component of the animal health industry. Aquaculture is the fastest growing industry around the world with around 80 million tonnes produced annually. With an average annual growth rate of 7 percent, more then 60 percent of the global seafood is currently supplied from aquaculture. However, this growth is not without its problems, as demonstrated by the latest outbreak of Early Mortality Syndrome (EMS) in the shrimp industry, sea lice in the salmon industry and an array of other diseases.

1. I N C O R P O R AT I N G
f i s h far m ing t e c h no l og y
November | December 2013
Herbal medicine in aquaculture
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3. FEATURE
Herbal medicine
in aquaculture
by Dr Sagiv Kolkovski, R&D Director, Nutra-Kol, Australia
W
ith the continued expansion
of cultured fish and shellfish
species, aquaculture has
become a key component
of the animal health industry. Aquaculture
is the fastest growing industry around
the world with around 80 million tonnes
produced annually. With an average annual
growth rate of 7 percent, more then 60
percent of the global seafood is currently
supplied from aquaculture. However, this
growth is not without its problems, as
demonstrated by the latest outbreak of Early
Mortality Syndrome (EMS) in the shrimp
industry, sea lice in the salmon industry and
an array of other diseases.
to antibiotic or other chemotherapeutics
residues are an almost daily occurrence, and
yet there is currently no alternative solution
to antibiotics and other chemotherapeutics.
During the past decade, several outbreaks
of disease devastated the aquaculture industry
around the world. In the past three years,
the Southeast Asian and Mexican shrimp
industries were affected by EMS outbreaks.
The Chilean salmon industry suffered (and
still does) a devastating outbreaks of sea lice
and the infectious salmon anaemia (ISA) virus,
causing losses of hundred of millions of dollars. These outbreaks drove the authorities to
review and revise the use of chemotherapeutics in this industry.
Misuse of antibiotics
Disease in aquaculture
Due to the intensification of rearing methods and systems, diseases and pathogens
have been an integral part of, and a formidable obstacle to, the aquaculture industry
worldwide. Moreover, antibiotic resistance
has become a major issue affecting the aquaculture industry.
Already in 1994, the American Society of
Microbiology stated that ‘the increasing problems associated with infectious diseases in
fish, the limited number of drugs available for
treatment and prevention of these diseases,
and the rapid increase in resistance to these
antibiotics represent major challenges for this
source of food production worldwide’ (ASM
1994).
Currently, almost every sector of the
aquaculture industry, from fish to crustaceans
and shellfish, is using some sort of chemotherapeutic agents including antibiotics and
many other chemicals. Although the use of
drugs such as Fluoroquinolones, Nitrofurans,
Chloramphenicol are prohibted in many
countries, the use of these these drugs is still
a common practice.
Banning and rejection of seafood imported
to the United States or EU countries due
This misuse of antibiotics in all areas –
human medicine, veterinary medicine, animal
production and plant protection – led the
FAO to write a 2005 paper, ‘The responsible
use of antibiotics in aquaculture’, to raise
awareness of the antibiotic resistance problem
in fish farming and related sectors.
The document focuses on antibiotics misuse and the concomitant threat of resistance
development, which is seen as a public health
concern affecting the population worldwide.
In its opening statement the authors
remarked: ‘Antibiotic resistance as a phenomenon is, in itself, not surprising. Nor is it
new. It is however, newly worrying because
it is accumulating and accelerating, while the
world’s tools for combating it decrease in
power and number.’
Diseases and pathogens are part of all
intensive farming. In aquaculture a ‘natural
mortality’ of 10-25 percent is considered to
be normal in grow-out systems. Marine finfish
larvae (such as sea bream, sea bass, yellowtail
kingfish etc) survival in intensive hatcheries is
5-40 percent (Kolkovski, personal comment).
These low survival rates are usually the
result of combined factors, such as environmental conditions, non-specific pathogens,
larvae susceptibility and low immune system
development. In fact, this situation is true to
most marine and freshwater organisms reared
in intensive systems. Although banned in most
countries, in many cases antibiotics are used
to combat this problem, whether as growth
promoters or specifically against bacterial
infection (Hernández Serrano, 2005).
Alternative therapy
Phytotherapy (the use of herbal extracts
in human medicine) has been known for
thousands of years. In China, India, Southeast
Asia and some countries in South and Central
America, phytotherapy is considered mainstream, while in the West naturopathy and
herbal medicine are becoming more and
more acknowledged.
Different medicinal plants and herbs, and/
or combinations of them, are known to have
various health benefits, including antibacterial
and antifungal properties, hormonal balancing
and support for the immune and digestive systems. The world market for herbal medicine
has been estimated to have an annual growth
rate between 5 and 15 percent, with an estimated value of US$62 billion (Citarasu, 2009).
Strategies for prophylaxis and control of
pathogens include improvement of environmental conditions, stocking of specific pathogen
free (SPF) shrimp post-larvae, and enhancement of disease resistance with immunostimulants such as glucans. Immunostimulants
are substances that enhance the non-specific
defence mechanism and provide resistance
against pathogenic organisms (Citarasu et al.,
2006).
Many plant-derived compounds have been
found to have non-specific immunostimulating effects in animals, of which more than a
dozen have been evaluated in fish and shrimp
(Citarasu et al. 2002, 2006, Sakai, 1999). Many
herbs and plants have been used as home
remedies in cultures around the world for
millennia, for human and animal consumption.
Some of these remedies have potent
34 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013

4. FEATURE
table 6:annual production of olive oil is estitional feeds and hence food. OP
The Wheat flour
table 1: Chemical composition of olive pomace (oP) and
mated 1. Plants and herbs withafla tonnes with in aquaculture in several agricultural
to be Wheat flour million
at least 2.9
Zen
Don
FUM
ota
table
antibacterial effects is now used
Co-occurance
fish oil (Fo) diet (% wet weight) (nasopoulou et al., 2013a)
some 15 million tonnes of OMW being pro- and aquacultural applications with
Biological effects in
Ingredient
Fo diet *
Botanical name
Family
Useful parts
reference oP diet
number of tests
172
341 Distribution
434
189
186
duced annually. In Mediterranean countries, promising results. The novelty of aquaculture
is
the production of olives has been a major part our approach though 13 that we
Percentage of positive (%)
5
31
70
10
interested0 produc- Crude protein
in
of the agricultural(µg/kg) of 0
produce these countries are not only33
44.95 ± 1.3
46 ± 4.3
average
38
842
antibacterial amd
ing
fish and also
for many decades (if not centuries). For every India (novel)leaves but roots we are Fat
Daemia extenas asclepiadeae
Sivaram 19.4 ± 2004; Jinish, 2012
et al., 1.7
21 ± 2.1
immunostimulant
Maximum (µg/kg)
11.1
2,991
12,000
2,273
30
100 kg of olives, 35 kg of OP are produced; it assessing the nutritional value of
Moisture
Psoralea corylifolia Papilionaceae
Citarasu 8.6 ± 0.6
et al., 2003 b 9.1 ± 1.3
India
Seeds
could, thus, be suggested that the production this (novel) fish in terms of cardio- antibacterial
table Adathoda vasica
7: rice bran
1.8 ± 0.3†
Dietary fibre
5.2al.,0.3† Minimol, 2005
Citarasu et ± 2001
acanthaceae
Whole ultimately, in antibacterial
protection, aiming, plant
of OMW and OP are sustainable and the India
Don
FUM
Co-occurance 1.4
ash
8.3 ±
creating and Whole plant
patentingota func- antibacterial
novel
availability of OPindica euphorbiaceae Zen India
for use afla
Acalypharice bran in any type of feed
Citarasu 6.0 ± 0.9
et al., 1999
21.8 ± 2.1
23 ± 2.6
production and thus aquaculture should be tional fish feeds, fish and health energy (MJ/Kg) Direkbusarakom, 2004; Citarasu et
Andrographis
number of tests acanthaceae 22
22
22
21
22
antibacterial
supplements.Whole plant
straightforward. OP is not expensive (€0.1- India
paniculata
Protein digestibility al., 2003b; Rani, 1999; Jinish, 2002
(%)
89 ± 4.4
90 ± 6.2
Percentage of positive (%)
45
41
18
24
32
In
two diets
0.2/kg), it is thus a price-competitive raw Burma detail, Whole planthave been antibacterial
Azadirachta indica
Sivaram 000 ± 2004 20 000 ± 410†
et al., 210†
Meliaceae
India,
Vitamin a (IU/Kg)
7
average (µg/kg)
1.5
56
128.2
181
commercial
ingredient compared to other vegetable oils. compared: one being the1.3
Vitamin D (IU/Kg) Shagnliang et ± 110
3 150 al., 1990 3 000 ± 120
Whole bream
antibacterial, antiviral
Maximum (µg/kg) that 4 to 8 165India, Japan
61
648
220
1.7
This Artemisaia vulgaris fact Compositae percent one for gilthead seaplant (Sparus
cost linked to the
258 ± 19†
180 ±17†
of OP is needed to be included in the fish aurata) called fish oil diet (FO diet) Vitamin e (mg/Kg)
Elephentopus scaber
Alex Rajan, 2002
Compositae
India, Bengal
roots and leaves
antibacterial
indicated that processed products are increas- trout and shrimp. Similar OP even higher levels K3 aquaculture farms must be developed 7.3†
(mg/Kg)
10 ± 0.7†
33 ± to minifeed formulation make OP as a promising lipid and the novel one where or (8 per- Vitamin
et
were found in final pellet) has been antibacterial mize the negativeal., 1998 b; Alex Rajan,
ppb of
ing the risk aquaculture. contamination in the India w/w at the several ingredients. 60 Vitamin C (mg/Kg)Citarasu 200impact of mycotoxins on
cent
source for of mycotoxin rubiaceae
Ixora coccinea
root
± 20
168 ± 14
2002
panga- the
health of exposed fish.
feeds. Afla, the problem of presented higher Afla in most fish species such of the
Finally, ZEN and OTA transferring OP used (OP diet). In our first part as trout,Cu (mg/Kg) performance and 1.1
7.0 ±
Citarasu 7.5 risk for Immanuel 1.1
et ±
seabass
Moreover, the al., 1998;consumers et
needs
contaminations (18 percent,labiatae northern sius, tilapia, shrimp, of sea bream fed antibacterial
19 to
from Mediterranean countries percent, and work, the total lipids plant European *
Leucus aspera
Southern India
Whole catfish,
al.,2004b; Jinish,
Data of FO diet from previous study2002
to be addressed as mycotoxin
26 percent, respectively) in soybean meal.
with OP a risk of low statistically
Europe or to other places of the world representsdiet containedto medium. †Statistically significant according to Wilcoxresidues were
on test
Citarasu et al., 2001
Meliaceae
Whole Plant
In Melia azedarachby extracting the polar decreased levels of fatty acids, while antibacterial found in fish muscle beyond acceptable levels.
couldregards to wheat flour, ZEN and DON India
be rationalised
Murraya koenji
Sivaram et OP diet
antibacterial experiments, the research and FO diet (i.e.
were the OP that they arerutaceae with 31 India
exhibited the leaves
lipids of most prevalent mycotoxins
the active feed Conclusion most potent biological activity For that, further al., 2004 is needed in this
percent and 70 percent of positive samples against platelet aggregation on the by platelet topic and of course, analysed Citarasu et
The available studies induced effects of pellets)Direkbusarakom, 2004; for mycotoxins
have been an effective a number
components and therefore reducing the
antibacterial antiviral,
Ocimum sanctum
al., 1998a; Rani, 1999; into account.
labiatae
Whole and other show that
and average levels of 38 needsand be trans- India
activating factor (PAF).
the of management must be takenPraseetha,
volume of material that ppb to 842 ppb, mycotoxins in fish Plant In shrimp words, stress risknutritional parameters and the results are
anti
2005 References available al., 2013a).
respectively.
performance andhad stronger cardioprotective given in Table 1 (Nasopoulou et upon request
OP-fed sea bream health status are negaported (Nasopoulou and Zabetakis, 2013).
Finally, rice bran was mostly contaminated tively affected. The analysed concentrations of
Greece, asia,
Values are means of three individual measproperties when compared to the FO-fed one.
Quercus infectoria
Citarasu et al., 1999
Cupuliferae
Galls and Bark
antibacterial
with Afla, ZEN fish OTA testing fish
mycotoxins in have suggested used in could
OP-enriched and feeds and positive Syria These data feed ingredients that OP aqua- urements; results are expressed as mean ±
at 45 percent, 41 focus in and 32 percent, feeds, shows partial substitute of management SD More InforMatIonlimits); data of FO diet
(95% confidence :
The research percent our group has be used as a the importance of fish oil in fish
Solanum surattense
Sivaram et al., 2004
Fruits mycotoxins
antibacterial
respectively. Levels of 100 Solanaceae have India improving its cardio protective proper- areWebsite:our previous work and are given
ppb of DON
from www.biomin.net
feed
been towards the commercial exploitation strategies for the and roots problem.
been reported to to produce novel func- tiesThe awareness of mycotoxin problems in here to enable easy comparison; † indicates
(Nasopoulou et al., 2011). In further
of OP in order cause harmful effects in
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5. FEATURE
Table 2: Plants and herbs with antiviral effects in aquaculture
Family
Distribution
Useful parts
Biological effect in
aquaculture
Oenothera biennis
onagraceae
Japan, eastern
n. america, UK
Seeds, flowers and
root
antibacterial and
antiviral
Shangliang et al., 1990
Solanum trilobatum
Solanaceae
India
Whole plant
antibacterial and
immunostimulant
Citarasu et al., 2003b
Caryophyllaceae
Japan
Whole plant
antibacterial and
antiviral
Shangliang et al., 1990
aroideae
India, Burma
rhizome
antibacterial and
immunostimulant
Magdelin, 2005; Minomol,
2005; Praseetha, 2005
Botanical name
Stellaria aquatica
Acorus calamus
Cassia alata
reference
Caesalpiniaceae
tropics
leaves
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004
Guttiferae
Sea coast of
India
Bark, leaves and
seed
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004
Menispermaceae
tropical,
Subtropical India
root and leaves
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004
Momordica
charantina
Cucurbitaceae
India
Fruits, seeds and
leaves
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004
Phyllanthus niruri
euphorbiaceae
India, Sri lanka
Whole plant
antiviral
Rani, 1999; Direkbusarakom,
2004; Immanuel et al., 2004b
Phyllanthus urinaria
euphorbiaceae
India, USa
Whole plant
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004
Myrtaceae
India, Bengal
Bark, fruit and
leaves
antiviral
Direkbusarakom, 2004; Anita,
2001
Ocimum basilicum
labiatae
India
Whole plant
antiviral and
antibacterial
Direkbusarakom, 2004;
Citarasu et al., 2001
Tephrosia purpurea
Papilionaceae
Southern India
leaves and root
antiviral and
antibacterial
Direkbusarakom, 2004; Rani,
1999
Tinospora cordifolia
Menispermaceae
Southern India
leaves and stem
antiviral and
immunostimulant
Citarasu et al., 1998a;
Direkbusarakom, 2004; Jinish,
2002
Calophyllum
inophyllum
Tinospora crispa
Psidium guajava
antiviral, antibacterial and antifungal effects.
Natural plant products have been reported
to have various other properties making them
useful as anti-stressors, growth promoters,
appetizers, tonics and immunostimulants.
Moreover, these substances also possess
other valuable properties: they are non-toxic,
biodegradable and biocompatible. No herbalresistance immunity has been found by any
pathogen to date.
Although the properties of herbs and
plants are well known, documented, and in
use in human medicine around the world,
currently very few commercial remedies exist
for use in large-scale aquaculture.
Medicinal plants in aquaculture
It is well known and documented that
medicinal plants have strong antibacterial
effects. Phenolics, polysaccharides, proteoglycans and flavonoids are known to play an
important role in preventing and controlling
bacterial infections. Herbs such as S. triblobatum, A. paniculata and P. corylifolia were found
to reduce vibrio in P. monodon by a third when
supplied in enriched Artemia (Citrasu et al.
2002, 2009).
Several plant products have been found to
have potent antiviral effects against fish and
shrimp viruses. For example, Direkbusarakom
et al. 1996 found that shrimp fed ethanol
extract of Clinacanthus nutans had 95 percent
survival rates when exposed to yellow head
virus (YHV), compared to only 25 percent
survival in control group of black tiger shrimp.
Several species of Indian herbs and plants
such as A. marmelos, C. dactylon, L. camara, M.
charantia and P. amarus showed strong antiviral activity against white spot syndrome virus
(WSSV) when extracted with organic solvents
such as ether, chloroform, ethyl acetate,
methanol and ethanol. Many other studies
have been published looking at the antibacterial and antiviral effect of herbal extracts with
different species (see Table 1).
Herbal extracts are also known to
have antifungal and antiparasitic properties.
Adiguzel et al. (2005) controlled infection of
Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium oxyspoum with
extract of O. basilicum. A novel anti-fungal
molecule, was isolated from the plant Datura
metel L. (Dabur, 2004). This molecule was
shown to have anti-Aspergillus properties,
as well as acting against 10 clinical isolates of
Candida, 19 clinical isolates of Aspergillus and
a few marine fungi.
The herbal extracts involve the fungal cell
wall lysis, altering the permeability, affecting
the metabolism and RNA and protein synthesis, and ultimately leading to death (Citarasu,
2009).
Herbal extracts have been used for
centuries against internal and external parasites in humans, through direct effect on
the parasite and/or by strengthening the
immune system. For example, garlic was
used against skin parasites, with sweat containing the garlic’s active ingredients acting
as a repellent.
Similarly, a mix of herbal extracts added
to fish feed assists with gill and skin flukes
such as Benedenia seriolae. It is assumed that
the mucus on the fish skin containing the
herbal active ingredients acts as repellent, and
reduces parasitic infection.
36 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | November-December 2013

6. FEATURE
Table 3: Plants and herbs used as growth promoters and immunostimulants in aquaculture
Family
Distribution
Useful parts
Biological effects in
aquaculture
acanthaceae
India, Sri lanka
Whole plant
Growth promoter
Ipomea digitata
Convolvulaceae
Hotter part of
India
root
Growth promoter and
immunostimulant
Solanum nigrum
Solanaceae
India
Berries
Growth promoter
Terminaelia arjuna
Combretaceae
India, Burma, Sri
lanka
Bark
Growth promoter
Boerhaevia diffusa
nyctaginaceae
India, tibet
leaf and root
Growth promoter and
appetizer
Fruit
Growth promoter and
appetizer
Whole plant
Hepeto tonic,
immunostimulant and
antistress
Whole plant
Hepeto tonic,
immunostimulant,
antiviral and antistress
leaf and root stalk
Immunostimulant and
antibacterial
Whole plant
Immunostimulant and
antibacterial
Whole plant
Immunostimulant
Whole plant
Immunostimulant
Berries and leaves
Immunostimulant
rhizome
Immunostimulant
rhizome
Immunostimulant and
antistress
root
Immunostimulant and
growth promoter
Botanical name
Hygrophila spinosa
Herbal compounds have
Carica papaya
Caricaceae
India
the ability to inhibit the generation of oxygen anions
Eclipta erecta
Compositae
India
and scavenge free radicals,
hance reducing stress effects.
Herbal antioxidant effects
Eclipta alba
Compositae
India
were demonstrated by
Citrasu et al. (2006) when P.
Cymodon dactycon
Gramineae
India
kurroa (picrorhiza) was used
as an antistress compound
Emblica officinalis
euphorbiaceae
India
for black tiger shrimp. Other
herbs including Astragalus
europe, turkey,
Urtica dioica
Urticaceae
membranaceus, Portulaca olerIndia
acea, Flavescent ophora and
Vernonia cinera
Compositae
India
A. paniculata are known to
India,
have specific and non-specific
Viscum album
loranthaceae
Himalayas,
antistress effects.
turkey
Medicinal plants are also
India, China,
Zingiber officinale
Scitaminaceae
known to have hormonal
Bengal
boosting effects with some
herbs being used in herbal
Picrorrhiza kurvooa
Scrophulariaceae
India
medicine as natural ‘viagra’
and in hormonal replaceWithania somnifera
Solanaceae
India
ment therapy for menopausal woman. Significant
increases in fecundity and gonadal weight Issues
and reduced intermoult period in P. monodon
Although herbal remedies have been used
were observed when the shrimp were fed in human therapy for millennia, there has
a maturation diet containing W. somnifera, been relatively little research into the use of
Mucuna pruita, Ferula asafoetida and Piper medicinal plants in aquaculture.
longum extracts (Babu, 1999).
Standardisation is an issue when the whole
Currently, several hatcheries around plant or herb is used during the extraction procthe world are using the herbal extract mix ess. Moreover, in many countries including the
NutraBrood Enhance specifically designed to United States, Australia and the EU, the same
boost and modulate the hormonal system herbal and plant extracts approved for use in
in aquatic animals. The herbal extracts are human naturopathy and herbal medicine are
used with out-of-season broodstock and/or treated as drugs when used in aquaculture.
species with fertilization and gonadal developThis means herbal remedies have to be
ment problems such as groupers (low sperm registered, a process that can take years,
motility and volume) and many other species and costing hundreds of thousands or even
(Table 2).
millions of dollars. A review of this legislation
Another commercial semi-moist matura- needs to be carried out, taking into account
tion diet, NutraFeed, that included herbal the benefits of herbal remedies over currently
extracts was fed to P. vanamei, resulting in a used chemotherapeutic agents.
more than 40 percent increase in total nauplii
Herbal extracts can be used not only
produced, with a 44 percent reduction in as remedies, but even moreso as growth
mortality compared to the normal fresh feed promoters, stress resistance boosters and preand nutritional boosters used (Kolkovski et ventatives for infections. Therefore, the use of
al., 2013). Similar results were found with the herbal extracts as feed additives can significantly
Black tiger prawn P. monodon (Kolkovski et benefit any organism reared under intensive
al., 2010).
conditions. Legislation needs to be reviewed
and the use of herbal extracts as feed additives
allowed.
Conclusion
The development of drug-resistant pathogens has been reported from all areas of
aquaculture. Treating microbial infections in
fish and crustaceans involves dissolving high
quantities of broad-spectrum chemotherapeutic agents in the culture medium, or supplying it in the food. Most of these antibiotics
and drugs are now banned for use in the EU,
United States and many other countries.
Natural plant products present a viable alternative to antibiotics and other banned drugs,
being safer for the reared organism and humans,
as well as for the environment. Authorities
should review the current legislation regarding
the use of herbal and natural remedies in aquaculture, taking the above issues into consideration
and allowing more flexibility in the use of herbal
medicine in aquaculture.
November-December 2013 | INterNatIoNal AquAFeed | 37
More InforMatIon:
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