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Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ

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Thesis Statements  Any paper you write in college will require a thesis statement in some form. These are general  expectations and guidelines for writing and revising a strong thesis.  Basics  Roles of a Thesis:​ A thesis (1) ​answers a question​, (2) ​makes an argument​, and (3) ​presents a  road map for the rest of your paper​.     Thesis Components:​ A thesis is comprised of a ​topic​ and a ​comment on the topic​ and answers  the questions: ​What?​ ​Why? How?  Generally, the comment portion is your argument; however, if a prompt is simply expository or  analytical, you can still give a comment on how you are explaining or analyzing the topic. Since  most college essays are argumentative in nature, we will focus on constructing analytical  theses.     Thesis Conventions:​ The thesis typically appears at the end of your first paragraph  (introduction), is 1-3 sentences long, and avoids first person (unless the writer is instructed  otherwise).  Examples with Notes  1)  In the “Ethics of Living Jim Crow,” Richard Wright fights segregation [what] by using  irony [how] to show that Jim Crow’s “ethics” are unethical [why].  a.  Topic: Richard Wright’s “Ethics of Living with Jim Crow”…  b.  Comment: …shows Jim Crow “ethics” are unethical.    2)  The film ​Rebel without a Cause​ reflects the anxieties surrounding changing family values  in 1950s America [what]. The main conflicts are set against the “dysfunctional” family lives of  the characters Jim, Judy, and Plato [how] to show the danger of these degrading values and a  desire to return to a traditional family structure [why].  a.  Topic: ​Rebel without a Cause​…  b.  Comment: …reflects anxieties about changing family values.    3)  Because of the change in demographics and population distribution across the United  States (how), the Electoral College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fair  representation (why) and should be abandoned or altered to give more power to the popular  vote (what).  a.  Topic: The Electoral College…  b.  Comment: …should be abandoned.    For all three examples above, notice that the ​how​ and ​why​ elements make the paper more  specific and argumentative than if the writer had just introduced the topic to be discussed.  Build Your Thesis  Working Thesis:​ Your working thesis is your tentative topic plus your comment on that topic.    Example: The Electoral College should be abandoned.    Your Topic: ______________________________________________________________________  Comment: ______________________________________________________________________  Working thesis: __________________________________________________________________     Revised Thesis:​ Your revised thesis is a more complex, specific version of your working thesis  and considers the questions ​why​ and ​how​.     Example: Because of the change in demographics and population distribution, the Electoral  College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fai ...

Education
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Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will require a thesis statement in some form. These are general expectations and guidelines for writing and revising a strong thesis. Basics Roles of a Thesis: A thesis (1) answers a question, (2) makes an argument, and (3) presents a road map for the rest of your paper. Thesis Components: A thesis is comprised of a topic and a comment on the topic and answers the questions: What? Why? How? Generally, the comment portion is your argument; however, if a prompt is simply expository or analytical, you can still give a comment on how you are explaining or analyzing the topic. Since most college essays are argumentative in nature, we will focus on constructing analytical theses. Thesis Conventions: The thesis typically appears at the end of your first paragraph (introduction), is 1-3 sentences long, and avoids first person (unless the writer is instructed otherwise). Examples with Notes 1) In the “Ethics of Living Jim Crow,” Richard Wright fights segregation [what] by using
irony [how] to show that Jim Crow’s “ethics” are unethical [why]. a. Topic: Richard Wright’s “Ethics of Living with Jim Crow”… b. Comment: …shows Jim Crow “ethics” are unethical. 2) The film Rebel without a Cause reflects the anxieties surrounding changing family values in 1950s America [what]. The main conflicts are set against the “dysfunctional” family lives of the characters Jim, Judy, and Plato [how] to show the danger of these degrading values and a desire to return to a traditional family structure [why]. a. Topic: Rebel without a Cause… b. Comment: …reflects anxieties about changing family values. 3) Because of the change in demographics and population distribution across the United States (how), the Electoral College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fair representation (why) and should be abandoned or altered to give more power to the popular vote (what). a. Topic: The Electoral College… b. Comment: …should be abandoned. For all three examples above, notice that the how and why elements make the paper more specific and argumentative than if the writer had just introduced
the topic to be discussed. Build Your Thesis Working Thesis: Your working thesis is your tentative topic plus your comment on that topic. Example: The Electoral College should be abandoned. Your Topic: _____________________________________________________ _________________ Comment: _____________________________________________________ _________________ Working thesis: _____________________________________________________ _____________ Revised Thesis: Your revised thesis is a more complex, specific version of your working thesis and considers the questions why and how. Example: Because of the change in demographics and population distribution, the Electoral College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fair representation and should be abandoned or altered to give more power to the popular vote. Your Working Thesis: _____________________________________________________ ____________
Why? _____________________________________________________ __________________________ How? _____________________________________________________ __________________________ Revised Thesis: _____________________________________________________ _________________ _____________________________________________________ ________________________________ NOTE: Your final version of your thesis will go through several revisions. You may find that you need to actually write out your body paragraphs before you refine your final thesis. Thesis Checklist □ Does your thesis address all of the prompt? o What is the question that your thesis seeks to answer? Are there more than one? □ Does it make a claim/argument? Could someone argue against it? o Try to write about something that is not obvious; bring something new to the table. Discussing the topic with someone can help you find a more interesting angle. □ Can you support your thesis with evidence? o Sometimes it helps to collect your sources and do some brainstorming before settling on an argument. □ Is it specific? Is there any way you can make it more
specific? o Think about times, places, and names. Ask yourself what questions someone might have about the details of your thesis. □ Does it answer the questions what, how, and why? o The how’s are typically the main sub points used to organize your paper, and you can usually find the why in your analysis and conclusion. □ Does your thesis represent what your paper is actually about? o Sometimes our ideas change while we write. Don’t be afraid to revise your thesis throughout the editing process to better reflect your ideas. 3 ClassandRace intheEarlyWomen’s RightsCampaign AsLucretiaMottandElizabethCadyStantonwendedtheirwayarmina rmdowngreatQueen Streetthatnight,reviewingtheexcitingscenesoftheday,theyagreedt oholdawoman’srights conventionontheirreturntoAmerica,asthementowhomtheyhadjustl istenedhadmanifested their great need of some education on that question. Thus the missionary work for the emancipationofwomanin“thelandofthefreeandthehomeofthebrave
”wasthenandthere inaugurated.1 Thisconversation,whichtookplaceinLondonontheopeningdayofth e1840WorldAnti- SlaveryConvention,isfrequentlyassumedtocontaintherealstorybe hindthebirthofthe organizedwomen’smovementintheUnitedStates.Assuch,ithasacqu iredasomewhat legendarysignificance.Andlikemostlegends,thetruthitpresum esto embodyisfarless unequivocalthanitappears.Thisanecdoteanditssurroundingcircum stanceshavebeen madethebasisofapopularinterpretationofthewomen’srightsmovem entashavingbeen primarily inspired—or ratherprovoked—by the insufferablemale supremacywithin the anti-slaverycampaign. NodoubttheU.S.womenwhohadexpectedtoparticipateintheLondon conferencewere quitefuriouswhentheyfoundthemselvesexcludedbymajorityvote,“ fencedoffbehinda barandacurtainsimilartothoseusedinchurchestoscreenthechoirfro mpublicgaze.”2 LucretiaMott, like the other women officially representing the American Anti-Slavery Society,hadfurthercauseforangerandindignation.Forshehadjustre centlyemerged fromaturbulentstrugglearoundtheissueoffemaleabolitionists’right toparticipateona basisoffullequalityintheworkoftheAnti- SlaverySociety.Yetforawomanwhohadbeen excludedfrommembershipintheSocietysomesevenyearspreviously ,thiswasnonew experience.Ifshewasindeedinspiredtofightforwomen’srightsbythe
Londonevents—by thefactthat,astwocontemporaryfeministauthorsputit,“theleadin g maleradicals,those mostconcernedwithsocialinequalities…alsodiscriminateagainstw omen”3—itwasan inspirationthathadstruckherlongbefore1840. UnlikeLucretiaMott,ElizabethCadyStantonwasnotanexperienced politicalactivist whentheLondonconventiontookplace.Accompanyingherhusbando fonlyseveralweeks onwhat she called their “wedding journey”,4 shewas attending her first anti-slavery meetingnotasadelegatebut,rather,asthewifeofanabolitionistleader .Mrs.Stantonwas thussomewhathandicapped,lackingtheperspectiveforgedbyyearso fstruggleindefense ofwomen’srighttocontributetotheanti- slaverycause.Whenshewrote(alongwithSusan B.Anthony,intheirHistoryofWomanSuffrage)thatduringherconve rsationin1840with LucretiaMott,“amissionaryworkfortheemancipationofwomen…w asthenandthere inaugurated,”5herremarksdidnotaccountfortheaccumulatedlesson swroughtbyalmost adecadeduringwhichabolitionistwomenhadbattledfortheirpolitica lemancipationas women. Although theywere defeated at the London convention, the abolitionistwomen did discoverevidencethat theirpaststruggleshadachieveda fewpositiveresults.For they weresupportedbysomeofthemaleanti-
slaveryleaders,whoopposedthemovetoexclude them. William Lloyd Garrison—“brave noble Garrison”6—who arrived too late to participate in thedebate, refused to takehis seat, remainingduring the entire ten-day convention “a silent spectator in the gallery.”7 According to Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s account, Nathaniel P. Rogers of Concord, New Hampshire, was the only other male abolitionistwho joined thewomen in the gallery.8Why the Black abolitionist Charles RemondisnotmentionedinStanton’sdescriptionoftheeventsisrathe rpuzzling.Hewas also,ashehimselfwroteinanarticlepublishedintheLiberator,“asilen tlistener.”9 CharlesRemondwrotethatheexperiencedoneofthefewgreatdisappo intmentsofhis lifewhenhediscovered,uponhisarrival, that thewomenhadbeenexcluded fromthe conventionfloor.Hehadgoodreasontofeeldistressed,forhisowntrav elexpenseshad beenpaidbyseveralwomen’sgroups. Iwasalmostentirely indebtedto thekindandgenerousmembersof theBangorFemaleAnti- SlaverySociety,thePortlandSewingCircle,andtheNewportYoungL adies’JuvenileAnti-Slavery Society,foraidinvisitingthiscountry.10 Remondfeltcompelledtorefusehisseatintheconvention,becausehec ouldnototherwise bethe“honoredrepresentativeofthethreefemaleassociati ons,atonc emostpraiseworthy intheirobjectandefficientinthiscooperation.”11Notallofthemen,th erefore,werethe “bigotedAbolitionists”12towhomStantonrefersinherhistoricalacc
ount.Atleastsomeof themhadlearnedtodetectandchallengetheinjusticesofmalesuprema cy. Whereas Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s interest in abolitionismwas quite recent, she had conductedapersonalfightagainstsexismthroughoutheryouth.Enco uragedbyherfather —awealthyandunabashedlyconservativejudge— shehaddefiedorthodoxyinherstudies as well as in her leisure activities. She studied Greek and mathematics and learned horsebackriding,allofwhichweregenerallybarredtogirls.Atagesixt een,Elizabethwas theonlygirlinherhighschoolgraduatingclass.13Beforehermarriage ,theyoungStanton passedmuchofhertimewithherfatherandhadevenbeguntostudythel awseriously underhisguidance. By1848Stantonwas a full-timehousewife andmother. Livingwithherhusband in SenecaFalls,NewYork,shewasoftenunabletohireservantsbecauset heyweresoscarce inthatarea.Herownanticlimacticandfrustratinglifemadeherespecia llysensitivetothe middle-classwhitewoman’spredicament. Inexplainingherdecision to contactLucretia Mott,whomshehadnotseenforeightyears,shementionedherdomesti csituationfirst amongherseveralmotivesforissuingacalltoawomen’sconvention. ThegeneraldiscontentIfel twithwoman’sportionaswife,mother,hou sekeeper,physicianand spiritualguide…andthewearied,anxiouslookofthemajorityofwom en,impressedmewiththe strong feeling that someactivemeasures shouldbe taken to remedy thewrongsof society in
generalandofwomeninparticular.MyexperiencesattheWorldAnti- SlaveryConvention,allI hadreadofthelegalstatusofwomen,andtheoppressionIsaweverywh ere,togethersweptacross my soul, intensifiednowbymanypersonal experiences. It seemedas if all the elementshad conspiredtoimpellmetosomeonwardstep.Ic ouldnotseewhattodoor wheretobegin—my onlythoughtwasapublicmeetingforprotestanddiscussion.14 ElizabethCadyStanton’slifeexhibitedallthebasicelements,intheir mostcontradictory form,ofthemiddle- classwoman’sdilemma.Herdiligenteffortstoachieveexcellenceinh er studies,theknowledgeshehadgainedasalawstudent,andalltheother waysshehad cultivatedherintellectualpowers — allthishadcometonaught.Marriageandmotherhood precludedtheachievementofthegoalsshehadsetforherselfasasingle woman.Moreover, her involvement in the abolitionist movement during the years following the London convention had taught her that it was possible to organize a political challenge to oppression.Manyofthewomenwhowouldanswerthecall toattendthefirstwomen’s rightsconventioninSenecaFallswerebecomingconsciouso fsimilar contradictionsintheir lives andhad likewise seen, from the exampleof the anti -slavery struggle, that itwas possibletofightforequality. AstheSenecaFallsConventionwasbeingplanned,ElizabethCadySta ntonproposeda
resolutionwhichappearedtooradicaleventoherco- conventionerLucretiaMott.Although Mrs.Mott’s experiences in the anti-slaverymovementhad certainly persuadedher that womenurgently needed to exercise political power, she opposed the introduction of a resolutiononwomansuffrage.Suchamovewouldbeinterpretedasabs urdandoutrageous, shethought,andwouldconsequentlyunderminetheimportanceofthe meeting.Stanton’s husbandalsoopposedtheraisingofthesuffrageissue— andkepthispromisetoleavetown if she insistedonpresenting the resolution.FrederickDouglasswas theonlyprominent figurewhoagreedthattheconventionshouldcallforwomen’srighttov ote. Several years before the Seneca Falls meeting, Elizabeth Cady Stanton had firmly convincedFrederickDouglassthatthevoteshouldbeextendedtowom en. Icouldnotmeetherargumentsexceptwiththeshallowpleaof“custom, ”“naturaldivisionof duties,”“indelicacyofwoman’stakingpartinpolitics,”thecommont alkof“woman’ssphere,”and thelike,allofwhichthatablewoman,whowasthennolesslogicalthann ow,brushedawayby those arguments which she has so often and effectively used since and which no man has successfullyrefuted.Ifintelligenceistheonlytrueandrationalbasiso fgovernment,itfollowsthat thatisthebestgovernmentwhichdrawsitslifeandpowerfromthelarge stsourcesofwisdom, energyandgoodnessatitscommand.15 Among the approximately three hundred women and men
attending the Seneca Falls Convention,theissueofelectoralpowerforwomenwastheonlymajor pointofcontention: the suffrage resolution alone was not unanimously endorsed. That the controversial proposalwas presented at all, however,was due to FrederickDouglass’willingness to secondStanton’smotionandtoemployhisoratoricalabilitiesindefen seofwomen’sright tovote.16 During those early dayswhenwomen’s rightswas not yet a legitimate cause,when womansuffragewasunfamiliarandunpopularasademand,Frederick Douglasspublicly agitatedforthepoliticalequalityofwomen.Intheimmediateaftermat hoftheSenecaFalls Convention,hepublishedaneditorialinhisnewspaper,theNorthStar. Entitled“TheRights ofWomen,”itscontentwasquiteradicalforthetimes: Inrespecttopoliticalrights,weholdwomantobejustlyentitledtoallw eclaimformen.Wego further, and express our conviction that all political rightswhich it is expedient formen to exercise,itisequallysoforwoman.Allthatdistinguishesmanasaninte lligentandaccountable being,isequallytrueofwoman,andifthatgovernmentonlyisjustwhic hgovernsbythefree consentofthegoverned,therecanbenoreasonintheworldfordenyingt owomantheexerciseof theelectivefranchise,orahandinmakingandadministeringthelawoft heland.17
FrederickDouglasswas also responsible for officially introducing the issue ofwomen’s rightstotheBlackLiberationmovement,whereitwasenthusiasticall ywelcomed.AsS.Jay Walkerpointsout,DouglassspokeoutattheNationalConventionofC oloredFreedmenthat washeldinCleveland,Ohio,aroundthetimeoftheSenecaFallsmeetin g: Hesucceeded inamendingaresolutiondefiningdelegatesso that itwouldbe“understood ‘to includewomen,’”anamendmentthatwascarried“withthreecheersfo rwomen’srights!”18 ElizabethCadyStantondevotedexpressionsofpraisetoDouglassfor hissteadfastdefense oftheSenecaFallsConventioninfaceofthewidespreadridiculevoice dinthepress. Sopronouncedwasthepopularvoiceagainstus,intheparlor,pressand pulpit,thatmostofthe ladieswhohadattendedtheconventionandsignedthedeclaration,one byonewithdrewtheir namesandinfluenceandjoinedourpersecutors.Ourfriendsgaveusth ecoldshoulderandfelt themselvesdisgracedbythewholeproceeding.19 TheuproardidnotdissuadeDouglass,nordiditachieveitsgoalofnippi ngthebattlefor women’srightsinthebud.Parlor,pressandpulpit,tryastheymight,co uldnotreversethis trend.Onlyonemonthpassedbeforeanotherconventiontookplacein Rochester,NewYork —whose daring innovation and precedent for futuremeetings was a female presiding
officer.20FrederickDouglassagainmanifestedhis loyalty tohis sistersbyarguingonce moreforthesuffrageresolution,whichpassedinRochesterbyamuchl argermarginthanat SenecaFalls.21 Theadvocacyofwomen’srightscouldnotbeforbidden.Notyetaccept abletothemakers of public opinion, the issue of women’s equality, now embodied in an embryonic movement,supportedbyBlackpeoplewhowerefightingfortheirown freedom,established itselfasanindelibleelementofpubliclifeintheUnitedStates.Butwhat wasitallabout? Howwasthequestionofwomen’sequalitydefinedotherthanbythesuf frageissuewhich had prompted the derogatory publicity about the Seneca Falls Convention? Were the grievancesoutlined in theDeclarationof Sentiments and thedemandsput forth in the resolutionstrulyreflectiveoftheproblemsandneedsofthewomenoft heUnitedStates? TheemphaticfocusoftheSenecaFallsDeclarationwastheinstitution ofmarriageandits manyinjuriouseffectsonwomen:marriagerobbedwomenoftheirpro pertyrights,making wives economically—as well as morally—dependent on their husbands. Demanding absolute obedience fromwives, the institution ofmarriage gave husbands the right to punish theirwives, andwhat ismore, the lawsof separationanddivorcewerealmost entirelybasedonmalesupremacy.22Asaresultofwomen’sinferiorst atuswithinmarriage, theSenecaFallsDeclarationargued,theysufferedinequalitiesineduc
ationalinstitutionsas well as in the professions. “Profitable employments” and “all avenues to wealth and distinction”(suchasmedicine,lawandtheology)wereabsolutelyinac cessibletowomen.23 TheDeclarationconcludesitslistofgrievanceswithanevocationofw omen’smentaland psychologicaldependence,whichhasleftthemwithlittle“confidenc eandself-respect.”24 TheinestimableimportanceoftheSenecaFallsDeclarationwasitsrol easthearticulated consciousnessofwomen’srightsatmidcentury.Itwasthetheoretical culminationofyearsof unsure,oftensilent,challengesaimedatapolitical,social,domestica ndreligiouscondition which was contradictory, frustrating and downright oppressive for women of the bourgeoisieand therisingmiddleclasses.However,asa rigorousconsummationof the consciousnessofwhitemiddle- classwomen’sdilemma,theDeclarationallbutignoredthe predicamentofwhiteworking- classwomen,asitignoredtheconditionofBlackwomenin theSouth and North alike. In otherwords, the Seneca Falls Declaration proposed an analysisofthefemaleconditionwhichdisregardedthecircumstances ofwomenoutsidethe socialclassofthedocument’sframers. Butwhataboutthosewomenwhoworkedforaliving— thewhitewomen,forexample, whooperatedthetextilemillsintheNortheast?In1831,whenthetextil eindustrywasstill
themajorfocusofthenewindustrialrevolution,womencomprisedthe undisputedmajority ofindustrialworkers.Inthetextilemills,scatteredthroughoutNewEn gland,therewere 38,927womenworkersascomparedto18,539men.25Thepioneering “millgirls”hadbeen recruitedfromlocalfarmfamilies.Theprofitseekingmillownersrepr esentedlifeinthemills as an attractive and instructive prelude tomarried life. Both theWalthamand Lowell systemswereportrayedas“surrogate families”where theyoungfarmwomenwouldbe rigorouslysupervisedbymatronsinanatmosphereakintothefinishin gschool.Butwhat wastherealityofmilllife?Incrediblylonghours— twelve,fourteenorevensixteenhours daily;atrociousworkingconditions;inhumanlycrowdedlivingquart ers;and Solittletimewasallowedformeals—onehalfhouratnoonfordinner — thatthewomenraced fromthehot,humidweavingroomseveralblockstotheirboardinghou ses,gulpeddowntheir mainmealoftheday,andranbacktothemillinterrorofbeingfinedifthe ywerelate.Inwinter they dared not stop to button their coats and often ate without taking them off. This was pneumoniaseason.Insummer,spoiledfoodandpoorsanitationledtod ysentery.Tuberculosiswas withthemineveryseason.26 Themillwomenfoughtback.Beginninginthelate1820s— longbeforethe1848Seneca FallsConvention—workingwomenstaged“turn- outs”andstrikes,militantlyprotestingthe double oppression they suffered as women and as industrial
workers. In Dover, New Hampshire, forexample, themillwomenwalkedoff the jobin1828todramatizetheir oppositiontonewlyinstitutedrestrictions.They“shockedthecommu nitybyparadingwith bannersandflags,shootingoffgunpowder.”27 Bythesummerof1848,whentheSenecaFallsConventiontookplace,c onditionsinthe mills—hardlyidealtobeginwith— haddeterioratedtosuchanextentthattheNewEngland farmers’daughterswerefastbecomingaminorityinthetextilelaborfo rce.Replacingthe womenfrom“well- born,”“Yankee”backgroundswereimmigrantwomenwho, liketheir fathers, brothers andhusbands,were becoming the industrialproletariatof thenation. Thesewomen— unliketheirpredecessors,whosefamiliesownedland— hadnothingtorely upon but their labor power.When they resisted, theywere fighting for their right to survive. They fought so passionately that “in the 1840’s,womenworkerswere in the leadershipoflabormilitancyintheUnitedStates.”28 Campaigningfortheten- hourday,theLowellFemaleLaborReformAssociationpresented petitionstotheMassachusettsStateLegislaturein1843and1844.Whe ntheLegislature agreedtoholdpublichearings,theLowellwomenacquiredthedistinct ionofwinningthe very first investigationof labor conditionsbyagovernmentbody in thehistoryof the UnitedStates.29Thiswasclearlyablowforwomen’srights — anditpredated,byfouryears,
theofficiallaunchingofthewomen’smovement. Judgingfromthestrugglesconductedbywhiteworkingwomen— theirrelentlessdefense oftheirdignityasworkersandaswomen,theirconsciousaswellasimpl icitchallengesto thesexistideologyofwomanhood— theyhadmorethanearnedtherighttobelaudedas pioneersofthewomen’smovement.Buttheirtrailblazingrolewasallb utignoredbythe leadinginitiatorsof thenewmovement,whodidnotcomprehend thatwomenworkers experiencedandchallengedmalesupremacyintheirownspecialway. Asiftodrivethis pointhome,historyhasimpartedafinalironytothemovementinitiate din1848:Ofallthe womenattendingtheSenecaFallsConvention,theonlyonetolivelong enoughtoactually exerciseherrighttovoteoverseventyyearslaterwasaworkingwoman bythenameof CharlotteWoodward.30 CharlotteWoodward’s motives for signing the Seneca Falls Declaration were hardly identicaltothoseofthemoreprosperouswomen.Herpurposeforatten dingtheconvention wastoseekadviceonimprovingherstatusasaworker.Asaglovemaker ,heroccupation wasnotyetindustrialized:sheworkedathome,receivingwageslegall ycontrolledbythe meninherfamily.Describingthecircumstancesofherwork,sheexpre ssedthatspiritof rebellionwhichhadbroughthertoSenecaFalls:
Wewomenworksecretlyintheseclusionofourbedchambersbecausea llsocietywasbuiltonthe theorythatmen,notwomen,earnedmoneyandthatmenalonesupporte dthefamily…Idonot believethattherewasanycommunityinwhichthesoulsofsomewome nwerenotbeatingtheir wings in rebellion.Formyownobscure self I can say that every fibreofmybeing rebelled, althoughsilently,allthehoursthatIsatandsewedglovesforamiserabl epittancewhich,asitwas earned,couldneverbemine.Iwantedtowork,butIwantedtochoosemy taskandIwantedto collectmywages.Thatwasmyformofrebellionagainstthelifeintowh ichIwasborn.31 CharlotteWoodwardandtheseveralotherworkingwomenpresentatt heconventionwere serious— theyweremoreseriousaboutwomen’srightsthanaboutanythingelsei ntheir lives. Atthelastsessionoftheconvention,LucretiaMottproposedafinalres olutioncalling bothfortheoverthrowofthepulpitand“forthesecuringtowomenaneq ualparticipation withmeninthevarioustrades,professionsandcommerce.”[myempha sis]32Wasthisamere afterthought? A charitable gesture toward Charlotte Woodward and her working-class sisters?Ordidthesmallcontingentofworking- classwomenprotesttheexclusionoftheir interests from theoriginal resolutions, causingLucretiaMott, the long-timeanti-slavery activist,
tostandupontheirbehalf?IfSarahGrimkehadbeenpresent,shemight have insisted,asshesaidonanotheroccasion: Thereareinthepoorerclassesmanystronghonestheartswearyofbein gslavesandtoolswhoare worthyoffreedomandwhowilluseitworthily.33 If the recognition accordedworkingwomen at the Seneca Fallsmeetingwas all but negligible,therewasnotevenacursorymentionoftherightsofanother groupofwomen whoalso “rebelled against the lives intowhich theywere born.”34 In the South they rebelledagainstslaveryandintheNorthagainstadubiousc onditionof freedomcalled racism.WhileatleastoneBlackmanwaspresentamongtheSenecaFall sconferees,there wasnotasingleBlackwomaninattendance.Nordidtheconvention’sd ocumentsmake even a passing reference to Black women. In light of the organizers’ abolitionist involvement,itwouldseempuzzlingthatslavewomenwereentirelydi sregarded. But this problemwasnot anewone.TheGrimke sistershadpreviously criticized a numberoffemaleanti- slaverysocietiesforignoringtheconditionofBlackwomenandfor sometimesmanifestingblatantlyracistprejudices.Duringtheprepar ationsforthefounding conventionoftheNationalFemaleAnti- SlaverySociety,AngelinaGrimkehadtotakethe
initiative to guarantee more than a token presence of Black women. Moreover, she suggestedthataspecialaddressbedeliveredatthatconve ntiontothefr eeBlackpeopleof theNorth.Sincenoone—notevenLucretiaMott— wouldpreparetheaddress,Angelina’s sisterSarahhadtodeliverthespeech.35Asearlyas1837theGrimkesis terschastisedthe NewYorkFemaleAnti- SlaverySocietyforfailingtoinvolveBlackwomenintheirwork. “Onaccountoftheirstrongaristocraticalfeelings,”Angelinaregretfu llysaid, …theyweremostexceedinglyinefficient.…Wehavehadseriousthou ghtofforminganAnti- SlaverySocietyamongourcoloredsistersandgettingthemtoinviteth eirwhitefriendstojoin them, in thiswaywe thinkwecouldget themost efficientwhite females in the city to join them.36 TheabsenceofBlackwomenattheSenecaFallsConventionwasallthe moreconspicuous inlightoftheirpreviouscontributionstothefightforwomen’srights. Morethanadecade beforethismeeting,MariaStewarthadrespondedtoattacksonherrigh ttodeliverpublic lecturesbyemphaticallyasking,“WhatifIamawoman?”37ThisBlac kwomanwasthefirst native- bornfemalelecturerwhoaddressedaudiencesofbothmenandwomen. 38Andin 1827Freedom’s Journal—the first Black newspaper in this country—published a Black woman’sletteronwomen’srights.“Matilda,”assheidentifiedherself ,demandededucation
for Blackwomen at a timewhen schooling forwomenwas a controversial and quite unpopularissue.HerletterappearedinthispioneeringNewYorkjourn altheyearbefore theScottish- bornFrancesWrightbegantolectureonequaleducationforwomen. Iwouldaddressmyselftoallmothers,andsaytothem,thatwhileit isnecessarytopossessa knowledgeofpudding- making,somethingmoreisrequisite.Itistheirboundendutytostoreth eir daughters’mindswithusefullearning.Theyshouldbemadetodevotet heirleisuretimetoreading books,whencetheywouldderivevaluableinformation,whichcouldn everbetakenfromthem.39 Longbeforethefirstwomen’sconvention,middle- classwhitewomenhadstruggledfor the right to education. Matilda’s comments—later confirmed by the ease with which Prudence Crandall recruited Black girls for her besieged school in Connecticut— demonstratedthatwhiteandBlackwomenwereindeedunitedintheird esireforeducation. Unfortunately, this connectionwas not acknowledged during the convention at Seneca Falls. Thefailuretorecognizethepotentialforanintegratedwomen’smove ment—particularly againstsexismineducation— wasdramaticallyrevealedinanepisodeoccurringduringthe crucialsummerof1848.Ironically,itinvolvedthedaughterofFrederi ckDouglass.Afterher official admission toagirls’ seminary
inRochester,NewYork,Douglass’ daughterwas formallyprohibitedfromattendingclasseswiththewhitegirls.Thepri ncipalwhoissued the order was an abolitionist woman! When Douglass and his wife protested this segregationistpolicy,theprincipalaskedeachwhitegirltovoteonthei ssue,indicatingthat oneobjectionwouldsufficetocontinuetheexclusion.Afterthewhiteg irlsvotedinfavorof integrating the classroom, the principal approached the girls’ parents, using the one resultingobjectionasanexcusetoexcludeDouglass’daughter.40 Thatawhitewomanassociatedwiththeanti- slaverymovementcouldassumearacist posture towardaBlackgirl in theNorth reflectedamajorweakness in theabolitionist campaign—its failure to promote a broad anti-racist consciousness. This serious shortcoming, abundantly criticizedby theGrimke sisters andothers,wasunfortunately carriedoverintotheorganizedmovementforwomen’srights. Howeveroblivioustheearlywomen’srightsactivistsmayhavebeento theplightoftheir Blacksisters,theechoesofthenewwomen’smovementwerefeltthrou ghouttheorganized Black Liberation struggle. As mentioned above, the National Convention of Colored Freedmen passed a resolution on the equality of women in 1848.41 Upon Frederick Douglass’initiative,thisClevelandgatheringhadresolvedthatwome nshouldbeelected
delegatesonanequalbasiswithmen.Shortlythereafter,aconventiono fNegropeoplein PhiladelphianotonlyinvitedBlackwomentoparticipate,but inrecognitionof thenew movementlaunchedinSenecaFalls,alsoaskedwhitewomentojointh em.LucretiaMott describedherdecisiontoattendinalettertoElizabethCadyStanton: Wearenowinthemidstofaconventionofthecoloredpeopleofthecity. DouglassandDelany— RemondandGarnetarehere—alltakinganactivepart— andastheyincludewomenandwhite womentoo,Icandonoless,withtheinterestIfeelinthecauseoftheslav e,aswellasofwoman, thanbepresentandtakealittlepart— Soyesterday,inapouringrain,SarahPughandselfwalked downthereandexpecttodothesametoday.42 TwoyearsaftertheSenecaFallsConvention,thefirstNationalConven tiononWomen’s RightswasheldinWorcester,Massachusetts.Whethershewasactuall yinvitedorcameon herowninitiative,SojournerTruthwasamongtheparticipants.Herpr esencethereandthe speechesshedeliveredatsubsequentwomen’srightsmeetingssymbo lizedBlackwomen’s solidaritywiththenewcause.Theyaspiredtobefreenotonlyfromracis toppressionbut alsofromsexistdomination.“Ain’t IaWoman?”43—therefrainof thespeechSojourner Truthdeliveredatan1851women’sconventioninAkron,Ohio — remainsoneofthemost frequentlyquotedslogansofthenineteenth- centurywomen’smovement. SojournerTruthsingle- handedlyrescuedtheAkronwomen’smeetingfromthedisruptive
jeersofhostilemen.Of all thewomenattending thegathering, shealonewasable to answer aggressively the male supremacist arguments of the boisterous provocateurs. Possessinganundeniablecharismaandpowerfuloratoricalabilities, SojournerTruthtore downtheclaimsthatfemaleweaknesswasincompatiblewithsuffrage —andshedidthis withirrefutablelogic.Theleaderoftheprovocateurshadarguedthatit wasridiculousfor women todesire thevote, since theycouldnotevenwalkoverapuddleorget intoa carriagewithoutthehelpofaman.SojournerTruthpointedoutwithco mpellingsimplicity thatsheherselfhadneverbeenhelpedovermudpuddlesorintocarriage s.“Andain’tIa woman?”Withavoicelike“rollingthunder,”44shesaid,“Lookatme! Lookatmyarm,” androlleduphersleevetorevealthe“tremendousmuscularpower”ofh erarm.45 Ihaveploughed,andplanted,andgatheredintobarnsandnomancould headme!Andain’tIa woman?Icouldworkasmuchandeatasmuchasaman— whenIcouldgetit—andbearthelash aswell!Andain’tIawoman?Ihavebornethirteenchildrenandseent he mmostallsoldoffto slavery,andwhenIcriedoutwithmymother’sgrief,nonebutJesushea rdme!Andain’t Ia woman?46 As theonlyBlackwomanattending
theAkronconvention,SojournerTruthhaddone whatnotoneofhertimidwhitesisterswascapableofdoing.Accordingt othechairperson, “therewerevery fewwomen in thosedayswhodared to ‘speak inmeeting.’ ”Having powerfullypleaded thecauseofher sex,havingcommanded theattentionof thewhite womenaswellas theirdisruptivemaleadversaries,SojournerTruthwasspontaneously applaudedastheherooftheday.Shehadnotonlydealtacrushingdefeat tothemen’s “weaker sex” argument, but had also refuted their thesis thatmale supremacywas a Christianprinciple,sinceChristhimselfwasaman: Thatlittlemaninblackthere,hesayswomencan’thaveasmuchrightsa smen,becauseChrist wasn’tawoman.WheredidChristcomefrom?47 Accordingtothepresidingofficer,“rollingthundercouldn’thavestill edthatcrowd,asdid thosedeep,wonderfultones,asshestoodtherewithoutstretchedarms andeyesoffire.”48 WheredidyourChristcomefrom?FromGodandawoman!Manhadnot hingtodowithhim.49 AsforthehorrendoussincommittedbyEve,thiswashardlyanargume ntagainstwomen’s capabilities.Onthecontrary,itwasanenormousplus: IfthefirstwomanGodevermadewasstrongenoughtoturntheworldup sidedownallalone, thesewomentogetheroughttobeabletogetitrightsideupagain!Andn owtheyareaskingtodo it,themenbetterletthem.50
Themen’sbelligerencewasquietedandthewomenwereburstingwith pride,their“hearts beatingwithgratitude”and“morethanoneofuswithstreamingeyes.” 51FrancesDana Gage,thepresidingofficeroftheAkronconvention,continuedherdes criptionoftheimpact ofSojournerTruth’sspeech: Shehadtakenusupinherstrongarmsandcarriedussafelyovertheslou ghofdifficulty,turning thewholetideinourfavor.Ihaveneverinmylifeseenanythinglikethe magicalinfluencethat subduedthemobbishspiritoftheday,and turnedthesneersandjeersof anexcitedcrowdinto notesofrespectandadmiration.52 SojournerTruth’s“Ain’tIaWoman?”addresshaddeeperimplication s,foritwasalso,it seems,acommentontheracistattitudesofthesamewhitewomenwhol aterpraisedtheir Blacksister.NotafewoftheAkronwomenhadbeeninitiallyopposedt oaBlackwoman having a voice in their convention, and the anti-women’s righters had tried to take advantageofthisracism.InthewordsofFrancesDanaGage: Theleadersofthemovementtrembledonseeingatall,gauntblackwom aninagraydressand whiteturban,surmountedwithanuncouthsunbonnet,marchdeliberat elyintothechurch,walk with the air of a queen up the aisle, and take her seat upon the pulpit steps. A buzz of
disapprobationwasheardalloverthehouse,andtherefellonthe listeningear,“Anabolition affair!”“Itoldyouso!”“Goit,darkey!”53 On the second day of the convention,when Sojourner Truth rose to answer themale supremacistassault,leadingwhitewomenattemptedtopersuadeGag etopreventherfrom speaking. “Don’tletherspeak!”gaspedhalfadozeninmyear.Shemovedslowlya ndsolemnlytothefront, laidheroldbonnetatherfeet,andturnedhergreatspeakingeyestome.T herewasahissing soundofdisapprobationaboveandbelow.Iroseandannounced“Sojo urnerTruth,”andbegged theaudiencetokeepsilenceforafewmoments.54 Fortunately for theOhiowomen, for thewomen’smovement in general—forwhom SojournerTruth’sspeechestablishedamilitantfightingspirit — andforustodaywhostill receive inspiration fromherwords,FrancesDanaGagedidnot succumbto these racist pressuresofhercomrades.WhenthisBlackwomandidrisetospeak,he ranswertothe malesupremacistsalsocontainedaprofoundlessonforthewhitewom en.Inrepeatingher question“Ain’tIawoman?”nolessthanfourtimes,sheexposedthecla ss-biasandracism ofthenewwomen’smovement.Allwomenwerenotwhiteandallwome ndidnotenjoythe materialcomfortof themiddleclassesandthebourgeoisie.SojournerTruthherselfwas Black—shewasanex-slave— butshewasnolessawomanthananyofherwhitesistersat
theconvention.Thatherraceandhereconomicconditionwerediffere ntfromtheirsdidnot annul herwomanhood.And as a Blackwoman, her claim to equal rightswas no less legitimatethanthatofwhitemiddle- classwomen.Atanationalwomen’sconventiontwo yearslater,shewasstillfightingeffortstopreventherfromspeaking. Iknowthatitfeelsakindofhissingandticklingliketoseeacoloredwom angetupandtellyou aboutthingsandWoman’sRights.Wehaveallbeenthrowndownsolo wthatnobodythought we’devergetupagain;butwehavebeenlongenoughtroddennow;wew illcomeupagain,and nowIamhere.55 Throughout the1850s localandnationalconventionsattracted increasingnumbersof womento thecampaign forequality. Itwasneveranunusualoccurrence forSojourner Truthtoappearatthesemeetings,anddespiteinevitablehostility,tori seandhavehersay. InrepresentingherBlacksisters —bothslaveand“free”— sheimpartedafightingspiritto thecampaignforwomen’srights.ThiswasSojournerTruth’suniqueh istoricalcontribution. AndincasewhitewomentendedtoforgetthatBlackwomenwerenoles swomenthan they,herpresenceandherspeechesservedasaconstantreminder.Blac kwomenwerealso goingtogettheirrights. Meanwhile, large numbers of Black women were manifesting their commitment to freedomandequalityinwaysthatwerelesscloselyconnectedwiththe newlyorganized
women’smovement.TheUndergroundRailroadclaimedtheenergies ofnumerousNorthern Blackwomen.JaneLewis,forexample,aresidentofNewLebanon,Oh io,regularlyrowed herboatacrosstheOhioRiver,rescuingmanyafugitiveslave.56Franc esE.W.Harper,a dedicatedfeministandthemostpopularBlackpoetatmidcentury, wasoneofthemostactivelecturersassociatedwiththeanti - slaverymovement.Charlotte Forten,whobecamealeadingBlackeducatorduringthepost- CivilWarperiod,waslikewise anactiveabolitionist.SarahRemond,wholecturedagainstslaveryin England,Irelandand Scotland,exercisedavastinfluenceonpublicopinion,andaccordingt oonehistorian,“kept theToriesfrominterveningonthesideoftheConfederacy.”57 Eventhemostradicalwhiteabolitionists,basingtheiroppositiontosla veryonmoraland humanitariangrounds,failedtounderstandthattherapidlydevelopin gcapitalismofthe Northwasalsoanoppressivesystem.Theyviewedslaveryasadetestab leandinhuman institution,anarchaictransgressionofjustice.Buttheydidnotrecogn izethatthewhite workerintheNorth,hisorherstatusas“free”laborernotwithstanding, wasnodifferent fromtheenslaved“worker”intheSouth:bothwerevictimsofeconomi cexploitation.As militantasWilliamLloydGarrisonissupposedtohavebeen,hewasve hementlyagainst wagelaborers’righttoorganize.Theinaugural issueoftheLiberator includedanarticle
denouncingtheeffortsofBostonworkerstoformapoliticalparty: Anattempthasbeenmade—itisstillinthemaking—weregrettosay— toinflamethemindsofour workingclassesagainst themoreopulent,and topersuademen that theyarecondemnedand oppressedbyawealthyaristocracy…Itisinthehighestdegreecrimina l,therefore,toexasperate ourmechanicstodeedsofviolenceortoarraythemunderapartybanner .58 As a rule,white abolitionists either defended the industrial capitalists or expressed no conscious class loyalty at all. This unquestioning acceptance of the capitalist economic systemwas evident in the program of thewomen’s rightsmovement aswell. Ifmost abolitionists viewed slavery as a nasty blemish which needed to be eliminated, most women’srightersviewedmalesupremacyinasimilarmanner— asanimmoralflawintheir otherwiseacceptablesociety. The leadersof thewomen’srightsmovementdidnotsuspect that theenslavementof BlackpeopleintheSouth,theeconomicexploitationofNorthernwork ersandthesocial oppressionofwomenmightbesystematicallyrelated.Withintheearly women’smovement, littlewassaidaboutwhiteworkingpeople— notevenaboutwhitewomenworkers.Though manyofthewomenweresupportersoftheabolitionistcampaign,theyf ailedtointegrate theiranti- slaveryconsciousnessintotheiranalysisofwomen’soppression. AttheoutbreakoftheCivilWar,thewomen’srightsleaderswerepersu
adedtoredirect theirenergiestowardadefenseoftheUnioncause.Butinsuspendingth eiragitationfor sexualequality,theylearnedhowdeeplyracismhadplanteditselfinth esoilofU.S.society. ElizabethCadyStanton,LucretiaMottandSusanB.Anthonytraveled throughoutthestate of New York delivering pro-Union lectures demanding “immediate and unconditional emancipation.”59 …andtheyreceivedtheroughesttreatmentoftheirlivesatthehandsof arousedmobsinevery citywheretheystoppedbetweenBuffaloandAlbany.InSyracusetheh allwasinvadedbyacrowd ofmenbrandishingknivesandpistols.60 IftheyhadnotpreviouslyrecognizedthattheSouthheldnomonopolyo nracism,their experiencesasagitatorsfortheUnioncauseshouldhavetaughtthemth attherewasindeed racismintheNorth—andthatitcouldbebrutal. When themilitarydraftwas instituted in theNorth, large-scale riots inmajorurban centerswerefomentedbypro- slaveryforces.Theybroughtviolenceanddeathtothefree Blackpopulation.InJuly,1863,mobsinNewYorkCity …destroyedtherecruitingstations,setfiretoanarmory,attackedtheT ribuneandprominent Republicans,burnedaNegroorphanasylum,andgenerallycreatedch
aosthroughoutthecity.The mobsdirectedtheirfuryespeciallyagainsttheNegroes,assailingthe mwhereverfound.Manywere murdered.…Itiscalculatedthatsome1,000peoplewerekilledandwo unded…61 If the degree to which the North itself was infected with racism had formerly gone unrecognized,themobviolenceof1863demonstratedthatanti - Blacksentimentwasdeep andwidespreadandpotentiallymurderous.IftheSouthhadamonopol yonslavery,itwas certainlynotaloneinitssponsorshipofracism. ElizabethCadyStantonandSusanB.Anthonyhadagreedwiththeradi calabolitionists thattheCivilWarcouldbehastilyendedbyemancipatingtheslavesan drecruitingthem intotheUnionArmy.Theyattemptedtorallymassesofwomentotheirp ositionbyissuing acalltoorganizeaWomen’sLoyalLeague.Atthefoundingmeeting,h undredsofwomen agreedtopromotethewareffortbycirculatingpetitionsdemandingth eemancipationof theslaves.Theywerenotsounanimous,however,intheirresponsetoS usanB.Anthony’s resolutionlinkingtherightsofwomentotheliberationofBlackpeople . Theproposedresolutionstatedthattherecanneverbeatruepeaceinthi sRepublicuntil the “civil and political rights of all citizens of African descent and all women” are practicallyestablished.62Unfortunately, inlightofthepostwardevelopments, itappears thatthisresolutionmayhavebeenmotivatedbythefearthat(white)wo
menmightbeleft behindwhentheslavesemergedintothelightoffreedom.ButAngelina Grimkeproposeda principleddefenseoftheunitybetweenBlackLiberationandWomen’ sLiberation:“Iwant tobeidentifiedwiththeNegro,”sheinsisted.“Untilhegetshisrights,w eshallneverhave ours.”63 IrejoiceexceedinglythattheresolutionshouldcombineuswiththeNe gro.Ifeelthatwehave beenwithhim;thattheironhasenteredintooursouls.True,wehavenot felttheslave-holder’s lash!truewehavenothadourhandsmanacled,butourheartshavebeen crushed.64 AtthisfoundingconventionoftheWomen’sLoyalLeague — towhichalltheveteransof the abolitionist campaign and the women’s rights movement were invited—Angelina Grimke characteristically proposed the most advanced interpretation of the war she describedas“oursecondrevolution.”65 Thewarisnot,astheSouthfalselypretends,awarofraces,norofsectio ns,norofpoliticalparties, butawarofPrinciples,awarupontheworkingclasses,whetherwhiteo rblack…Inthiswar,the blackmanwasthefirstvictim,theworkingmanofwhatevercolor thenext;andnowallwho contend for the rights of labor, for free speech, free schools, free suffrage, and a free government…aredriventodobattleindefenseoftheseortofallwithth em,victimsofthesame violencethatfortwocenturieshasheldtheblackmanaprisonerofwar. WhiletheSouthhas
wagedthiswaragainsthumanrights,theNorthhasstoodbyholdingthe garmentsofthosewho werestoninglibertytodeath… Thenationisinadeath- struggle.Itmusteitherbecomeonevastslaveocracyofpettytyrants,or whollythelandofthefree…66 Angelina Grimke’s brilliant “Address to the Soldiers of Our Second Revolution” demonstrated thatherpolitical consciousnesswas farmoreadvanced thanmostofher contemporaries.Inherspeechsheproposedaradicaltheoryandpracti cewhichcouldhave beenrealizedthroughanallianceembracinglabor,Blackpeopleandw omen.If,asKarlMarx said,“laborinawhiteskincanneverbefreeaslongaslaborinablackski nisbranded,”it wasalsotrue,asAngelinaGrimkelucidlyinsisted,thatthedemocratic strugglesofthetimes —especiallythefightforwomen’sequality— couldbemosteffectivelywagedinassociation withthestruggleforBlackLiberation. 10 Common Paper Pitfalls Used in FAMST 46: Introduction to Film Fall 2014
1. What is your thesis?: The paper has an unclear underlying argument, or the thesis is only present in the paper's opening and closing paragraphs. 2. Lack of detail: Paragraphs bringing in examples from the text seem more like plot summary since the author relies on broad, general descriptions of scenes rather than picking out specific formal/aesthetic details that support their argument. 3. Optimus Prime syndrome: Opening and closing paragraphs rely on sweeping generalizations about CINEMA or the film's importance “for all time.” 4a. Director as Mastermind: The paper constantly refers to the director as “manipulating” or “tricking” the spectator. Be careful of claiming a director's intentions when you cannot know them. 4b. Director as Genius: It is not necessary to praise the director’s skill. Such statements are more suitable for a film review than an academic analysis.
5. 5-Paragraph Essay Overload: The paper’s thesis statement states 3 elements of the film to be discussed, but makes no unique argument about these elements: “Through flashbacks, characters, and narration, The Conversation moves from the beginning of the film to the end.” 6. Over-hedging: The paper relies on phrases like “In my opinion” and “I think.” This weakens the paper’s argument. If you are writing it, the reader knows it is your opinion—no need to state it. 7. Who’s your audience?: The tone of writing sounds more like a casual blog post or popular film review than an academic paper. The title does not sound academic or allude to the paper’s argument. 8. Lost at sea: The paper does not have clear and defined structure. It is hard for the reader to distinguish the purpose of each of the paragraphs. Within paragraphs, the writer goes off on tangents or introduces new ideas that are not related to the paragraph’s topic.
9. Who do you think I am?: The paper makes overarching assumptions about viewers’ responses to a film without doing the proper audience research to support these assertions. 10. Lack of polish: The paper has not been edited or proofread closely. Thesis Statement Worksheet Used in FAMST 46: Introduction to Film Fall 2014 If you have a good thesis, you should be able to answer “yes” to each of these questions: 1) Could someone else successfully disagree with my argument? EX> Don’t say, “The NBC show Friends deals with women and men living in the city.” This is evident, and thus, not a good thesis.
2) Am I naming the exact people, places, and things I’m arguing about in the thesis itself? EX> Don’t say, “The program champions certain values over others.” A more specific (though still imperfect) thesis would say, “The NBC show Friends champions heteronormative values through its obsession with romantic partnerships and eventual marriage.” 3) Am I addressing one complex but ultimately cohesive topic? EX> Don’t say, “The program explores issues of racism, sexism, homophobia, elitism, and nationalism.” That’s 4-5 different papers rolled into one. Instead, choose one primary topic, and then think of how a few subtopics RELATE to the main one. 4) Does my thesis give my readers a reason to care about this paper? In other
words, does it answer the “so what?” question? EX> Don’t say, “The NBC program Friends shows the different kinds of romantic relationships between the characters Ross and Rachel.” Why is this important? Instead say, “The NBC show Friends displays an obsession with romantic partnerships, championing heteronormative relations to the detriment of its female characters; this is best showcased in the season finale, where Rachel throws away her dream of working in Paris so that she can permanently be with Ross.” Essay Structure
Introduction (see CLAS Writing an Introductions handout) 1. Opening Sentence/Hook a. At a glance, the opening sentence should give the reader an idea of what your paper will be about. b. You can use an appropriate hook to grab your reader’s attention and make them want to read more. 2. Background a. Give any information your reader may need leading up to your thesis. For example, texts, events, and/or people you’ll be discussing, or the different sides of the argument you will be discussing. b. You don’t have to give too much detail; leave the juicy bits of evidence and analysis for your body paragraphs. 3. Thesis a. The last sentence of your introduction should be a specific thesis statement outlining your argument and how you will support it through the rest of the paper (for more help, see the CLAS Thesis Statements handout).
Body Paragraphs (as many as is appropriate to prove your point) 1. Topic Sentence a. Your topic sentence relates back to your thesis and identifies which particular point of your argument the paragraph will discuss. 2. Evidence a. Focus on one or two pieces of evidence. (Your essay should include ample and varying types of evidence, including primary and secondary sources.) b. Be sure to introduce, integrate, and cite all sources. c. Organize evidence so that each piece builds off the one before. 3. Analysis a. Provide analysis for each piece of evidence, showing how it supports your argument/thesis. Analysis should explicitly connect different pieces of evidence to show how they support your main argument. 4. Transition a. Summarize the main point and transition to the next topic sentence.
Conclusion (see CLAS conclusions handout) 1. Restate Thesis a. Summarize the argument of your paper and check to make sure it matches your thesis in your introduction. b. Don’t rewrite your thesis word for word. Rephrase it. 2. Significance/”Big Picture” a. Take your paper a step further by showing how it ties into a wider context or is relevant to our daily life. Outline Your Essay Structure GENERAL PAPER COMMENTS STUDENT NAME: A paper B paper C paper D paper
THESIS: Does the paper have a clear and strong argument? Your thesis is clearly stated and represents a strong position Your thesis is good but general; it could be sharper and more focused This paper has a topic but not a thesis This paper does not have a clear focus or topic ORGANIZATION: Is the paper well-structured and logically organized? This paper is clearly and carefully organized, with logical flow and transitions Your paper is generally organized and clear This paper is not clearly organized and/or has problems with logic Your paper has no clear structure, order or plan
EVIDENCE: Is there substantial and authoritative evidence supporting your argument? You offer thoughtful, detailed and strongly relevant evidence, with specific examples from the films seen in class You offer sufficient evidence to support your argument, but the examples you have chosen are vaguely described or do not fit the thesis You offer some evidence but it could be more complete or relevant You offer thoughts, opinions and hearsay but not solid evidence APPEARANCE/ STYLE: Is the paper neat and free from grammatical errors and typos? Your paper is free from mechanical errors and shows a sense of personal style Your paper has a few spelling or mechanical errors but it lacks originality
and depth Your paper contains grammatical, syntax and/or spelling errors. It does not seem to have been revised/proofread There are significant mechanical problems that undermine the expression of your ideas EFFORT, LEVEL OF IDEAS, RELEVANCE: Does the paper represent a substantial amount of work? How complex are your ideas? Does it relate to course topics? This paper is original, extremely thorough, shows a complex appreciation of the course material and is deeply relevant to the assignment. Your paper demonstrates a solid grasp of the material and the ability to critically develop an argument. This paper represents a substantial amount of work, a significant understanding of course material. The paper, however, contains a few mistakes and does not fully develop its argument.
This paper represents a minimum but still adequate amount of work, a basic/ straightforward approach and a topic somewhat relevant to the assignment This paper is seriously deficient in terms of the quantity of work represented, relevance to the assignment and approach to the topic OVERALL: How does the paper measure up to college standards and the work of your peers? This paper meets the highest standards of the assignment and it is clearly above average. This paper represents solid, credible and very good work This paper satisfies the basic and minimum standards of the assignment This paper is significantly below what is expected in a college course Other considerations - could include: *research (quality of sources)
*degree to which feedback on proposal was taken into account, integrated into paper FILM ART AN INTRODUCTION bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 1 17/09/15 10:57 am bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 2 17/09/15 10:57 am ELEVENTH EDITION FILM ART David Bordwell University of Wisconsin—Madison Kristin Thompson University of Wisconsin—Madison Jeff Smith University of Wisconsin—Madison AN INTRODUCTION bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 3 17/09/15 10:57 am
David Bordwell is Jacques Ledoux Professor Emeritus of Film Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He holds a master’s degree and a doctorate in film from the University of Iowa. His books include The Films of Carl - Theodor Dreyer (University of California Press, 1981), Narration in the Fiction Film (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema (Princeton University Press, 1988), Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema (Harvard University Press, 1989), The Cinema of Eisenstein (Harvard University Press, 1993), On the History of Film Style (Harvard University Press, 1997), Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment (Harvard University Press, 2000), Figures Traced in Light: On Cinematic Staging (University of California Press, 2005), The Way Hollywood Tells It: Story and Style in Modern Movies (University of California Press, 2006), Poetics of Cinema (Routledge, 2008), Pandora’s Digital Box: Films, Files, and the Future of Movies (Irvington Way Institute Press, 2012), and The Rhapsodes: How 1940s Critics Changed American Film Culture (University of Chicago Press, 2016). He has won a University Distinguished Teaching Award and was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Copenhagen. His website is www.davidbordwell.net. Kristin Thompson is an Honorary Fellow at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She holds a master’s degree in film from the University of Iowa and a doctorate in film from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She has published Eisenstein’s Ivan the Terrible: A Neoformalist Analysis (Princeton University Press, 1981), Exporting Entertainment: America in the World Film Market
1907–1934 (British Film Institute, 1985), Breaking the Glass Armor: Neoformalist Film Analysis (Princeton University Press, 1988), Wooster Proposes, Jeeves Disposes, or, Le Mot Juste (James H. Heineman, 1992), Storytelling in the New Hollywood: Understanding Classical Narrative Technique (Harvard University Press, 1999), Storytelling in Film and Television (Harvard University Press, 2003), Herr Lubitsch Goes To Hollywood: German and American Film After World War I (Amsterdam University Press, 2005), and The Frodo Franchise: The Lord of the Rings and Modern Hollywood (University of California Press, 2007). She blogs with David at www.davidbordwell.net/blog, and is a con- tributor to TheOneRing.net. In her spare time, she studies Egyptology. David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson have also collabo- rated on Film History: An Introduction (McGraw-Hill, 3d ed., 2010), Minding Movies: Observations of the Art, Craft, and Business of Filmmaking (University of Chicago Press, 2011), Christopher Nolan: A Labyrinth of Linkages (Irvington Way Institute Press, 2013), and, with Janet Staiger, on The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (Columbia University Press, 1985). Jeff Smith is a professor in the Communication Arts Department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the author of two books: The Sounds of Commerce: Marketing Popular Film Music (Columbia University Press, 1998) and Film Criticism, the Cold War, and the Blacklist: Reading the Hollywood Reds (University of California Press, 2014). A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S
To our parents, Marjorie and Jay Bordwell and Jean and Roger Thompson bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 5 17/09/15 10:57 am Film Art helps students master the skills of film appreciation by teaching them to analyze and appreciate classic and contemporary films. Enhanced by McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook®, Film Art delivers a learning and teaching experience tailored to the needs of each institution, instructor, and student. P E R S O N A L I Z I N G F I L M L E A R N I N G For nearly a generation, Film Art has helped students become informed viewers of classic and contemporary films by explaining key vocabulary and concepts of film forms, techniques, and history. And now, with the introduction of McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook students are better equipped to understand and retain these basic concepts. SmartBook is an adaptive learning program proven to help students learn faster, study smarter, and retain more knowledge for greater success. Distinguishing what students know from what they don’t, and focusing on con- cepts they are most likely to forget, SmartBook continuously
adapts to each student’s needs by building a personalized learning path. An intelligent, adaptive study tool, SmartBook is proven to strengthen memory recall, keep students in class, and boost grades. Enhanced by McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook, Film Art delivers the first and only adaptive reading experience currently available. ∙ Make It Effective. SmartBook creates a person- alized reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is returned to the student as the most valuable minute possible. ∙ Make It Informed. Real-time reports quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual students— or the entire class. A N A LY Z I N G A N D C R I T I Q U I N G F I L M Studying film isn’t just about learning the facts; it’s also about the skills of watch- ing and listening closely. Together with the Criterion Collection, we’ve developed Connect Film to introduce students to the world of film and challenge them to develop the critical-analysis skills necessary to become informed viewers. The authors have partnered with the Criterion Collection to create brief video tutorials, available exclusively in Connect Film. The tutorials use film clips to
clarify and reinforce key concepts and model the critical skills necessary to become informed viewers. They can be shown in class or assigned for students to view F I L M A R T —A P E R S O N A L I Z E D L E A R N I N G A N D T E A C H I N G E X P E R I E N C E I N F I L M A P P R E C I A T I O N vi bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 6 17/09/15 10:57 am Below are several Criterion Tutorials new to the eleventh edition: FILM ART vii Light Sources: Ashes and Diamonds (1958) Available Lighting: Breathless (1960) Staging in Depth: Mr. Hulot’s Holiday (1953) Color Motifs: The Spirit of the Beehive (1973) Tracking Shots Structure a Scene: Ugetsu (1953) Tracking Shot to Reveal: The 400
Blows (1959) Style Creates Parallelism: Day of Wrath (1943) Staging and Camera Movement in a Long Take: The Rules of the Game (1939) Editing with Graphic Matches: Seven Samurai (1954) Shifting the Axis of Action: Shaun of the Dead (2004) Crossing the Axis of Action: Early Summer (1951) Crosscutting: M (1931) Elliptical Editing: Vagabond (1985) Jump Cuts: Breathless (1960) Sound Mixing: Seven Samurai (1954) Contrasting Rhythms of Sound and Image: Mr. Hulot’s Holiday (1953) Offscreen Sound: M (1931) What Comes Out Must Go In: 2D Computer Animation Lens and Camera Movement Film Lighting Contrasting Style for Objective and Subjec- tive Narration: Journey to Italy (1954) Diegetic narration by an Unidentified Character: I Vitelloni (1953)
Setting and Costume Play an Active Role: Ivan the Terrible, Part II (1958) Two Ways of Staging for Humor: The Gold Rush (1925) The Long Lens and Zooming: Close-up (1990) Playing with Unrealistic Sound: Daisies (1966) Staging with the Main Characters’ Backs toward the Camera: L'Avventura (1960) Authenticity in Documentaries: Nanook of the North (1922) Surrealism in Experimental Film: Un Chien andalou (1929) Post Production Sound In addition, Connect Film features Film Analysis Assignments with additional clips, film stills, and links to movie clips to help students practice analyzing aspects of each film and prepare them for their longer written assignments. These include clips from the following films: Battleship Potemkin (1925) D.O.A. (1950) The General (1926)
His Girl Friday (1940) The Lady Vanishes (1938) M (1931) Man with a Movie Camera (1929) Meet John Doe (1941) Night of the Living Dead (1968) Nosferatu (1922) Scarlet Street (1945) Sita Sings the Blues (2008) Wackiki Wabbit (1943) outside class, with brief optional follow-up quizzes. Below is a list of Criterion Collection tutorial selections available in Connect Film: bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 7 17/09/15 10:57 am A P P R E C I AT I N G F I L M Film Art provides the respected scholarship and analytic tools students need to understand key vocabulary and concepts of film forms, techniques, and his- tory; appreciate a wide variety of classic and contemporary films and the creative
choices made by filmmakers to shape the experience of viewers; and analyze films critically and systematically to enrich their understanding and appreciation of any film, in any genre. “Creative Decision” sections provide in-depth examples to deepen students’ appreciation for how creative choices by filmmakers affect how viewers respond. Discussions include, for example, performance and camera positioning in The Social Network, editing in The Birds, and overlapping dialogue cuts in The Hunt for Red October. “Closer Look” features examine important issues in contemporary cinema and provide detailed looks at such topics as computer-generated imagery (CGI) in The Lord of the Rings, editing in L. A. Confidential, and motifs in The Shining. Authors’ blog, “Observations on Film Art.” In what Roger Ebert called “the most knowledgeable film blog on the web,” David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson share their ideas and experiences with instructors and students (http:// www.davidbordwell.net/blog). Throughout the text, “Connect to the Blog” refer- ences point to blog entries with relevant ideas, terms, and film examples, connect- ing ideas in Film Art to the current film scene in an accessible way.
P E R S O N A L I Z I N G F I L M T E A C H I N G Through McGraw-Hill Education’s Create, a new chapter on Film Adaptations, written by Jeff Smith of the University of Wisconsin, is available for instructors to better customize and personalize their film appreciation course. In addition, an appendix on “Writing a Critical Analysis” is available for instructors who require written film critiques, and DVD Recommendations provide particularly effective resources related to key topics. McGraw-Hill Create allows you to create a customized print book or eBook tailored to your course and syllabus. You can search through thousands of McGraw-Hill Education texts, rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and include your own content or teaching notes. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. To register and to get more information, go to http://create.mheducation.com. CREATIVE DECISIONS viii FILM ART bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 8 17/09/15 10:57 am
FILM ART ix Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Chapter 1 Updated and expanded information on digital production, distribution, and exhibition, with examples of special effects from Pacific Rim. New information on contemporary theater sound systems, as exemplified by Atmos and Brave. New references to Middle of Nowhere and Nightcrawler. Examination of marketing campaigns for The Dark Knight, the Transformers series, and The Grand Budapest Hotel. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 2 Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 3 Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 4 New references to mise-en-scene in Watchmen, Snowpiercer, and Laura. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 5 Updated information on digital color grading. Discussion of 3D in Life of Pi. Discussions of Family Plot and Leviathan. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 6 New examples from Wolf of Wall Street and Lucy. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 7 Extensively revised sound chapter, with new material on sound perspective in the theater space.
New analyses of sound techniques in The Magnificent Ambersons, Blow-Out, Norma Rae, Interstellar, Breakfast at Tiffany’s, Reservoir Dogs, The Nutty Professor, Vicki Cristina Barcelona, Gosford Park, 12 Monkeys, and Accident, along with an expanded consideration of The Conversation. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 8 Extensive new section on Gravity and film style in the digital age. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 9 New section on sports film as genre, with new examples from My Sweet Pepper Land, The World’s Fastest Indian, Fever Pitch, and Offside. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 10 New examples from The Act of Killing, Searching for Sugar Man, and Rango. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 11 New detailed analysis of Moonrise Kingdom. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 12 Update on contemporary Hollywood industry and technology, including sound systems and Video on Demand. New examples from Beetlejuice, Ben-Hur, The Apple, and Beasts of the Southern Wild. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 9 17/09/15 10:57 am F R O M T H E A U T H O R S
If you’re in your late teens or early twenties, we have something in common with you. That was the age when we became curious about—some would say, obsessed with—film, cinema, movies. What fueled our enthusiasm was a simple love of this medium and the great films we saw. For us, films that are classics today, from Alphaville, 2001, and The Godfather through Jaws and Nashville to Pulp Fiction and Chungking Express, were new movies. Over the years, we’ve watched film history unfold, and our excitement at new developments hasn’t flagged. Of course, we loved particular films and admired particular filmmakers. At the same time, we were entranced by the artistic possibilities of film as an art form. As teachers and writers, we roamed widely, trying to understand films from very different traditions—from silent avant-garde cinema to modern Hong Kong film, from Los Angeles to Paris to Tokyo. We’ve written about modern Hollywood, including The Lord of the Rings, and filmmakers working outside Hollywood—for example, Carl Dreyer, Sergei Eisenstein, and Yasujiro Ozu. In the past ten years, we’ve extended our explorations to the Web, where we blog regularly about the many things that interest us in film. Studying the arts isn’t just about learning facts. That’s why in
Film Art we have always emphasized the skills of watching and listening closely. With the tenth edition we partnered with the prestigious Criterion Collection of DVDs and Blu- ray discs in our new Connect Film digital program (see pp. vi – vii). The Criterion Collection is dedicated to gathering many of the greatest classic and contemporary films from around the world. Criterion editions provide the highest technical qual- ity and include award-winning supplements. They are a natural partner in introduc- ing a new generation to cinema studies. We’ve created a series of clips that model the critical viewing skills that will help you become informed viewers. For this eleventh edition, we’ve added to our first set of clips, and we hope that these will continue to help you become critical, informed viewers. Filmmaking has undergone a continuous change since we launched this book in 1979. Digital technology has given many people access to filmmaking tools, and it has changed film distribution and exhibition. You can watch movies on your laptop or mobile phone, and films now arrive at theaters on hard drives rather than film reels. Because we focus on concepts, and because the techniques we study remain central to all sorts of moving-image media, much of what we studied in earlier editions remains valid. Still, we’ve expanded our discussion to include the creative choices opened up by digital cinema.
Studying the arts isn’t only about learning facts and concepts either, although both are important. In addition, studying the arts broadens our tastes. In eleven editions of Film Art, we’ve made reference to many well-known films but also to many that you’ve probably never heard of. This is part of our plan. We want to show that the world of cinema teems with a great many unexpected pleasures, and we hope to get you curious. In surveying film art through such concepts as form, style, and genre, we aren’t trying to wrap movies in abstractions. We’re trying to show that there are principles that can shed light on a variety of films. We’d be happy if our ideas can help you to understand the films that you enjoy. And we hope that you’ll seek out films that will stimulate your mind, your feelings, and your imagination in unpredictable ways. For us, this is what education is all about. x bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 10 17/09/15 10:57 am Over the 40 years of preparing editions of Film Art: An Introduction we have incurred many debts to hundreds of individuals, and it’s impossible to thank them all in- dividually. We do, however, want to thank certain peo- ple for their long-term support. Our colleagues at the
University of Wisconsin–Madison: Tino Balio, Maria Belodubrovskaya, Ben Brewster, No ̈l Carroll, Kelley Conway, Kaitlin Fyfe, Maxine Fleckner-Ducey, Erik Gunneson, Vance Kepley, Mike King, Lea Jacobs, J. J. Murphy, Peter Sengstock, and Ben Singer have helped us in many ways. Archivists have also been exceptionally cooperative, so we thank Eileen Bowser, Elaine Burrows, Mary Corliss, the late Susan Dalton, the late Jacques Ledoux, Jan-Christopher Horak, Patrick Loughney, Nicola Mazzanti, Jackie Morris, Charles Silver, Paolo Cherchi Usai, and especially Gabrielle Claes for giving us access to films and materials in their collections. Thanks as well to Michael Barker of Sony Pictures Classics, Dan Talbot and Jose ́ Lopez of New Yorker Films, and James Schamus, formerly of Focus Features. Thanks as well to Michael Barker of Sony Pictures Classics, Roni Lubliner of NBC–Universal, Peter McPartlin of Indian Paintbrush, and Matt Zoller Seitz of Rogerebert.com, who initiated our contact with Mr. McPartlin. Finally, we appreciate the kind cooperation of several filmmakers, including the late Les Blank, Bruce Conner, and Norman McLaren, as well as Ernie Gehr, Michael Snow, and Frederick Wiseman. As the new contributor to this edition, Jeff Smith would like to thank Eric Dienstfrey for his valuable advice about the history of film sound technologies, Michele Smith for her helpful recommendations of new film examples, and Megan Lacroix, personal consultant for all things Harry Potter. In preparing this edition, we’re grateful to Aaron Adair, Southeastern Oklahoma State University; Laura Bouza, Moorpark College; Domenic Bruni, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Maria Elena de las Carreras, California State University–Northridge; Shawn Cheatham, University of South Florida–Tampa; John Claborn,
University of Illinois–Champaign; Megan Condis, University of Illinois–Champaign; Steve Gilliland, West Virginia State University; Lucinda McNamara, Cape Fear Community College; James McWard, Johnson County Community College; Barbara Multer-Wellin, New York Film Academy; Deron Overpeck, Auburn University; Lisa Peterson, University of Central Florida–Orlando; Syd Slobodnik, University of Illinois–Champaign; Jared Saltzman, Bergen Community College; and Susan Tavernetti, Deanza College. We owe special thanks to Erik Gunneson, pro- ducer and director of our video supplements, and Petra Dominkova, whose eagle eye scanned for slips, misprints, and inconsistencies. Warm thanks as well go to Peter Becker and Kim Hendrickson of the Criterion Collection for their generosity in cooperating with us on the video extracts. As ever, we’re grateful to the McGraw-Hill Education publishing team, particularly Dawn Groundwater, Sarah Remington, Sandy Wille, Shawntel Schmitt, Susan Messer, and Carey Lange. David Bordwell Kristin Thompson Jeff Smith Acknowledgments FROM THE AUTHORS xi bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 11 17/09/15 10:57 am
B R I E F C O N T E N T S PA R T O N E • Film Art and Filmmaking 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business 2 PA R T T W O • Film Form 2 The Significance of Film Form 50 3 Narrative Form 72 PA R T T H R E E • Film Style 4 The Shot: Mise-en-Scene 112 5 The Shot: Cinematography 159 6 The Relation of Shot to Shot: Editing 216 7 Sound in the Cinema 263 8 Summary: Style and Film Form 303 PA R T F O U R • Types of Films 9 Film Genres 326 10 Documentary, Experimental, and Animated Films 350 PA R T F I V E • Critical Analysis of Films 11 Film Criticism: Sample Analyses 400 PA R T S I X • Film Art and Film History
12 Historical Changes in Film Art: Conventions and Choices, Tradition and Trends 452 FILM ADAPTATIONS WRITING A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF A FILM ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR FILM ART Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1 xii bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 12 17/09/15 10:57 am C O N T E N T S Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? 3 Creative Decisions in Filmmaking 4 CREATIVE DECISIONS: To See into the Night in Collateral 5 Mechanics of the Movies 9 Illusion Machines 9 Making Films with Photographic Film 10 Filmmaking with Digital Media 13 Making the Movie: Film Production 17 The Scriptwriting and Funding Phase 18 The Preparation Phase 19 The Shooting Phase 20 The Assembly Phase 24
A CLOSER LOOK: Some Terms and Roles in Film Production 25 Artistic Implications of the Production Process 29 Modes of Production 29 Large-Scale Production 30 Exploitation, Independent Production, and DIY 30 Small-Scale Production 31 Artistic Implications of Different Modes of Production 33 Bringing the Film to the Audience: Distribution and Exhibition 35 Distribution: The Center of Power 35 Exhibition: Theatrical and Nontheatrical 40 Ancillary Markets: Taking Movies beyond the Theater 42 Artistic Implications of Distribution and Exhibition 43 Screens and Sounds: Stylistic Opportunities and Challenges 45 SUMMARY 48 PA R T T W O • Film Form CHAPTER 2 The Significance of Film Form 50 The Concept of Form in Film 51 Form as Pattern 51 “Form” Versus “Content” 52 Formal Expectations 54 Conventions and Experience 55
Form and Feeling 57 Form and Meaning 58 Evaluation: Good, Bad, or Indifferent? 61 Principles of Film Form 62 Function 62 Similarity and Repetition 63 A CLOSER LOOK: Creative Decisions: Picking Out Patterns 64 Difference and Variation 66 Development 67 Unity and Disunity 70 SUMMARY 70 PA R T O N E • Film Art and Filmmaking CHAPTER 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business 2 CHAPTER 3 Narrative Form 72 Principles of Narrative Form 72 What Is Narrative? 73 Telling the Story 74 CREATIVE DECISIONS: How Would You Tell the Story? 74 Plot and Story 75 Cause and Effect 77 Time 79
A CLOSER LOOK: Playing Games with Story Time 82 Space 84 Openings, Closings, and Patterns of Development 85 Narration: The Flow of Story Information 87 Range of Story Information: Restricted or Unrestricted? 87 Depth of Story Information: Objective or Subjective? 90 The Narrator 93 xiii bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 13 17/09/15 10:57 am xiv CONTENTS A CLOSER LOOK: When the Lights Go Down, the Narration Starts 94 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Choices about Narration in Storytelling 96 The Classical Hollywood Cinema 97 Narrative Form in Citizen Kane 99 Overall Narrative Expectations in Citizen Kane 99 Plot and Story in Citizen Kane 100 Citizen Kane’s Causality 102 Time in Citizen Kane 103 Motivation in Citizen Kane 105 Citizen Kane’s Parallelism 106 Patterns of Plot Development in Citizen Kane 107
Narration in Citizen Kane 108 SUMMARY 110 PA R T T H R E E • Film Style CHAPTER 4 The Shot: Mise-en-Scene 112 What Is Mise-en-Scene? 112 The Power of Mise-en-Scene 113 Components of Mise-en-Scene 115 Setting 115 Costume and Makeup 119 Lighting 124 Staging: Movement and Performance 131 A CLOSER LOOK: The Film Actor’s Toolkit 134 Putting It All Together: Mise-en-Scene in Space and Time 140 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mise-en-Scene in a Sequence from L’Avventura 141 Space 143 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mise-en-Scene in Two Shots from Day of Wrath 149 Time 150 Narrative Functions of Mise-en-Scene in Our Hospitality 154 SUMMARY 158 CHAPTER 5 The Shot: Cinematography 159
The Photographic Image 159 The Range of Tonalities 159 Speed of Motion 164 A CLOSER LOOK: From Monsters to the Mundane: Computer-Generated Imagery in The Lord of the Rings 165 Perspective 168 Framing 177 A CLOSER LOOK: Virtual Perspective: 3D 179 Frame Dimensions and Shape 181 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Using Widescreen Framing 183 Onscreen and Offscreen Space 185 Camera Position: Angle, Level, Height, and Distance of Framing 187 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Camera Position in a Shot from The Social Network 191 The Mobile Frame 194 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mobile Framing and Film Form in Grand Illusion and Wavelength 203 Duration of the Image: The Long Take 209 Real Time Is . . . What? 210 Functions of the Long Take 210 The Long Take and the Mobile Frame 212 SUMMARY 215
What Is Editing? 217 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Why Cut? Four Shots from The Birds 218 Dimensions of Film Editing 219 Graphic Relations between Shot A and Shot B 219 Rhythmic Relations between Shot A and Shot B 224 Spatial Relations between Shot A and Shot B 225 Temporal Relations between Shot A and Shot B 226 Continuity Editing 230 Spatial Continuity: The 180° System 231 Continuity Editing in The Maltese Falcon 233 Continuity Editing: Some Fine Points 237 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Are You Looking at Me? Point-of-View Cutting in Rear Window 241 Crosscutting 244 CHAPTER 6 The Relation of Shot to Shot: Editing 216 bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 14 17/09/15 10:57 am A CLOSER LOOK: Intensified Continuity: Unstoppable, L. A. Confidential, and Contemporary Editing 246 Temporal Continuity: Order, Frequency, and Duration 251 Alternatives to Continuity Editing 252 Graphic and Rhythmic Possibilities 253
Spatial and Temporal Discontinuity 254 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Discontinuity Editing in October 259 SUMMARY 262 CHAPTER 7 Sound in the Cinema 263 Sound Decisions 263 The Powers of Sound 264 Sound Shapes Our Understanding of Images 265 Guiding Our Eye and Mind 265 Fundamentals of Film Sound 267 Perceptual Properties 267 Recording, Altering, and Combining Sounds 270 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Editing Dialogue: To Overlap or Not to Overlap? 273 Musical Motifs in Breakfast at Tiffany’s 278 A CLOSER LOOK: Orchestrating Romance in Jules and Jim 280 Dimensions of Film Sound 281 Rhythm 281 Fidelity 284 Space 285 A CLOSER LOOK: Offscreen Sound and Optical Point of View: The Money Exchange in Jackie Brown 287 Sound Perspective 294 Time 296
Conversation Piece 300 SUMMARY 302 CHAPTER 8 Summary: Style and Film Form 303 The Concept of Style 303 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Style and the Filmmaker 304 Decision Making: Techniques Working Together 305 Watching and Listening: Style and the Viewer 306 Analyzing Style 306 1. What Is the Film’s Overall Form? 307 2. What Are the Main Techniques Being Used? 307 3. What Patterns Are Formed by the Techniques? 307 4. What Functions Do the Techniques and Patterns Fulfill? 309 A CLOSER LOOK: Stylistic Synthesis in Shadow of a Doubt 310 Style in Citizen Kane 312 Mystery and the Penetration of Space 312 Style and Narration: Restriction and Objectivity 314 Style and Narration: Omniscience 316 Narrative Parallels: Settings 316 Parallels: Other Techniques 317 A Convincing Newsreel 319 Plot Time through Editing 319 A CLOSER LOOK: Gravity: Film Style in the Digital Age 322 SUMMARY 324 PA R T F O U R • Types of Films
CHAPTER 9 Film Genres 326 Understanding Genre 327 Defining a Genre 328 Analyzing a Genre 329 Genre History 331 A CLOSER LOOK: Creative Decisions in a Contemporary Genre: The Crime Thriller as Subgenre 332 The Social Functions of Genres 335 Four Genres 337 The Western 337 The Horror Film 339 The Musical 342 The Sports Films 346 SUMMARY 349 CONTENTS xv bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 15 17/09/15 10:57 am CHAPTER 10 Documentary, Experimental, and Animated Films 350 Documentary 350 What Is a Documentary? 350 The Boundaries between Documentary and Fiction 352 Genres of Documentary 353 Form in Documentary Films 354 Categorical Form: Introduction 355
CREATIVE DECISIONS: Engaging Viewers Using Categorical Form 356 An Example of Categorical Form: Gap-Toothed Women 357 Rhetorical Form: Introduction 362 An Example of Rhetorical Form: The River 364 Experimental Film 369 A Range of Technical Choices 370 Types of Form in Experimental Films 371 Abstract Form: Introduction 371 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Designing Form in an Abstract Film 371 An Example of Abstract Form: Ballet Mécanique 373 Associational Form: Introduction 378 An Example of Associational Form: Koyaanisqatsi 379 The Animated Film 387 Types of Traditional Animation 387 Types of Computer Animation 389 An Example of Traditional Animation: Duck Amuck 392 An Example of Experimental Animation: Dimensions of Dialogue 394 SUMMARY 398 PA R T F I V E • Critical Analysis of Films CHAPTER 11 Film Criticism: Sample Analyses 400 The Classical Narrative Cinema 401
His Girl Friday 401 North by Northwest 404 Do The Right Thing 408 Moonrise Kingdom 413 Narrative Alternatives to Classical Filmmaking 418 Breathless (À bout de souffle) 418 Tokyo Story (Tokyo Monogatari) 423 Chungking Express (Chung Hing sam lam) 428 Documentary Form and Style 432 Man with a Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom) 432 The Thin Blue Line 436 Form, Style, and Ideology 441 Meet Me in St. Louis 441 Raging Bull 446 PA R T S I X • Film Art and Film History CHAPTER 12 Historical Changes in Film Art: Conventions and Choices, Tradition and Trends 452 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Film Form and Style across History 453 Traditions and Movements in Film History 455
Early Cinema (1893–1903) 456 Photography and Cinema 457 Edison vs. Lumière 457 Early Form and Style 458 Méliès, Magic, and Fictional Narrative 459 The Development of the Classical Hollywood Cinema (1908–1927) 460 Hollywood and the Studio System of Production 460 Classical Form and Style in Place 462 German Expressionism (1919–1926) 463 French Impressionism and Surrealism (1918–1930) 466 Impressionism 467 Surrealism 468 Soviet Montage (1924–1930) 470 Artists and the State 470 NEP Cinema 471 The Priority of Editing 472 The Movement Ends 472 The Classical Hollywood Cinema after the Coming of Sound (1926–1950) 474 Converting to Sound 474 Problems and
Solution s 474 Studios, Genres, and Spectacle 475 Deep Focus and Narrative Innovations 476 Italian Neorealism (1942–1951) 477 Leaving the Studio 478 A New Model of Storytelling 478 The Movement’s End and Its Legacy 479 xvi CONTENTS bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 16 17/09/15 10:57 am The French New Wave (1959–1964) 479 Critics Become Moviemakers 480 A New Wave Style 480 Neorealism Recast 481 Into the Mainstream and Beyond 481
The New Hollywood and Independent Filmmaking, 1970s–1980s 482 Blockbusters and Indie Pictures 483 The Rise of the Movie Brats 483 Other Paths 484 The 1980s and After 485 Hollywood and Independents, To Be Continued 487 Hong Kong Cinema, 1980s–1990s 488 A Local Tradition Goes Global 488 The New Generation: Two Schools 489 Story and Style 489 Legacy Overseas 491 FILM ADAPTATIONS WRITING A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF A FILM ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR FILM ART Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1 CONTENTS xvii
bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 17 17/09/15 10:57 am bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 18 17/09/15 10:57 am P A R T 1 Film is a young medium. Painting, literature, dance, and theater have existed for thousands of years, but cinema was invented only a little more than a century ago. Yet in its comparatively short span, the newcomer has established itself as an energetic and powerful art. It’s this art that we explore in this book. The chapters that follow show how creative people have used moving pictures to give us experiences that we value. We examine the principles and techniques that give film its power to tell stories, express emotions, and convey ideas. But this art has some unusual features we should note from the
start. More than most arts, film depends on complex technology. Without machines, movies wouldn’t move. In addi- tion, film art usually requires collabora- tion among many participants, people who follow well-proven work routines. Films are not only created but pro- duced. Just as important, they are firmly tied to their social and economic context. Films are distributed and exhibited for audiences, and money matters at every step. Chapter 1 surveys all these aspects of the filmmaking process. We examine the technology, the work practices, and the business side of cinema. All these components shape and sustain film as an art. Film Art and Filmmaking bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 1 16/09/15 4:17 PM
C H A P T E R 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business Motion pictures are so much a part of our lives that it’s hard to imagine a world without them. We enjoy them in theaters, at home, in offices, in cars and buses, and on airplanes. We carry films with us in our laptops, tablets, and cellphones. Press a button, and a machine conjures up movies for your pleasure. Films communicate information and ideas, and they show us places and ways of life we might not otherwise know. Important as these benefits are, though, some- thing more is at stake. Films offer us ways of seeing and feeling that we find deeply gratifying. They take us through experiences. The experiences are often driven by stories centering on characters we come to care about, but a film might also develop an idea or explore visual qualities or sound textures. Such things don’t happen by accident. Films are designed to
create experiences for viewers. To gain an understanding of film as an art, we should ask why a film is designed the way it is. When a scene frightens or excites us, when an ending makes us laugh or cry, we can ask how the filmmakers have achieved those effects. It helps to imagine that we’re filmmakers, too. Throughout this book, we’ll be asking you to put yourself in the filmmaker’s shoes. This shouldn’t be a great stretch. You’ve taken still photos with a camera or a mobile phone. Very likely you’ve made some videos, perhaps just to record a moment in your life—a party, a wedding, your cat creeping into a paper bag. And central to filmmaking is the act of choice. You may not have realized it at the moment, but every time you framed a shot, shifted your position, told people not to blink, or tried to keep up with a dog chasing a Frisbee, you were making choices.
You might take the next step and make a more ambitious, more controlled film. You might compile clips into a YouTube video, or document your friend’s musical performance. Again, at every stage you make design decisions, based on how you think this image or that sound will affect your viewers’ experience. What if you start your music video with a black screen that gradually brightens as the music fades in? That will have a different effect than starting it with a sudden cut to a bright screen and a blast of music. At each instant, the filmmaker can’t avoid making creative decisions about how viewers will respond. Every moviemaker is also a movie viewer, and the choices are considered from the standpoint of the end user. Filmmakers constantly ask them- selves: If I do this, as opposed to that, how will viewer s react? The menu of filmmaking choices has developed over time. Late in the 19th century, moving pictures emerged as a public amusement. They
succeeded because they spoke to the imaginative needs of a broad-based audience. All the traditions bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 2 16/09/15 4:17 PM Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? 3 that emerged—telling fictional stories, recording actual events, animating objects or drawings, experimenting with pure form—aimed to give viewers experiences they couldn’t get from other media. Men and women discovered that they could use cinema to shape those experiences in various ways. Suppose we center the actors so they command the frame space? Suppose we cut up a scene into shots taken from several angles? Suppose we move the camera to follow the actors? Learning from one another, testing and refining new choices, filmmakers developed skills that became the basis of the art form we have today.
Thinking like a filmmaker is all very well, you might say, i f you want a career in the business. What if you just want to enjoy movies? We think that you can appreciate films more fully if you’re aware of how creative choices shape your experience. You’ve probably looked at some making-of bonuses on DVD versions of films you love, and some of those supplements have increased your enjoyment. We enhance our appreciation of The Social Network or Inception when we know something of the filmmakers’ behind-the-scenes discussion of character motivation and specific line readings. We can always get more out of the films we see, and thinking about the filmmakers’ choices helps us to understand why we respond as we do. This is why we start our survey of film art by looking at the process of film production. Here we can see, in very tangible ways, the sorts of options available to
people working in this medium. In every chapter that follows, we invoke what film artists have said about the ways they’ve chosen to solve creative problems. Throughout this book, we focus on the two basic areas of choice and control in the art of film: form and style. Form is the overall patterning of a film, the ways its parts work together to create specific effects (Chapters 2 and 3). Style involves the film’s use of cinematic techniques. Those techniques fall into four categories: mise-en-scene, or the arrangement of people, places, and objects to be filmed (Chapter 4); cinematography, the use of cameras and other machines to record images and sounds (Chapter 5); editing, the piecing together of individual shots (Chapter 6); and sound, the voices, effects, and music that blend on a film’s audio track (Chapter 7). After examining the various techniques, Chapter 8 integrates them in an overview of film style.
In later chapters, we discuss how form and style differ among genres and other types of films (Chapters 9–10). We consider how we can analyze films critically (Chapter 11) and how film form and style have changed across history, offering filmmakers different sets of creative choices (Chapter 12). In all, we’ll see how through choice and control, film artists create movies that entertain us, inform us, and engage our imaginations. Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? The term “art” might put some readers off. If cinema originated as a mass medium, should we even use the word? Are Hollywood directors “artists”? Some people would say that the blockbusters playing at the multiplex are merely “entertain- ment,” but films for a narrower public—perhaps independent films, or foreign- language fare, or experimental works—are true art. Usually the art/entertainment split rests on a value judgment: Art is serious
and worthy; entertainment is superficial. Yet things aren’t that simple. Many of the artistic resources of cinema were discovered by filmmakers working for the general public. During the 1910s and 1920s, for instance, many filmmakers who simply aimed to be entertaining pioneered new possibilities for film editing. As for the matter of value, it’s clear that popular traditions can foster art of high quality. Shakespeare and Dickens wrote for broad audiences. Much of the greatest 20th-century music, including jazz and the blues, was rooted in popular traditions. Cinema is an art because it offers filmmakers ways to design experiences bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 3 16/09/15 4:17 PM 4 CHAPTER 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business
for viewers, and those experiences can be valuable regardless of their pedigree. Films for audiences both small and large belong to that very inclusive art we call film or cinema. Sometimes, too, people consider film art to be opposed to film as a business. This split is related to the issue of entertainment, since entertainment generally is sold to a mass audience. In most modern societies, however, no art floats free from economic ties. Novels good, bad, and indifferent are published because publishers and authors expect to sell them. Painters hope that collectors and museums will acquire their work. True, some artworks are funded through sub- sidy or private donations, but that process, too, involves the artists in financial transactions. Films are no different. Some movies are made in the hope that consumers will pay to see them. Others are funded by patronage (an
investor or organization wants to see the film made) or public money. (France, for instance, generously subsidizes film projects.) Crowdfunding sites such as Kickstarter offer another alternative. You might make short videos for YouTube or Vimeo at little cost, but if you hope to make a feature-length digital movie, you face the problem of paying for it. If you can’t profit from your film, you may still hope that the project will lead to a job. The crucial point is that considerations of business don’t necessarily make the artist less creative or the project less worthwhile. Money can corrupt any activity, but it doesn’t have to. In Renaissance Italy, painters were commissioned by the Catholic Church to illustrate events from the Bible. Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci worked for hire, but we revere their artistry. In this book we won’t assume that film art precludes entertainment. We won’t
take the opposite position either, claiming that only Hollywood mass-market mov- ies are worth our attention. Similarly, we don’t think that film art rises above com- mercial demands, but we also won’t assume that money rules everything. Any art form offers a vast range of creative possibilities. As an art, film offers experiences that viewers find worthwhile—diverting, provocative, puzzling, or rapturous. But how do films do that? To answer that ques- tion, let’s go back a step and ask: Where do movies come from? They come from three places. They come from the imagination and hard work of the filmmakers who create them. They come from a complex set of machines that capture and transform images and sounds. And they come from companies or individuals who pay for the filmmakers and the technology. This chapter examines the artistic, technological, and business sides of how films come into being.
Creative Decisions in Filmmaking In Day for Night, French filmmaker François Truffaut plays a director making a movie called Meet Pamela. Crew members bring set designs, wigs, cars, and prop pistols to him, and we hear his voice telling us his thoughts: “What is a director? A director is someone who is asked questions about everything.” Making a film can be seen as a long process of decision making, not just by the director but by all the specialists who work on the production team. Screenwriters, producers, directors, performers, and technicians are constantly solving problems and making choices. A great many of those decisions affect what we see and hear on the screen. There are business choices about the budget, marketing, distribution, and payments. Connected to those choices are the artistic ones. What lighting will enhance the atmosphere of a love scene? Given the kind of story being told, would it be better to let the audience know what the central character is thinking or to keep
her enigmatic? When a scene opens, what is the most economical way of letting the audience identify the time and place? We can see how decisions shape the process by looking in more detail at a single production. CONNECT TO THE BLOG www.davidbordwell.net/blog We examine an unusual problem and a director’s unusual solution in “Problems, problems, Wyler’s workaround.” bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 4 16/09/15 4:17 PM Creative Decisions in Filmmaking 5 CREATIVE DECISIONS To See into the Night in Collateral Michael Mann’s Collateral, released in 2004, is a visually striking psychological
thriller set in Los Angeles in a single night. The mysterious Vincent (Tom Cruise) hires a cab driver, Max (Jamie Foxx), to drive him to several appointments. When Max learns that Vincent is a hired killer, he struggles to break their bargain and escape. But Vincent forces him to carry on as a getaway driver. In the course of the evening, the two men spar verbally and move toward a climactic chase and confrontation. Mann and his crew made thousands of decisions during the making of Collateral. Here we look at five important choices: one that influenced the film’s form and one each for our four categories of mise-en-scene, cinematography, edit- ing, and sound. Several of these decisions involved new technologies that became standard production tools. Scriptwriter Stuart Beattie originally set Collateral in New York City. In the screenplay, Max was a loser, hiding from the world in his cab and getting little
out of life. Vincent was to goad him about his failures until Max had finally had enough and stood up to him. Once Mann came on board as director, he altered the plot in several ways. The setting became Los Angeles. Max became less a loser and more a laid-back, intelligent man content to observe the world from behind a steering wheel, endlessly delaying his plans to start his own limousine service. This more appealing Max becomes our point-of-view figure for most of the film. For example, we don’t see the first murder but stay with Max in the cab until the shocking moment when a body hurtles down onto his cab roof. The story largely consists of Max’s conflict with Vincent, so Mann’s decision to change Max’s traits altered their confrontations as well. In the finished film, moments of reluctant mutual respect and even hints of friendship complicate the men’s relationship. Such decisions as these reshaped the film’s overall narrative form. The switch to Los Angeles profoundly affected the film’s style.
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
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Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ
Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ

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Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will requ

  • 1. Thesis Statements Any paper you write in college will require a thesis statement in some form. These are general expectations and guidelines for writing and revising a strong thesis. Basics Roles of a Thesis: A thesis (1) answers a question, (2) makes an argument, and (3) presents a road map for the rest of your paper. Thesis Components: A thesis is comprised of a topic and a comment on the topic and answers the questions: What? Why? How? Generally, the comment portion is your argument; however, if a prompt is simply expository or analytical, you can still give a comment on how you are explaining or analyzing the topic. Since most college essays are argumentative in nature, we will focus on constructing analytical theses. Thesis Conventions: The thesis typically appears at the end of your first paragraph (introduction), is 1-3 sentences long, and avoids first person (unless the writer is instructed otherwise). Examples with Notes 1) In the “Ethics of Living Jim Crow,” Richard Wright fights segregation [what] by using
  • 2. irony [how] to show that Jim Crow’s “ethics” are unethical [why]. a. Topic: Richard Wright’s “Ethics of Living with Jim Crow”… b. Comment: …shows Jim Crow “ethics” are unethical. 2) The film Rebel without a Cause reflects the anxieties surrounding changing family values in 1950s America [what]. The main conflicts are set against the “dysfunctional” family lives of the characters Jim, Judy, and Plato [how] to show the danger of these degrading values and a desire to return to a traditional family structure [why]. a. Topic: Rebel without a Cause… b. Comment: …reflects anxieties about changing family values. 3) Because of the change in demographics and population distribution across the United States (how), the Electoral College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fair representation (why) and should be abandoned or altered to give more power to the popular vote (what). a. Topic: The Electoral College… b. Comment: …should be abandoned. For all three examples above, notice that the how and why elements make the paper more specific and argumentative than if the writer had just introduced
  • 3. the topic to be discussed. Build Your Thesis Working Thesis: Your working thesis is your tentative topic plus your comment on that topic. Example: The Electoral College should be abandoned. Your Topic: _____________________________________________________ _________________ Comment: _____________________________________________________ _________________ Working thesis: _____________________________________________________ _____________ Revised Thesis: Your revised thesis is a more complex, specific version of your working thesis and considers the questions why and how. Example: Because of the change in demographics and population distribution, the Electoral College no longer realizes its original intention of ensuring fair representation and should be abandoned or altered to give more power to the popular vote. Your Working Thesis: _____________________________________________________ ____________
  • 4. Why? _____________________________________________________ __________________________ How? _____________________________________________________ __________________________ Revised Thesis: _____________________________________________________ _________________ _____________________________________________________ ________________________________ NOTE: Your final version of your thesis will go through several revisions. You may find that you need to actually write out your body paragraphs before you refine your final thesis. Thesis Checklist □ Does your thesis address all of the prompt? o What is the question that your thesis seeks to answer? Are there more than one? □ Does it make a claim/argument? Could someone argue against it? o Try to write about something that is not obvious; bring something new to the table. Discussing the topic with someone can help you find a more interesting angle. □ Can you support your thesis with evidence? o Sometimes it helps to collect your sources and do some brainstorming before settling on an argument. □ Is it specific? Is there any way you can make it more
  • 5. specific? o Think about times, places, and names. Ask yourself what questions someone might have about the details of your thesis. □ Does it answer the questions what, how, and why? o The how’s are typically the main sub points used to organize your paper, and you can usually find the why in your analysis and conclusion. □ Does your thesis represent what your paper is actually about? o Sometimes our ideas change while we write. Don’t be afraid to revise your thesis throughout the editing process to better reflect your ideas. 3 ClassandRace intheEarlyWomen’s RightsCampaign AsLucretiaMottandElizabethCadyStantonwendedtheirwayarmina rmdowngreatQueen Streetthatnight,reviewingtheexcitingscenesoftheday,theyagreedt oholdawoman’srights conventionontheirreturntoAmerica,asthementowhomtheyhadjustl istenedhadmanifested their great need of some education on that question. Thus the missionary work for the emancipationofwomanin“thelandofthefreeandthehomeofthebrave
  • 6. ”wasthenandthere inaugurated.1 Thisconversation,whichtookplaceinLondonontheopeningdayofth e1840WorldAnti- SlaveryConvention,isfrequentlyassumedtocontaintherealstorybe hindthebirthofthe organizedwomen’smovementintheUnitedStates.Assuch,ithasacqu iredasomewhat legendarysignificance.Andlikemostlegends,thetruthitpresum esto embodyisfarless unequivocalthanitappears.Thisanecdoteanditssurroundingcircum stanceshavebeen madethebasisofapopularinterpretationofthewomen’srightsmovem entashavingbeen primarily inspired—or ratherprovoked—by the insufferablemale supremacywithin the anti-slaverycampaign. NodoubttheU.S.womenwhohadexpectedtoparticipateintheLondon conferencewere quitefuriouswhentheyfoundthemselvesexcludedbymajorityvote,“ fencedoffbehinda barandacurtainsimilartothoseusedinchurchestoscreenthechoirfro mpublicgaze.”2 LucretiaMott, like the other women officially representing the American Anti-Slavery Society,hadfurthercauseforangerandindignation.Forshehadjustre centlyemerged fromaturbulentstrugglearoundtheissueoffemaleabolitionists’right toparticipateona basisoffullequalityintheworkoftheAnti- SlaverySociety.Yetforawomanwhohadbeen excludedfrommembershipintheSocietysomesevenyearspreviously ,thiswasnonew experience.Ifshewasindeedinspiredtofightforwomen’srightsbythe
  • 7. Londonevents—by thefactthat,astwocontemporaryfeministauthorsputit,“theleadin g maleradicals,those mostconcernedwithsocialinequalities…alsodiscriminateagainstw omen”3—itwasan inspirationthathadstruckherlongbefore1840. UnlikeLucretiaMott,ElizabethCadyStantonwasnotanexperienced politicalactivist whentheLondonconventiontookplace.Accompanyingherhusbando fonlyseveralweeks onwhat she called their “wedding journey”,4 shewas attending her first anti-slavery meetingnotasadelegatebut,rather,asthewifeofanabolitionistleader .Mrs.Stantonwas thussomewhathandicapped,lackingtheperspectiveforgedbyyearso fstruggleindefense ofwomen’srighttocontributetotheanti- slaverycause.Whenshewrote(alongwithSusan B.Anthony,intheirHistoryofWomanSuffrage)thatduringherconve rsationin1840with LucretiaMott,“amissionaryworkfortheemancipationofwomen…w asthenandthere inaugurated,”5herremarksdidnotaccountfortheaccumulatedlesson swroughtbyalmost adecadeduringwhichabolitionistwomenhadbattledfortheirpolitica lemancipationas women. Although theywere defeated at the London convention, the abolitionistwomen did discoverevidencethat theirpaststruggleshadachieveda fewpositiveresults.For they weresupportedbysomeofthemaleanti-
  • 8. slaveryleaders,whoopposedthemovetoexclude them. William Lloyd Garrison—“brave noble Garrison”6—who arrived too late to participate in thedebate, refused to takehis seat, remainingduring the entire ten-day convention “a silent spectator in the gallery.”7 According to Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s account, Nathaniel P. Rogers of Concord, New Hampshire, was the only other male abolitionistwho joined thewomen in the gallery.8Why the Black abolitionist Charles RemondisnotmentionedinStanton’sdescriptionoftheeventsisrathe rpuzzling.Hewas also,ashehimselfwroteinanarticlepublishedintheLiberator,“asilen tlistener.”9 CharlesRemondwrotethatheexperiencedoneofthefewgreatdisappo intmentsofhis lifewhenhediscovered,uponhisarrival, that thewomenhadbeenexcluded fromthe conventionfloor.Hehadgoodreasontofeeldistressed,forhisowntrav elexpenseshad beenpaidbyseveralwomen’sgroups. Iwasalmostentirely indebtedto thekindandgenerousmembersof theBangorFemaleAnti- SlaverySociety,thePortlandSewingCircle,andtheNewportYoungL adies’JuvenileAnti-Slavery Society,foraidinvisitingthiscountry.10 Remondfeltcompelledtorefusehisseatintheconvention,becausehec ouldnototherwise bethe“honoredrepresentativeofthethreefemaleassociati ons,atonc emostpraiseworthy intheirobjectandefficientinthiscooperation.”11Notallofthemen,th erefore,werethe “bigotedAbolitionists”12towhomStantonrefersinherhistoricalacc
  • 9. ount.Atleastsomeof themhadlearnedtodetectandchallengetheinjusticesofmalesuprema cy. Whereas Elizabeth Cady Stanton’s interest in abolitionismwas quite recent, she had conductedapersonalfightagainstsexismthroughoutheryouth.Enco uragedbyherfather —awealthyandunabashedlyconservativejudge— shehaddefiedorthodoxyinherstudies as well as in her leisure activities. She studied Greek and mathematics and learned horsebackriding,allofwhichweregenerallybarredtogirls.Atagesixt een,Elizabethwas theonlygirlinherhighschoolgraduatingclass.13Beforehermarriage ,theyoungStanton passedmuchofhertimewithherfatherandhadevenbeguntostudythel awseriously underhisguidance. By1848Stantonwas a full-timehousewife andmother. Livingwithherhusband in SenecaFalls,NewYork,shewasoftenunabletohireservantsbecauset heyweresoscarce inthatarea.Herownanticlimacticandfrustratinglifemadeherespecia llysensitivetothe middle-classwhitewoman’spredicament. Inexplainingherdecision to contactLucretia Mott,whomshehadnotseenforeightyears,shementionedherdomesti csituationfirst amongherseveralmotivesforissuingacalltoawomen’sconvention. ThegeneraldiscontentIfel twithwoman’sportionaswife,mother,hou sekeeper,physicianand spiritualguide…andthewearied,anxiouslookofthemajorityofwom en,impressedmewiththe strong feeling that someactivemeasures shouldbe taken to remedy thewrongsof society in
  • 10. generalandofwomeninparticular.MyexperiencesattheWorldAnti- SlaveryConvention,allI hadreadofthelegalstatusofwomen,andtheoppressionIsaweverywh ere,togethersweptacross my soul, intensifiednowbymanypersonal experiences. It seemedas if all the elementshad conspiredtoimpellmetosomeonwardstep.Ic ouldnotseewhattodoor wheretobegin—my onlythoughtwasapublicmeetingforprotestanddiscussion.14 ElizabethCadyStanton’slifeexhibitedallthebasicelements,intheir mostcontradictory form,ofthemiddle- classwoman’sdilemma.Herdiligenteffortstoachieveexcellenceinh er studies,theknowledgeshehadgainedasalawstudent,andalltheother waysshehad cultivatedherintellectualpowers — allthishadcometonaught.Marriageandmotherhood precludedtheachievementofthegoalsshehadsetforherselfasasingle woman.Moreover, her involvement in the abolitionist movement during the years following the London convention had taught her that it was possible to organize a political challenge to oppression.Manyofthewomenwhowouldanswerthecall toattendthefirstwomen’s rightsconventioninSenecaFallswerebecomingconsciouso fsimilar contradictionsintheir lives andhad likewise seen, from the exampleof the anti -slavery struggle, that itwas possibletofightforequality. AstheSenecaFallsConventionwasbeingplanned,ElizabethCadySta ntonproposeda
  • 11. resolutionwhichappearedtooradicaleventoherco- conventionerLucretiaMott.Although Mrs.Mott’s experiences in the anti-slaverymovementhad certainly persuadedher that womenurgently needed to exercise political power, she opposed the introduction of a resolutiononwomansuffrage.Suchamovewouldbeinterpretedasabs urdandoutrageous, shethought,andwouldconsequentlyunderminetheimportanceofthe meeting.Stanton’s husbandalsoopposedtheraisingofthesuffrageissue— andkepthispromisetoleavetown if she insistedonpresenting the resolution.FrederickDouglasswas theonlyprominent figurewhoagreedthattheconventionshouldcallforwomen’srighttov ote. Several years before the Seneca Falls meeting, Elizabeth Cady Stanton had firmly convincedFrederickDouglassthatthevoteshouldbeextendedtowom en. Icouldnotmeetherargumentsexceptwiththeshallowpleaof“custom, ”“naturaldivisionof duties,”“indelicacyofwoman’stakingpartinpolitics,”thecommont alkof“woman’ssphere,”and thelike,allofwhichthatablewoman,whowasthennolesslogicalthann ow,brushedawayby those arguments which she has so often and effectively used since and which no man has successfullyrefuted.Ifintelligenceistheonlytrueandrationalbasiso fgovernment,itfollowsthat thatisthebestgovernmentwhichdrawsitslifeandpowerfromthelarge stsourcesofwisdom, energyandgoodnessatitscommand.15 Among the approximately three hundred women and men
  • 12. attending the Seneca Falls Convention,theissueofelectoralpowerforwomenwastheonlymajor pointofcontention: the suffrage resolution alone was not unanimously endorsed. That the controversial proposalwas presented at all, however,was due to FrederickDouglass’willingness to secondStanton’smotionandtoemployhisoratoricalabilitiesindefen seofwomen’sright tovote.16 During those early dayswhenwomen’s rightswas not yet a legitimate cause,when womansuffragewasunfamiliarandunpopularasademand,Frederick Douglasspublicly agitatedforthepoliticalequalityofwomen.Intheimmediateaftermat hoftheSenecaFalls Convention,hepublishedaneditorialinhisnewspaper,theNorthStar. Entitled“TheRights ofWomen,”itscontentwasquiteradicalforthetimes: Inrespecttopoliticalrights,weholdwomantobejustlyentitledtoallw eclaimformen.Wego further, and express our conviction that all political rightswhich it is expedient formen to exercise,itisequallysoforwoman.Allthatdistinguishesmanasaninte lligentandaccountable being,isequallytrueofwoman,andifthatgovernmentonlyisjustwhic hgovernsbythefree consentofthegoverned,therecanbenoreasonintheworldfordenyingt owomantheexerciseof theelectivefranchise,orahandinmakingandadministeringthelawoft heland.17
  • 13. FrederickDouglasswas also responsible for officially introducing the issue ofwomen’s rightstotheBlackLiberationmovement,whereitwasenthusiasticall ywelcomed.AsS.Jay Walkerpointsout,DouglassspokeoutattheNationalConventionofC oloredFreedmenthat washeldinCleveland,Ohio,aroundthetimeoftheSenecaFallsmeetin g: Hesucceeded inamendingaresolutiondefiningdelegatesso that itwouldbe“understood ‘to includewomen,’”anamendmentthatwascarried“withthreecheersfo rwomen’srights!”18 ElizabethCadyStantondevotedexpressionsofpraisetoDouglassfor hissteadfastdefense oftheSenecaFallsConventioninfaceofthewidespreadridiculevoice dinthepress. Sopronouncedwasthepopularvoiceagainstus,intheparlor,pressand pulpit,thatmostofthe ladieswhohadattendedtheconventionandsignedthedeclaration,one byonewithdrewtheir namesandinfluenceandjoinedourpersecutors.Ourfriendsgaveusth ecoldshoulderandfelt themselvesdisgracedbythewholeproceeding.19 TheuproardidnotdissuadeDouglass,nordiditachieveitsgoalofnippi ngthebattlefor women’srightsinthebud.Parlor,pressandpulpit,tryastheymight,co uldnotreversethis trend.Onlyonemonthpassedbeforeanotherconventiontookplacein Rochester,NewYork —whose daring innovation and precedent for futuremeetings was a female presiding
  • 14. officer.20FrederickDouglassagainmanifestedhis loyalty tohis sistersbyarguingonce moreforthesuffrageresolution,whichpassedinRochesterbyamuchl argermarginthanat SenecaFalls.21 Theadvocacyofwomen’srightscouldnotbeforbidden.Notyetaccept abletothemakers of public opinion, the issue of women’s equality, now embodied in an embryonic movement,supportedbyBlackpeoplewhowerefightingfortheirown freedom,established itselfasanindelibleelementofpubliclifeintheUnitedStates.Butwhat wasitallabout? Howwasthequestionofwomen’sequalitydefinedotherthanbythesuf frageissuewhich had prompted the derogatory publicity about the Seneca Falls Convention? Were the grievancesoutlined in theDeclarationof Sentiments and thedemandsput forth in the resolutionstrulyreflectiveoftheproblemsandneedsofthewomenoft heUnitedStates? TheemphaticfocusoftheSenecaFallsDeclarationwastheinstitution ofmarriageandits manyinjuriouseffectsonwomen:marriagerobbedwomenoftheirpro pertyrights,making wives economically—as well as morally—dependent on their husbands. Demanding absolute obedience fromwives, the institution ofmarriage gave husbands the right to punish theirwives, andwhat ismore, the lawsof separationanddivorcewerealmost entirelybasedonmalesupremacy.22Asaresultofwomen’sinferiorst atuswithinmarriage, theSenecaFallsDeclarationargued,theysufferedinequalitiesineduc
  • 15. ationalinstitutionsas well as in the professions. “Profitable employments” and “all avenues to wealth and distinction”(suchasmedicine,lawandtheology)wereabsolutelyinac cessibletowomen.23 TheDeclarationconcludesitslistofgrievanceswithanevocationofw omen’smentaland psychologicaldependence,whichhasleftthemwithlittle“confidenc eandself-respect.”24 TheinestimableimportanceoftheSenecaFallsDeclarationwasitsrol easthearticulated consciousnessofwomen’srightsatmidcentury.Itwasthetheoretical culminationofyearsof unsure,oftensilent,challengesaimedatapolitical,social,domestica ndreligiouscondition which was contradictory, frustrating and downright oppressive for women of the bourgeoisieand therisingmiddleclasses.However,asa rigorousconsummationof the consciousnessofwhitemiddle- classwomen’sdilemma,theDeclarationallbutignoredthe predicamentofwhiteworking- classwomen,asitignoredtheconditionofBlackwomenin theSouth and North alike. In otherwords, the Seneca Falls Declaration proposed an analysisofthefemaleconditionwhichdisregardedthecircumstances ofwomenoutsidethe socialclassofthedocument’sframers. Butwhataboutthosewomenwhoworkedforaliving— thewhitewomen,forexample, whooperatedthetextilemillsintheNortheast?In1831,whenthetextil eindustrywasstill
  • 16. themajorfocusofthenewindustrialrevolution,womencomprisedthe undisputedmajority ofindustrialworkers.Inthetextilemills,scatteredthroughoutNewEn gland,therewere 38,927womenworkersascomparedto18,539men.25Thepioneering “millgirls”hadbeen recruitedfromlocalfarmfamilies.Theprofitseekingmillownersrepr esentedlifeinthemills as an attractive and instructive prelude tomarried life. Both theWalthamand Lowell systemswereportrayedas“surrogate families”where theyoungfarmwomenwouldbe rigorouslysupervisedbymatronsinanatmosphereakintothefinishin gschool.Butwhat wastherealityofmilllife?Incrediblylonghours— twelve,fourteenorevensixteenhours daily;atrociousworkingconditions;inhumanlycrowdedlivingquart ers;and Solittletimewasallowedformeals—onehalfhouratnoonfordinner — thatthewomenraced fromthehot,humidweavingroomseveralblockstotheirboardinghou ses,gulpeddowntheir mainmealoftheday,andranbacktothemillinterrorofbeingfinedifthe ywerelate.Inwinter they dared not stop to button their coats and often ate without taking them off. This was pneumoniaseason.Insummer,spoiledfoodandpoorsanitationledtod ysentery.Tuberculosiswas withthemineveryseason.26 Themillwomenfoughtback.Beginninginthelate1820s— longbeforethe1848Seneca FallsConvention—workingwomenstaged“turn- outs”andstrikes,militantlyprotestingthe double oppression they suffered as women and as industrial
  • 17. workers. In Dover, New Hampshire, forexample, themillwomenwalkedoff the jobin1828todramatizetheir oppositiontonewlyinstitutedrestrictions.They“shockedthecommu nitybyparadingwith bannersandflags,shootingoffgunpowder.”27 Bythesummerof1848,whentheSenecaFallsConventiontookplace,c onditionsinthe mills—hardlyidealtobeginwith— haddeterioratedtosuchanextentthattheNewEngland farmers’daughterswerefastbecomingaminorityinthetextilelaborfo rce.Replacingthe womenfrom“well- born,”“Yankee”backgroundswereimmigrantwomenwho, liketheir fathers, brothers andhusbands,were becoming the industrialproletariatof thenation. Thesewomen— unliketheirpredecessors,whosefamiliesownedland— hadnothingtorely upon but their labor power.When they resisted, theywere fighting for their right to survive. They fought so passionately that “in the 1840’s,womenworkerswere in the leadershipoflabormilitancyintheUnitedStates.”28 Campaigningfortheten- hourday,theLowellFemaleLaborReformAssociationpresented petitionstotheMassachusettsStateLegislaturein1843and1844.Whe ntheLegislature agreedtoholdpublichearings,theLowellwomenacquiredthedistinct ionofwinningthe very first investigationof labor conditionsbyagovernmentbody in thehistoryof the UnitedStates.29Thiswasclearlyablowforwomen’srights — anditpredated,byfouryears,
  • 18. theofficiallaunchingofthewomen’smovement. Judgingfromthestrugglesconductedbywhiteworkingwomen— theirrelentlessdefense oftheirdignityasworkersandaswomen,theirconsciousaswellasimpl icitchallengesto thesexistideologyofwomanhood— theyhadmorethanearnedtherighttobelaudedas pioneersofthewomen’smovement.Buttheirtrailblazingrolewasallb utignoredbythe leadinginitiatorsof thenewmovement,whodidnotcomprehend thatwomenworkers experiencedandchallengedmalesupremacyintheirownspecialway. Asiftodrivethis pointhome,historyhasimpartedafinalironytothemovementinitiate din1848:Ofallthe womenattendingtheSenecaFallsConvention,theonlyonetolivelong enoughtoactually exerciseherrighttovoteoverseventyyearslaterwasaworkingwoman bythenameof CharlotteWoodward.30 CharlotteWoodward’s motives for signing the Seneca Falls Declaration were hardly identicaltothoseofthemoreprosperouswomen.Herpurposeforatten dingtheconvention wastoseekadviceonimprovingherstatusasaworker.Asaglovemaker ,heroccupation wasnotyetindustrialized:sheworkedathome,receivingwageslegall ycontrolledbythe meninherfamily.Describingthecircumstancesofherwork,sheexpre ssedthatspiritof rebellionwhichhadbroughthertoSenecaFalls:
  • 19. Wewomenworksecretlyintheseclusionofourbedchambersbecausea llsocietywasbuiltonthe theorythatmen,notwomen,earnedmoneyandthatmenalonesupporte dthefamily…Idonot believethattherewasanycommunityinwhichthesoulsofsomewome nwerenotbeatingtheir wings in rebellion.Formyownobscure self I can say that every fibreofmybeing rebelled, althoughsilently,allthehoursthatIsatandsewedglovesforamiserabl epittancewhich,asitwas earned,couldneverbemine.Iwantedtowork,butIwantedtochoosemy taskandIwantedto collectmywages.Thatwasmyformofrebellionagainstthelifeintowh ichIwasborn.31 CharlotteWoodwardandtheseveralotherworkingwomenpresentatt heconventionwere serious— theyweremoreseriousaboutwomen’srightsthanaboutanythingelsei ntheir lives. Atthelastsessionoftheconvention,LucretiaMottproposedafinalres olutioncalling bothfortheoverthrowofthepulpitand“forthesecuringtowomenaneq ualparticipation withmeninthevarioustrades,professionsandcommerce.”[myempha sis]32Wasthisamere afterthought? A charitable gesture toward Charlotte Woodward and her working-class sisters?Ordidthesmallcontingentofworking- classwomenprotesttheexclusionoftheir interests from theoriginal resolutions, causingLucretiaMott, the long-timeanti-slavery activist,
  • 20. tostandupontheirbehalf?IfSarahGrimkehadbeenpresent,shemight have insisted,asshesaidonanotheroccasion: Thereareinthepoorerclassesmanystronghonestheartswearyofbein gslavesandtoolswhoare worthyoffreedomandwhowilluseitworthily.33 If the recognition accordedworkingwomen at the Seneca Fallsmeetingwas all but negligible,therewasnotevenacursorymentionoftherightsofanother groupofwomen whoalso “rebelled against the lives intowhich theywere born.”34 In the South they rebelledagainstslaveryandintheNorthagainstadubiousc onditionof freedomcalled racism.WhileatleastoneBlackmanwaspresentamongtheSenecaFall sconferees,there wasnotasingleBlackwomaninattendance.Nordidtheconvention’sd ocumentsmake even a passing reference to Black women. In light of the organizers’ abolitionist involvement,itwouldseempuzzlingthatslavewomenwereentirelydi sregarded. But this problemwasnot anewone.TheGrimke sistershadpreviously criticized a numberoffemaleanti- slaverysocietiesforignoringtheconditionofBlackwomenandfor sometimesmanifestingblatantlyracistprejudices.Duringtheprepar ationsforthefounding conventionoftheNationalFemaleAnti- SlaverySociety,AngelinaGrimkehadtotakethe
  • 21. initiative to guarantee more than a token presence of Black women. Moreover, she suggestedthataspecialaddressbedeliveredatthatconve ntiontothefr eeBlackpeopleof theNorth.Sincenoone—notevenLucretiaMott— wouldpreparetheaddress,Angelina’s sisterSarahhadtodeliverthespeech.35Asearlyas1837theGrimkesis terschastisedthe NewYorkFemaleAnti- SlaverySocietyforfailingtoinvolveBlackwomenintheirwork. “Onaccountoftheirstrongaristocraticalfeelings,”Angelinaregretfu llysaid, …theyweremostexceedinglyinefficient.…Wehavehadseriousthou ghtofforminganAnti- SlaverySocietyamongourcoloredsistersandgettingthemtoinviteth eirwhitefriendstojoin them, in thiswaywe thinkwecouldget themost efficientwhite females in the city to join them.36 TheabsenceofBlackwomenattheSenecaFallsConventionwasallthe moreconspicuous inlightoftheirpreviouscontributionstothefightforwomen’srights. Morethanadecade beforethismeeting,MariaStewarthadrespondedtoattacksonherrigh ttodeliverpublic lecturesbyemphaticallyasking,“WhatifIamawoman?”37ThisBlac kwomanwasthefirst native- bornfemalelecturerwhoaddressedaudiencesofbothmenandwomen. 38Andin 1827Freedom’s Journal—the first Black newspaper in this country—published a Black woman’sletteronwomen’srights.“Matilda,”assheidentifiedherself ,demandededucation
  • 22. for Blackwomen at a timewhen schooling forwomenwas a controversial and quite unpopularissue.HerletterappearedinthispioneeringNewYorkjourn altheyearbefore theScottish- bornFrancesWrightbegantolectureonequaleducationforwomen. Iwouldaddressmyselftoallmothers,andsaytothem,thatwhileit isnecessarytopossessa knowledgeofpudding- making,somethingmoreisrequisite.Itistheirboundendutytostoreth eir daughters’mindswithusefullearning.Theyshouldbemadetodevotet heirleisuretimetoreading books,whencetheywouldderivevaluableinformation,whichcouldn everbetakenfromthem.39 Longbeforethefirstwomen’sconvention,middle- classwhitewomenhadstruggledfor the right to education. Matilda’s comments—later confirmed by the ease with which Prudence Crandall recruited Black girls for her besieged school in Connecticut— demonstratedthatwhiteandBlackwomenwereindeedunitedintheird esireforeducation. Unfortunately, this connectionwas not acknowledged during the convention at Seneca Falls. Thefailuretorecognizethepotentialforanintegratedwomen’smove ment—particularly againstsexismineducation— wasdramaticallyrevealedinanepisodeoccurringduringthe crucialsummerof1848.Ironically,itinvolvedthedaughterofFrederi ckDouglass.Afterher official admission toagirls’ seminary
  • 23. inRochester,NewYork,Douglass’ daughterwas formallyprohibitedfromattendingclasseswiththewhitegirls.Thepri ncipalwhoissued the order was an abolitionist woman! When Douglass and his wife protested this segregationistpolicy,theprincipalaskedeachwhitegirltovoteonthei ssue,indicatingthat oneobjectionwouldsufficetocontinuetheexclusion.Afterthewhiteg irlsvotedinfavorof integrating the classroom, the principal approached the girls’ parents, using the one resultingobjectionasanexcusetoexcludeDouglass’daughter.40 Thatawhitewomanassociatedwiththeanti- slaverymovementcouldassumearacist posture towardaBlackgirl in theNorth reflectedamajorweakness in theabolitionist campaign—its failure to promote a broad anti-racist consciousness. This serious shortcoming, abundantly criticizedby theGrimke sisters andothers,wasunfortunately carriedoverintotheorganizedmovementforwomen’srights. Howeveroblivioustheearlywomen’srightsactivistsmayhavebeento theplightoftheir Blacksisters,theechoesofthenewwomen’smovementwerefeltthrou ghouttheorganized Black Liberation struggle. As mentioned above, the National Convention of Colored Freedmen passed a resolution on the equality of women in 1848.41 Upon Frederick Douglass’initiative,thisClevelandgatheringhadresolvedthatwome nshouldbeelected
  • 24. delegatesonanequalbasiswithmen.Shortlythereafter,aconventiono fNegropeoplein PhiladelphianotonlyinvitedBlackwomentoparticipate,but inrecognitionof thenew movementlaunchedinSenecaFalls,alsoaskedwhitewomentojointh em.LucretiaMott describedherdecisiontoattendinalettertoElizabethCadyStanton: Wearenowinthemidstofaconventionofthecoloredpeopleofthecity. DouglassandDelany— RemondandGarnetarehere—alltakinganactivepart— andastheyincludewomenandwhite womentoo,Icandonoless,withtheinterestIfeelinthecauseoftheslav e,aswellasofwoman, thanbepresentandtakealittlepart— Soyesterday,inapouringrain,SarahPughandselfwalked downthereandexpecttodothesametoday.42 TwoyearsaftertheSenecaFallsConvention,thefirstNationalConven tiononWomen’s RightswasheldinWorcester,Massachusetts.Whethershewasactuall yinvitedorcameon herowninitiative,SojournerTruthwasamongtheparticipants.Herpr esencethereandthe speechesshedeliveredatsubsequentwomen’srightsmeetingssymbo lizedBlackwomen’s solidaritywiththenewcause.Theyaspiredtobefreenotonlyfromracis toppressionbut alsofromsexistdomination.“Ain’t IaWoman?”43—therefrainof thespeechSojourner Truthdeliveredatan1851women’sconventioninAkron,Ohio — remainsoneofthemost frequentlyquotedslogansofthenineteenth- centurywomen’smovement. SojournerTruthsingle- handedlyrescuedtheAkronwomen’smeetingfromthedisruptive
  • 25. jeersofhostilemen.Of all thewomenattending thegathering, shealonewasable to answer aggressively the male supremacist arguments of the boisterous provocateurs. Possessinganundeniablecharismaandpowerfuloratoricalabilities, SojournerTruthtore downtheclaimsthatfemaleweaknesswasincompatiblewithsuffrage —andshedidthis withirrefutablelogic.Theleaderoftheprovocateurshadarguedthatit wasridiculousfor women todesire thevote, since theycouldnotevenwalkoverapuddleorget intoa carriagewithoutthehelpofaman.SojournerTruthpointedoutwithco mpellingsimplicity thatsheherselfhadneverbeenhelpedovermudpuddlesorintocarriage s.“Andain’tIa woman?”Withavoicelike“rollingthunder,”44shesaid,“Lookatme! Lookatmyarm,” androlleduphersleevetorevealthe“tremendousmuscularpower”ofh erarm.45 Ihaveploughed,andplanted,andgatheredintobarnsandnomancould headme!Andain’tIa woman?Icouldworkasmuchandeatasmuchasaman— whenIcouldgetit—andbearthelash aswell!Andain’tIawoman?Ihavebornethirteenchildrenandseent he mmostallsoldoffto slavery,andwhenIcriedoutwithmymother’sgrief,nonebutJesushea rdme!Andain’t Ia woman?46 As theonlyBlackwomanattending
  • 26. theAkronconvention,SojournerTruthhaddone whatnotoneofhertimidwhitesisterswascapableofdoing.Accordingt othechairperson, “therewerevery fewwomen in thosedayswhodared to ‘speak inmeeting.’ ”Having powerfullypleaded thecauseofher sex,havingcommanded theattentionof thewhite womenaswellas theirdisruptivemaleadversaries,SojournerTruthwasspontaneously applaudedastheherooftheday.Shehadnotonlydealtacrushingdefeat tothemen’s “weaker sex” argument, but had also refuted their thesis thatmale supremacywas a Christianprinciple,sinceChristhimselfwasaman: Thatlittlemaninblackthere,hesayswomencan’thaveasmuchrightsa smen,becauseChrist wasn’tawoman.WheredidChristcomefrom?47 Accordingtothepresidingofficer,“rollingthundercouldn’thavestill edthatcrowd,asdid thosedeep,wonderfultones,asshestoodtherewithoutstretchedarms andeyesoffire.”48 WheredidyourChristcomefrom?FromGodandawoman!Manhadnot hingtodowithhim.49 AsforthehorrendoussincommittedbyEve,thiswashardlyanargume ntagainstwomen’s capabilities.Onthecontrary,itwasanenormousplus: IfthefirstwomanGodevermadewasstrongenoughtoturntheworldup sidedownallalone, thesewomentogetheroughttobeabletogetitrightsideupagain!Andn owtheyareaskingtodo it,themenbetterletthem.50
  • 27. Themen’sbelligerencewasquietedandthewomenwereburstingwith pride,their“hearts beatingwithgratitude”and“morethanoneofuswithstreamingeyes.” 51FrancesDana Gage,thepresidingofficeroftheAkronconvention,continuedherdes criptionoftheimpact ofSojournerTruth’sspeech: Shehadtakenusupinherstrongarmsandcarriedussafelyovertheslou ghofdifficulty,turning thewholetideinourfavor.Ihaveneverinmylifeseenanythinglikethe magicalinfluencethat subduedthemobbishspiritoftheday,and turnedthesneersandjeersof anexcitedcrowdinto notesofrespectandadmiration.52 SojournerTruth’s“Ain’tIaWoman?”addresshaddeeperimplication s,foritwasalso,it seems,acommentontheracistattitudesofthesamewhitewomenwhol aterpraisedtheir Blacksister.NotafewoftheAkronwomenhadbeeninitiallyopposedt oaBlackwoman having a voice in their convention, and the anti-women’s righters had tried to take advantageofthisracism.InthewordsofFrancesDanaGage: Theleadersofthemovementtrembledonseeingatall,gauntblackwom aninagraydressand whiteturban,surmountedwithanuncouthsunbonnet,marchdeliberat elyintothechurch,walk with the air of a queen up the aisle, and take her seat upon the pulpit steps. A buzz of
  • 28. disapprobationwasheardalloverthehouse,andtherefellonthe listeningear,“Anabolition affair!”“Itoldyouso!”“Goit,darkey!”53 On the second day of the convention,when Sojourner Truth rose to answer themale supremacistassault,leadingwhitewomenattemptedtopersuadeGag etopreventherfrom speaking. “Don’tletherspeak!”gaspedhalfadozeninmyear.Shemovedslowlya ndsolemnlytothefront, laidheroldbonnetatherfeet,andturnedhergreatspeakingeyestome.T herewasahissing soundofdisapprobationaboveandbelow.Iroseandannounced“Sojo urnerTruth,”andbegged theaudiencetokeepsilenceforafewmoments.54 Fortunately for theOhiowomen, for thewomen’smovement in general—forwhom SojournerTruth’sspeechestablishedamilitantfightingspirit — andforustodaywhostill receive inspiration fromherwords,FrancesDanaGagedidnot succumbto these racist pressuresofhercomrades.WhenthisBlackwomandidrisetospeak,he ranswertothe malesupremacistsalsocontainedaprofoundlessonforthewhitewom en.Inrepeatingher question“Ain’tIawoman?”nolessthanfourtimes,sheexposedthecla ss-biasandracism ofthenewwomen’smovement.Allwomenwerenotwhiteandallwome ndidnotenjoythe materialcomfortof themiddleclassesandthebourgeoisie.SojournerTruthherselfwas Black—shewasanex-slave— butshewasnolessawomanthananyofherwhitesistersat
  • 29. theconvention.Thatherraceandhereconomicconditionwerediffere ntfromtheirsdidnot annul herwomanhood.And as a Blackwoman, her claim to equal rightswas no less legitimatethanthatofwhitemiddle- classwomen.Atanationalwomen’sconventiontwo yearslater,shewasstillfightingeffortstopreventherfromspeaking. Iknowthatitfeelsakindofhissingandticklingliketoseeacoloredwom angetupandtellyou aboutthingsandWoman’sRights.Wehaveallbeenthrowndownsolo wthatnobodythought we’devergetupagain;butwehavebeenlongenoughtroddennow;wew illcomeupagain,and nowIamhere.55 Throughout the1850s localandnationalconventionsattracted increasingnumbersof womento thecampaign forequality. Itwasneveranunusualoccurrence forSojourner Truthtoappearatthesemeetings,anddespiteinevitablehostility,tori seandhavehersay. InrepresentingherBlacksisters —bothslaveand“free”— sheimpartedafightingspiritto thecampaignforwomen’srights.ThiswasSojournerTruth’suniqueh istoricalcontribution. AndincasewhitewomentendedtoforgetthatBlackwomenwerenoles swomenthan they,herpresenceandherspeechesservedasaconstantreminder.Blac kwomenwerealso goingtogettheirrights. Meanwhile, large numbers of Black women were manifesting their commitment to freedomandequalityinwaysthatwerelesscloselyconnectedwiththe newlyorganized
  • 30. women’smovement.TheUndergroundRailroadclaimedtheenergies ofnumerousNorthern Blackwomen.JaneLewis,forexample,aresidentofNewLebanon,Oh io,regularlyrowed herboatacrosstheOhioRiver,rescuingmanyafugitiveslave.56Franc esE.W.Harper,a dedicatedfeministandthemostpopularBlackpoetatmidcentury, wasoneofthemostactivelecturersassociatedwiththeanti - slaverymovement.Charlotte Forten,whobecamealeadingBlackeducatorduringthepost- CivilWarperiod,waslikewise anactiveabolitionist.SarahRemond,wholecturedagainstslaveryin England,Irelandand Scotland,exercisedavastinfluenceonpublicopinion,andaccordingt oonehistorian,“kept theToriesfrominterveningonthesideoftheConfederacy.”57 Eventhemostradicalwhiteabolitionists,basingtheiroppositiontosla veryonmoraland humanitariangrounds,failedtounderstandthattherapidlydevelopin gcapitalismofthe Northwasalsoanoppressivesystem.Theyviewedslaveryasadetestab leandinhuman institution,anarchaictransgressionofjustice.Buttheydidnotrecogn izethatthewhite workerintheNorth,hisorherstatusas“free”laborernotwithstanding, wasnodifferent fromtheenslaved“worker”intheSouth:bothwerevictimsofeconomi cexploitation.As militantasWilliamLloydGarrisonissupposedtohavebeen,hewasve hementlyagainst wagelaborers’righttoorganize.Theinaugural issueoftheLiberator includedanarticle
  • 31. denouncingtheeffortsofBostonworkerstoformapoliticalparty: Anattempthasbeenmade—itisstillinthemaking—weregrettosay— toinflamethemindsofour workingclassesagainst themoreopulent,and topersuademen that theyarecondemnedand oppressedbyawealthyaristocracy…Itisinthehighestdegreecrimina l,therefore,toexasperate ourmechanicstodeedsofviolenceortoarraythemunderapartybanner .58 As a rule,white abolitionists either defended the industrial capitalists or expressed no conscious class loyalty at all. This unquestioning acceptance of the capitalist economic systemwas evident in the program of thewomen’s rightsmovement aswell. Ifmost abolitionists viewed slavery as a nasty blemish which needed to be eliminated, most women’srightersviewedmalesupremacyinasimilarmanner— asanimmoralflawintheir otherwiseacceptablesociety. The leadersof thewomen’srightsmovementdidnotsuspect that theenslavementof BlackpeopleintheSouth,theeconomicexploitationofNorthernwork ersandthesocial oppressionofwomenmightbesystematicallyrelated.Withintheearly women’smovement, littlewassaidaboutwhiteworkingpeople— notevenaboutwhitewomenworkers.Though manyofthewomenweresupportersoftheabolitionistcampaign,theyf ailedtointegrate theiranti- slaveryconsciousnessintotheiranalysisofwomen’soppression. AttheoutbreakoftheCivilWar,thewomen’srightsleaderswerepersu
  • 32. adedtoredirect theirenergiestowardadefenseoftheUnioncause.Butinsuspendingth eiragitationfor sexualequality,theylearnedhowdeeplyracismhadplanteditselfinth esoilofU.S.society. ElizabethCadyStanton,LucretiaMottandSusanB.Anthonytraveled throughoutthestate of New York delivering pro-Union lectures demanding “immediate and unconditional emancipation.”59 …andtheyreceivedtheroughesttreatmentoftheirlivesatthehandsof arousedmobsinevery citywheretheystoppedbetweenBuffaloandAlbany.InSyracusetheh allwasinvadedbyacrowd ofmenbrandishingknivesandpistols.60 IftheyhadnotpreviouslyrecognizedthattheSouthheldnomonopolyo nracism,their experiencesasagitatorsfortheUnioncauseshouldhavetaughtthemth attherewasindeed racismintheNorth—andthatitcouldbebrutal. When themilitarydraftwas instituted in theNorth, large-scale riots inmajorurban centerswerefomentedbypro- slaveryforces.Theybroughtviolenceanddeathtothefree Blackpopulation.InJuly,1863,mobsinNewYorkCity …destroyedtherecruitingstations,setfiretoanarmory,attackedtheT ribuneandprominent Republicans,burnedaNegroorphanasylum,andgenerallycreatedch
  • 33. aosthroughoutthecity.The mobsdirectedtheirfuryespeciallyagainsttheNegroes,assailingthe mwhereverfound.Manywere murdered.…Itiscalculatedthatsome1,000peoplewerekilledandwo unded…61 If the degree to which the North itself was infected with racism had formerly gone unrecognized,themobviolenceof1863demonstratedthatanti - Blacksentimentwasdeep andwidespreadandpotentiallymurderous.IftheSouthhadamonopol yonslavery,itwas certainlynotaloneinitssponsorshipofracism. ElizabethCadyStantonandSusanB.Anthonyhadagreedwiththeradi calabolitionists thattheCivilWarcouldbehastilyendedbyemancipatingtheslavesan drecruitingthem intotheUnionArmy.Theyattemptedtorallymassesofwomentotheirp ositionbyissuing acalltoorganizeaWomen’sLoyalLeague.Atthefoundingmeeting,h undredsofwomen agreedtopromotethewareffortbycirculatingpetitionsdemandingth eemancipationof theslaves.Theywerenotsounanimous,however,intheirresponsetoS usanB.Anthony’s resolutionlinkingtherightsofwomentotheliberationofBlackpeople . Theproposedresolutionstatedthattherecanneverbeatruepeaceinthi sRepublicuntil the “civil and political rights of all citizens of African descent and all women” are practicallyestablished.62Unfortunately, inlightofthepostwardevelopments, itappears thatthisresolutionmayhavebeenmotivatedbythefearthat(white)wo
  • 34. menmightbeleft behindwhentheslavesemergedintothelightoffreedom.ButAngelina Grimkeproposeda principleddefenseoftheunitybetweenBlackLiberationandWomen’ sLiberation:“Iwant tobeidentifiedwiththeNegro,”sheinsisted.“Untilhegetshisrights,w eshallneverhave ours.”63 IrejoiceexceedinglythattheresolutionshouldcombineuswiththeNe gro.Ifeelthatwehave beenwithhim;thattheironhasenteredintooursouls.True,wehavenot felttheslave-holder’s lash!truewehavenothadourhandsmanacled,butourheartshavebeen crushed.64 AtthisfoundingconventionoftheWomen’sLoyalLeague — towhichalltheveteransof the abolitionist campaign and the women’s rights movement were invited—Angelina Grimke characteristically proposed the most advanced interpretation of the war she describedas“oursecondrevolution.”65 Thewarisnot,astheSouthfalselypretends,awarofraces,norofsectio ns,norofpoliticalparties, butawarofPrinciples,awarupontheworkingclasses,whetherwhiteo rblack…Inthiswar,the blackmanwasthefirstvictim,theworkingmanofwhatevercolor thenext;andnowallwho contend for the rights of labor, for free speech, free schools, free suffrage, and a free government…aredriventodobattleindefenseoftheseortofallwithth em,victimsofthesame violencethatfortwocenturieshasheldtheblackmanaprisonerofwar. WhiletheSouthhas
  • 35. wagedthiswaragainsthumanrights,theNorthhasstoodbyholdingthe garmentsofthosewho werestoninglibertytodeath… Thenationisinadeath- struggle.Itmusteitherbecomeonevastslaveocracyofpettytyrants,or whollythelandofthefree…66 Angelina Grimke’s brilliant “Address to the Soldiers of Our Second Revolution” demonstrated thatherpolitical consciousnesswas farmoreadvanced thanmostofher contemporaries.Inherspeechsheproposedaradicaltheoryandpracti cewhichcouldhave beenrealizedthroughanallianceembracinglabor,Blackpeopleandw omen.If,asKarlMarx said,“laborinawhiteskincanneverbefreeaslongaslaborinablackski nisbranded,”it wasalsotrue,asAngelinaGrimkelucidlyinsisted,thatthedemocratic strugglesofthetimes —especiallythefightforwomen’sequality— couldbemosteffectivelywagedinassociation withthestruggleforBlackLiberation. 10 Common Paper Pitfalls Used in FAMST 46: Introduction to Film Fall 2014
  • 36. 1. What is your thesis?: The paper has an unclear underlying argument, or the thesis is only present in the paper's opening and closing paragraphs. 2. Lack of detail: Paragraphs bringing in examples from the text seem more like plot summary since the author relies on broad, general descriptions of scenes rather than picking out specific formal/aesthetic details that support their argument. 3. Optimus Prime syndrome: Opening and closing paragraphs rely on sweeping generalizations about CINEMA or the film's importance “for all time.” 4a. Director as Mastermind: The paper constantly refers to the director as “manipulating” or “tricking” the spectator. Be careful of claiming a director's intentions when you cannot know them. 4b. Director as Genius: It is not necessary to praise the director’s skill. Such statements are more suitable for a film review than an academic analysis.
  • 37. 5. 5-Paragraph Essay Overload: The paper’s thesis statement states 3 elements of the film to be discussed, but makes no unique argument about these elements: “Through flashbacks, characters, and narration, The Conversation moves from the beginning of the film to the end.” 6. Over-hedging: The paper relies on phrases like “In my opinion” and “I think.” This weakens the paper’s argument. If you are writing it, the reader knows it is your opinion—no need to state it. 7. Who’s your audience?: The tone of writing sounds more like a casual blog post or popular film review than an academic paper. The title does not sound academic or allude to the paper’s argument. 8. Lost at sea: The paper does not have clear and defined structure. It is hard for the reader to distinguish the purpose of each of the paragraphs. Within paragraphs, the writer goes off on tangents or introduces new ideas that are not related to the paragraph’s topic.
  • 38. 9. Who do you think I am?: The paper makes overarching assumptions about viewers’ responses to a film without doing the proper audience research to support these assertions. 10. Lack of polish: The paper has not been edited or proofread closely. Thesis Statement Worksheet Used in FAMST 46: Introduction to Film Fall 2014 If you have a good thesis, you should be able to answer “yes” to each of these questions: 1) Could someone else successfully disagree with my argument? EX> Don’t say, “The NBC show Friends deals with women and men living in the city.” This is evident, and thus, not a good thesis.
  • 39. 2) Am I naming the exact people, places, and things I’m arguing about in the thesis itself? EX> Don’t say, “The program champions certain values over others.” A more specific (though still imperfect) thesis would say, “The NBC show Friends champions heteronormative values through its obsession with romantic partnerships and eventual marriage.” 3) Am I addressing one complex but ultimately cohesive topic? EX> Don’t say, “The program explores issues of racism, sexism, homophobia, elitism, and nationalism.” That’s 4-5 different papers rolled into one. Instead, choose one primary topic, and then think of how a few subtopics RELATE to the main one. 4) Does my thesis give my readers a reason to care about this paper? In other
  • 40. words, does it answer the “so what?” question? EX> Don’t say, “The NBC program Friends shows the different kinds of romantic relationships between the characters Ross and Rachel.” Why is this important? Instead say, “The NBC show Friends displays an obsession with romantic partnerships, championing heteronormative relations to the detriment of its female characters; this is best showcased in the season finale, where Rachel throws away her dream of working in Paris so that she can permanently be with Ross.” Essay Structure
  • 41. Introduction (see CLAS Writing an Introductions handout) 1. Opening Sentence/Hook a. At a glance, the opening sentence should give the reader an idea of what your paper will be about. b. You can use an appropriate hook to grab your reader’s attention and make them want to read more. 2. Background a. Give any information your reader may need leading up to your thesis. For example, texts, events, and/or people you’ll be discussing, or the different sides of the argument you will be discussing. b. You don’t have to give too much detail; leave the juicy bits of evidence and analysis for your body paragraphs. 3. Thesis a. The last sentence of your introduction should be a specific thesis statement outlining your argument and how you will support it through the rest of the paper (for more help, see the CLAS Thesis Statements handout).
  • 42. Body Paragraphs (as many as is appropriate to prove your point) 1. Topic Sentence a. Your topic sentence relates back to your thesis and identifies which particular point of your argument the paragraph will discuss. 2. Evidence a. Focus on one or two pieces of evidence. (Your essay should include ample and varying types of evidence, including primary and secondary sources.) b. Be sure to introduce, integrate, and cite all sources. c. Organize evidence so that each piece builds off the one before. 3. Analysis a. Provide analysis for each piece of evidence, showing how it supports your argument/thesis. Analysis should explicitly connect different pieces of evidence to show how they support your main argument. 4. Transition a. Summarize the main point and transition to the next topic sentence.
  • 43. Conclusion (see CLAS conclusions handout) 1. Restate Thesis a. Summarize the argument of your paper and check to make sure it matches your thesis in your introduction. b. Don’t rewrite your thesis word for word. Rephrase it. 2. Significance/”Big Picture” a. Take your paper a step further by showing how it ties into a wider context or is relevant to our daily life. Outline Your Essay Structure GENERAL PAPER COMMENTS STUDENT NAME: A paper B paper C paper D paper
  • 44. THESIS: Does the paper have a clear and strong argument? Your thesis is clearly stated and represents a strong position Your thesis is good but general; it could be sharper and more focused This paper has a topic but not a thesis This paper does not have a clear focus or topic ORGANIZATION: Is the paper well-structured and logically organized? This paper is clearly and carefully organized, with logical flow and transitions Your paper is generally organized and clear This paper is not clearly organized and/or has problems with logic Your paper has no clear structure, order or plan
  • 45. EVIDENCE: Is there substantial and authoritative evidence supporting your argument? You offer thoughtful, detailed and strongly relevant evidence, with specific examples from the films seen in class You offer sufficient evidence to support your argument, but the examples you have chosen are vaguely described or do not fit the thesis You offer some evidence but it could be more complete or relevant You offer thoughts, opinions and hearsay but not solid evidence APPEARANCE/ STYLE: Is the paper neat and free from grammatical errors and typos? Your paper is free from mechanical errors and shows a sense of personal style Your paper has a few spelling or mechanical errors but it lacks originality
  • 46. and depth Your paper contains grammatical, syntax and/or spelling errors. It does not seem to have been revised/proofread There are significant mechanical problems that undermine the expression of your ideas EFFORT, LEVEL OF IDEAS, RELEVANCE: Does the paper represent a substantial amount of work? How complex are your ideas? Does it relate to course topics? This paper is original, extremely thorough, shows a complex appreciation of the course material and is deeply relevant to the assignment. Your paper demonstrates a solid grasp of the material and the ability to critically develop an argument. This paper represents a substantial amount of work, a significant understanding of course material. The paper, however, contains a few mistakes and does not fully develop its argument.
  • 47. This paper represents a minimum but still adequate amount of work, a basic/ straightforward approach and a topic somewhat relevant to the assignment This paper is seriously deficient in terms of the quantity of work represented, relevance to the assignment and approach to the topic OVERALL: How does the paper measure up to college standards and the work of your peers? This paper meets the highest standards of the assignment and it is clearly above average. This paper represents solid, credible and very good work This paper satisfies the basic and minimum standards of the assignment This paper is significantly below what is expected in a college course Other considerations - could include: *research (quality of sources)
  • 48. *degree to which feedback on proposal was taken into account, integrated into paper FILM ART AN INTRODUCTION bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 1 17/09/15 10:57 am bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 2 17/09/15 10:57 am ELEVENTH EDITION FILM ART David Bordwell University of Wisconsin—Madison Kristin Thompson University of Wisconsin—Madison Jeff Smith University of Wisconsin—Madison AN INTRODUCTION bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 3 17/09/15 10:57 am
  • 49. David Bordwell is Jacques Ledoux Professor Emeritus of Film Studies at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He holds a master’s degree and a doctorate in film from the University of Iowa. His books include The Films of Carl - Theodor Dreyer (University of California Press, 1981), Narration in the Fiction Film (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985), Ozu and the Poetics of Cinema (Princeton University Press, 1988), Making Meaning: Inference and Rhetoric in the Interpretation of Cinema (Harvard University Press, 1989), The Cinema of Eisenstein (Harvard University Press, 1993), On the History of Film Style (Harvard University Press, 1997), Planet Hong Kong: Popular Cinema and the Art of Entertainment (Harvard University Press, 2000), Figures Traced in Light: On Cinematic Staging (University of California Press, 2005), The Way Hollywood Tells It: Story and Style in Modern Movies (University of California Press, 2006), Poetics of Cinema (Routledge, 2008), Pandora’s Digital Box: Films, Files, and the Future of Movies (Irvington Way Institute Press, 2012), and The Rhapsodes: How 1940s Critics Changed American Film Culture (University of Chicago Press, 2016). He has won a University Distinguished Teaching Award and was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Copenhagen. His website is www.davidbordwell.net. Kristin Thompson is an Honorary Fellow at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She holds a master’s degree in film from the University of Iowa and a doctorate in film from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She has published Eisenstein’s Ivan the Terrible: A Neoformalist Analysis (Princeton University Press, 1981), Exporting Entertainment: America in the World Film Market
  • 50. 1907–1934 (British Film Institute, 1985), Breaking the Glass Armor: Neoformalist Film Analysis (Princeton University Press, 1988), Wooster Proposes, Jeeves Disposes, or, Le Mot Juste (James H. Heineman, 1992), Storytelling in the New Hollywood: Understanding Classical Narrative Technique (Harvard University Press, 1999), Storytelling in Film and Television (Harvard University Press, 2003), Herr Lubitsch Goes To Hollywood: German and American Film After World War I (Amsterdam University Press, 2005), and The Frodo Franchise: The Lord of the Rings and Modern Hollywood (University of California Press, 2007). She blogs with David at www.davidbordwell.net/blog, and is a con- tributor to TheOneRing.net. In her spare time, she studies Egyptology. David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson have also collabo- rated on Film History: An Introduction (McGraw-Hill, 3d ed., 2010), Minding Movies: Observations of the Art, Craft, and Business of Filmmaking (University of Chicago Press, 2011), Christopher Nolan: A Labyrinth of Linkages (Irvington Way Institute Press, 2013), and, with Janet Staiger, on The Classical Hollywood Cinema: Film Style and Mode of Production to 1960 (Columbia University Press, 1985). Jeff Smith is a professor in the Communication Arts Department at the University of Wisconsin–Madison and the author of two books: The Sounds of Commerce: Marketing Popular Film Music (Columbia University Press, 1998) and Film Criticism, the Cold War, and the Blacklist: Reading the Hollywood Reds (University of California Press, 2014). A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S
  • 51. To our parents, Marjorie and Jay Bordwell and Jean and Roger Thompson bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 5 17/09/15 10:57 am Film Art helps students master the skills of film appreciation by teaching them to analyze and appreciate classic and contemporary films. Enhanced by McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook®, Film Art delivers a learning and teaching experience tailored to the needs of each institution, instructor, and student. P E R S O N A L I Z I N G F I L M L E A R N I N G For nearly a generation, Film Art has helped students become informed viewers of classic and contemporary films by explaining key vocabulary and concepts of film forms, techniques, and history. And now, with the introduction of McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook students are better equipped to understand and retain these basic concepts. SmartBook is an adaptive learning program proven to help students learn faster, study smarter, and retain more knowledge for greater success. Distinguishing what students know from what they don’t, and focusing on con- cepts they are most likely to forget, SmartBook continuously
  • 52. adapts to each student’s needs by building a personalized learning path. An intelligent, adaptive study tool, SmartBook is proven to strengthen memory recall, keep students in class, and boost grades. Enhanced by McGraw-Hill Education’s SmartBook, Film Art delivers the first and only adaptive reading experience currently available. ∙ Make It Effective. SmartBook creates a person- alized reading experience by highlighting the most impactful concepts a student needs to learn at that moment in time. This ensures that every minute spent with SmartBook is returned to the student as the most valuable minute possible. ∙ Make It Informed. Real-time reports quickly identify the concepts that require more attention from individual students— or the entire class. A N A LY Z I N G A N D C R I T I Q U I N G F I L M Studying film isn’t just about learning the facts; it’s also about the skills of watch- ing and listening closely. Together with the Criterion Collection, we’ve developed Connect Film to introduce students to the world of film and challenge them to develop the critical-analysis skills necessary to become informed viewers. The authors have partnered with the Criterion Collection to create brief video tutorials, available exclusively in Connect Film. The tutorials use film clips to
  • 53. clarify and reinforce key concepts and model the critical skills necessary to become informed viewers. They can be shown in class or assigned for students to view F I L M A R T —A P E R S O N A L I Z E D L E A R N I N G A N D T E A C H I N G E X P E R I E N C E I N F I L M A P P R E C I A T I O N vi bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 6 17/09/15 10:57 am Below are several Criterion Tutorials new to the eleventh edition: FILM ART vii Light Sources: Ashes and Diamonds (1958) Available Lighting: Breathless (1960) Staging in Depth: Mr. Hulot’s Holiday (1953) Color Motifs: The Spirit of the Beehive (1973) Tracking Shots Structure a Scene: Ugetsu (1953) Tracking Shot to Reveal: The 400
  • 54. Blows (1959) Style Creates Parallelism: Day of Wrath (1943) Staging and Camera Movement in a Long Take: The Rules of the Game (1939) Editing with Graphic Matches: Seven Samurai (1954) Shifting the Axis of Action: Shaun of the Dead (2004) Crossing the Axis of Action: Early Summer (1951) Crosscutting: M (1931) Elliptical Editing: Vagabond (1985) Jump Cuts: Breathless (1960) Sound Mixing: Seven Samurai (1954) Contrasting Rhythms of Sound and Image: Mr. Hulot’s Holiday (1953) Offscreen Sound: M (1931) What Comes Out Must Go In: 2D Computer Animation Lens and Camera Movement Film Lighting Contrasting Style for Objective and Subjec- tive Narration: Journey to Italy (1954) Diegetic narration by an Unidentified Character: I Vitelloni (1953)
  • 55. Setting and Costume Play an Active Role: Ivan the Terrible, Part II (1958) Two Ways of Staging for Humor: The Gold Rush (1925) The Long Lens and Zooming: Close-up (1990) Playing with Unrealistic Sound: Daisies (1966) Staging with the Main Characters’ Backs toward the Camera: L'Avventura (1960) Authenticity in Documentaries: Nanook of the North (1922) Surrealism in Experimental Film: Un Chien andalou (1929) Post Production Sound In addition, Connect Film features Film Analysis Assignments with additional clips, film stills, and links to movie clips to help students practice analyzing aspects of each film and prepare them for their longer written assignments. These include clips from the following films: Battleship Potemkin (1925) D.O.A. (1950) The General (1926)
  • 56. His Girl Friday (1940) The Lady Vanishes (1938) M (1931) Man with a Movie Camera (1929) Meet John Doe (1941) Night of the Living Dead (1968) Nosferatu (1922) Scarlet Street (1945) Sita Sings the Blues (2008) Wackiki Wabbit (1943) outside class, with brief optional follow-up quizzes. Below is a list of Criterion Collection tutorial selections available in Connect Film: bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 7 17/09/15 10:57 am A P P R E C I AT I N G F I L M Film Art provides the respected scholarship and analytic tools students need to understand key vocabulary and concepts of film forms, techniques, and his- tory; appreciate a wide variety of classic and contemporary films and the creative
  • 57. choices made by filmmakers to shape the experience of viewers; and analyze films critically and systematically to enrich their understanding and appreciation of any film, in any genre. “Creative Decision” sections provide in-depth examples to deepen students’ appreciation for how creative choices by filmmakers affect how viewers respond. Discussions include, for example, performance and camera positioning in The Social Network, editing in The Birds, and overlapping dialogue cuts in The Hunt for Red October. “Closer Look” features examine important issues in contemporary cinema and provide detailed looks at such topics as computer-generated imagery (CGI) in The Lord of the Rings, editing in L. A. Confidential, and motifs in The Shining. Authors’ blog, “Observations on Film Art.” In what Roger Ebert called “the most knowledgeable film blog on the web,” David Bordwell and Kristin Thompson share their ideas and experiences with instructors and students (http:// www.davidbordwell.net/blog). Throughout the text, “Connect to the Blog” refer- ences point to blog entries with relevant ideas, terms, and film examples, connect- ing ideas in Film Art to the current film scene in an accessible way.
  • 58. P E R S O N A L I Z I N G F I L M T E A C H I N G Through McGraw-Hill Education’s Create, a new chapter on Film Adaptations, written by Jeff Smith of the University of Wisconsin, is available for instructors to better customize and personalize their film appreciation course. In addition, an appendix on “Writing a Critical Analysis” is available for instructors who require written film critiques, and DVD Recommendations provide particularly effective resources related to key topics. McGraw-Hill Create allows you to create a customized print book or eBook tailored to your course and syllabus. You can search through thousands of McGraw-Hill Education texts, rearrange chapters, combine material from other content sources, and include your own content or teaching notes. Create even allows you to personalize your book’s appearance by selecting the cover and adding your name, school, and course information. To register and to get more information, go to http://create.mheducation.com. CREATIVE DECISIONS viii FILM ART bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 8 17/09/15 10:57 am
  • 59. FILM ART ix Chapter-by-Chapter Changes Chapter 1 Updated and expanded information on digital production, distribution, and exhibition, with examples of special effects from Pacific Rim. New information on contemporary theater sound systems, as exemplified by Atmos and Brave. New references to Middle of Nowhere and Nightcrawler. Examination of marketing campaigns for The Dark Knight, the Transformers series, and The Grand Budapest Hotel. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 2 Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 3 Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 4 New references to mise-en-scene in Watchmen, Snowpiercer, and Laura. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 5 Updated information on digital color grading. Discussion of 3D in Life of Pi. Discussions of Family Plot and Leviathan. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 6 New examples from Wolf of Wall Street and Lucy. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 7 Extensively revised sound chapter, with new material on sound perspective in the theater space.
  • 60. New analyses of sound techniques in The Magnificent Ambersons, Blow-Out, Norma Rae, Interstellar, Breakfast at Tiffany’s, Reservoir Dogs, The Nutty Professor, Vicki Cristina Barcelona, Gosford Park, 12 Monkeys, and Accident, along with an expanded consideration of The Conversation. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 8 Extensive new section on Gravity and film style in the digital age. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 9 New section on sports film as genre, with new examples from My Sweet Pepper Land, The World’s Fastest Indian, Fever Pitch, and Offside. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 10 New examples from The Act of Killing, Searching for Sugar Man, and Rango. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 11 New detailed analysis of Moonrise Kingdom. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” Chapter 12 Update on contemporary Hollywood industry and technology, including sound systems and Video on Demand. New examples from Beetlejuice, Ben-Hur, The Apple, and Beasts of the Southern Wild. Enhanced references to blog “Observations on Film Art.” bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 9 17/09/15 10:57 am F R O M T H E A U T H O R S
  • 61. If you’re in your late teens or early twenties, we have something in common with you. That was the age when we became curious about—some would say, obsessed with—film, cinema, movies. What fueled our enthusiasm was a simple love of this medium and the great films we saw. For us, films that are classics today, from Alphaville, 2001, and The Godfather through Jaws and Nashville to Pulp Fiction and Chungking Express, were new movies. Over the years, we’ve watched film history unfold, and our excitement at new developments hasn’t flagged. Of course, we loved particular films and admired particular filmmakers. At the same time, we were entranced by the artistic possibilities of film as an art form. As teachers and writers, we roamed widely, trying to understand films from very different traditions—from silent avant-garde cinema to modern Hong Kong film, from Los Angeles to Paris to Tokyo. We’ve written about modern Hollywood, including The Lord of the Rings, and filmmakers working outside Hollywood—for example, Carl Dreyer, Sergei Eisenstein, and Yasujiro Ozu. In the past ten years, we’ve extended our explorations to the Web, where we blog regularly about the many things that interest us in film. Studying the arts isn’t just about learning facts. That’s why in
  • 62. Film Art we have always emphasized the skills of watching and listening closely. With the tenth edition we partnered with the prestigious Criterion Collection of DVDs and Blu- ray discs in our new Connect Film digital program (see pp. vi – vii). The Criterion Collection is dedicated to gathering many of the greatest classic and contemporary films from around the world. Criterion editions provide the highest technical qual- ity and include award-winning supplements. They are a natural partner in introduc- ing a new generation to cinema studies. We’ve created a series of clips that model the critical viewing skills that will help you become informed viewers. For this eleventh edition, we’ve added to our first set of clips, and we hope that these will continue to help you become critical, informed viewers. Filmmaking has undergone a continuous change since we launched this book in 1979. Digital technology has given many people access to filmmaking tools, and it has changed film distribution and exhibition. You can watch movies on your laptop or mobile phone, and films now arrive at theaters on hard drives rather than film reels. Because we focus on concepts, and because the techniques we study remain central to all sorts of moving-image media, much of what we studied in earlier editions remains valid. Still, we’ve expanded our discussion to include the creative choices opened up by digital cinema.
  • 63. Studying the arts isn’t only about learning facts and concepts either, although both are important. In addition, studying the arts broadens our tastes. In eleven editions of Film Art, we’ve made reference to many well-known films but also to many that you’ve probably never heard of. This is part of our plan. We want to show that the world of cinema teems with a great many unexpected pleasures, and we hope to get you curious. In surveying film art through such concepts as form, style, and genre, we aren’t trying to wrap movies in abstractions. We’re trying to show that there are principles that can shed light on a variety of films. We’d be happy if our ideas can help you to understand the films that you enjoy. And we hope that you’ll seek out films that will stimulate your mind, your feelings, and your imagination in unpredictable ways. For us, this is what education is all about. x bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 10 17/09/15 10:57 am Over the 40 years of preparing editions of Film Art: An Introduction we have incurred many debts to hundreds of individuals, and it’s impossible to thank them all in- dividually. We do, however, want to thank certain peo- ple for their long-term support. Our colleagues at the
  • 64. University of Wisconsin–Madison: Tino Balio, Maria Belodubrovskaya, Ben Brewster, No ̈l Carroll, Kelley Conway, Kaitlin Fyfe, Maxine Fleckner-Ducey, Erik Gunneson, Vance Kepley, Mike King, Lea Jacobs, J. J. Murphy, Peter Sengstock, and Ben Singer have helped us in many ways. Archivists have also been exceptionally cooperative, so we thank Eileen Bowser, Elaine Burrows, Mary Corliss, the late Susan Dalton, the late Jacques Ledoux, Jan-Christopher Horak, Patrick Loughney, Nicola Mazzanti, Jackie Morris, Charles Silver, Paolo Cherchi Usai, and especially Gabrielle Claes for giving us access to films and materials in their collections. Thanks as well to Michael Barker of Sony Pictures Classics, Dan Talbot and Jose ́ Lopez of New Yorker Films, and James Schamus, formerly of Focus Features. Thanks as well to Michael Barker of Sony Pictures Classics, Roni Lubliner of NBC–Universal, Peter McPartlin of Indian Paintbrush, and Matt Zoller Seitz of Rogerebert.com, who initiated our contact with Mr. McPartlin. Finally, we appreciate the kind cooperation of several filmmakers, including the late Les Blank, Bruce Conner, and Norman McLaren, as well as Ernie Gehr, Michael Snow, and Frederick Wiseman. As the new contributor to this edition, Jeff Smith would like to thank Eric Dienstfrey for his valuable advice about the history of film sound technologies, Michele Smith for her helpful recommendations of new film examples, and Megan Lacroix, personal consultant for all things Harry Potter. In preparing this edition, we’re grateful to Aaron Adair, Southeastern Oklahoma State University; Laura Bouza, Moorpark College; Domenic Bruni, University of Wisconsin–Oshkosh; Maria Elena de las Carreras, California State University–Northridge; Shawn Cheatham, University of South Florida–Tampa; John Claborn,
  • 65. University of Illinois–Champaign; Megan Condis, University of Illinois–Champaign; Steve Gilliland, West Virginia State University; Lucinda McNamara, Cape Fear Community College; James McWard, Johnson County Community College; Barbara Multer-Wellin, New York Film Academy; Deron Overpeck, Auburn University; Lisa Peterson, University of Central Florida–Orlando; Syd Slobodnik, University of Illinois–Champaign; Jared Saltzman, Bergen Community College; and Susan Tavernetti, Deanza College. We owe special thanks to Erik Gunneson, pro- ducer and director of our video supplements, and Petra Dominkova, whose eagle eye scanned for slips, misprints, and inconsistencies. Warm thanks as well go to Peter Becker and Kim Hendrickson of the Criterion Collection for their generosity in cooperating with us on the video extracts. As ever, we’re grateful to the McGraw-Hill Education publishing team, particularly Dawn Groundwater, Sarah Remington, Sandy Wille, Shawntel Schmitt, Susan Messer, and Carey Lange. David Bordwell Kristin Thompson Jeff Smith Acknowledgments FROM THE AUTHORS xi bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 11 17/09/15 10:57 am
  • 66. B R I E F C O N T E N T S PA R T O N E • Film Art and Filmmaking 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business 2 PA R T T W O • Film Form 2 The Significance of Film Form 50 3 Narrative Form 72 PA R T T H R E E • Film Style 4 The Shot: Mise-en-Scene 112 5 The Shot: Cinematography 159 6 The Relation of Shot to Shot: Editing 216 7 Sound in the Cinema 263 8 Summary: Style and Film Form 303 PA R T F O U R • Types of Films 9 Film Genres 326 10 Documentary, Experimental, and Animated Films 350 PA R T F I V E • Critical Analysis of Films 11 Film Criticism: Sample Analyses 400 PA R T S I X • Film Art and Film History
  • 67. 12 Historical Changes in Film Art: Conventions and Choices, Tradition and Trends 452 FILM ADAPTATIONS WRITING A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF A FILM ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR FILM ART Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1 xii bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 12 17/09/15 10:57 am C O N T E N T S Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? 3 Creative Decisions in Filmmaking 4 CREATIVE DECISIONS: To See into the Night in Collateral 5 Mechanics of the Movies 9 Illusion Machines 9 Making Films with Photographic Film 10 Filmmaking with Digital Media 13 Making the Movie: Film Production 17 The Scriptwriting and Funding Phase 18 The Preparation Phase 19 The Shooting Phase 20 The Assembly Phase 24
  • 68. A CLOSER LOOK: Some Terms and Roles in Film Production 25 Artistic Implications of the Production Process 29 Modes of Production 29 Large-Scale Production 30 Exploitation, Independent Production, and DIY 30 Small-Scale Production 31 Artistic Implications of Different Modes of Production 33 Bringing the Film to the Audience: Distribution and Exhibition 35 Distribution: The Center of Power 35 Exhibition: Theatrical and Nontheatrical 40 Ancillary Markets: Taking Movies beyond the Theater 42 Artistic Implications of Distribution and Exhibition 43 Screens and Sounds: Stylistic Opportunities and Challenges 45 SUMMARY 48 PA R T T W O • Film Form CHAPTER 2 The Significance of Film Form 50 The Concept of Form in Film 51 Form as Pattern 51 “Form” Versus “Content” 52 Formal Expectations 54 Conventions and Experience 55
  • 69. Form and Feeling 57 Form and Meaning 58 Evaluation: Good, Bad, or Indifferent? 61 Principles of Film Form 62 Function 62 Similarity and Repetition 63 A CLOSER LOOK: Creative Decisions: Picking Out Patterns 64 Difference and Variation 66 Development 67 Unity and Disunity 70 SUMMARY 70 PA R T O N E • Film Art and Filmmaking CHAPTER 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business 2 CHAPTER 3 Narrative Form 72 Principles of Narrative Form 72 What Is Narrative? 73 Telling the Story 74 CREATIVE DECISIONS: How Would You Tell the Story? 74 Plot and Story 75 Cause and Effect 77 Time 79
  • 70. A CLOSER LOOK: Playing Games with Story Time 82 Space 84 Openings, Closings, and Patterns of Development 85 Narration: The Flow of Story Information 87 Range of Story Information: Restricted or Unrestricted? 87 Depth of Story Information: Objective or Subjective? 90 The Narrator 93 xiii bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 13 17/09/15 10:57 am xiv CONTENTS A CLOSER LOOK: When the Lights Go Down, the Narration Starts 94 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Choices about Narration in Storytelling 96 The Classical Hollywood Cinema 97 Narrative Form in Citizen Kane 99 Overall Narrative Expectations in Citizen Kane 99 Plot and Story in Citizen Kane 100 Citizen Kane’s Causality 102 Time in Citizen Kane 103 Motivation in Citizen Kane 105 Citizen Kane’s Parallelism 106 Patterns of Plot Development in Citizen Kane 107
  • 71. Narration in Citizen Kane 108 SUMMARY 110 PA R T T H R E E • Film Style CHAPTER 4 The Shot: Mise-en-Scene 112 What Is Mise-en-Scene? 112 The Power of Mise-en-Scene 113 Components of Mise-en-Scene 115 Setting 115 Costume and Makeup 119 Lighting 124 Staging: Movement and Performance 131 A CLOSER LOOK: The Film Actor’s Toolkit 134 Putting It All Together: Mise-en-Scene in Space and Time 140 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mise-en-Scene in a Sequence from L’Avventura 141 Space 143 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mise-en-Scene in Two Shots from Day of Wrath 149 Time 150 Narrative Functions of Mise-en-Scene in Our Hospitality 154 SUMMARY 158 CHAPTER 5 The Shot: Cinematography 159
  • 72. The Photographic Image 159 The Range of Tonalities 159 Speed of Motion 164 A CLOSER LOOK: From Monsters to the Mundane: Computer-Generated Imagery in The Lord of the Rings 165 Perspective 168 Framing 177 A CLOSER LOOK: Virtual Perspective: 3D 179 Frame Dimensions and Shape 181 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Using Widescreen Framing 183 Onscreen and Offscreen Space 185 Camera Position: Angle, Level, Height, and Distance of Framing 187 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Camera Position in a Shot from The Social Network 191 The Mobile Frame 194 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Mobile Framing and Film Form in Grand Illusion and Wavelength 203 Duration of the Image: The Long Take 209 Real Time Is . . . What? 210 Functions of the Long Take 210 The Long Take and the Mobile Frame 212 SUMMARY 215
  • 73. What Is Editing? 217 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Why Cut? Four Shots from The Birds 218 Dimensions of Film Editing 219 Graphic Relations between Shot A and Shot B 219 Rhythmic Relations between Shot A and Shot B 224 Spatial Relations between Shot A and Shot B 225 Temporal Relations between Shot A and Shot B 226 Continuity Editing 230 Spatial Continuity: The 180° System 231 Continuity Editing in The Maltese Falcon 233 Continuity Editing: Some Fine Points 237 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Are You Looking at Me? Point-of-View Cutting in Rear Window 241 Crosscutting 244 CHAPTER 6 The Relation of Shot to Shot: Editing 216 bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 14 17/09/15 10:57 am A CLOSER LOOK: Intensified Continuity: Unstoppable, L. A. Confidential, and Contemporary Editing 246 Temporal Continuity: Order, Frequency, and Duration 251 Alternatives to Continuity Editing 252 Graphic and Rhythmic Possibilities 253
  • 74. Spatial and Temporal Discontinuity 254 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Discontinuity Editing in October 259 SUMMARY 262 CHAPTER 7 Sound in the Cinema 263 Sound Decisions 263 The Powers of Sound 264 Sound Shapes Our Understanding of Images 265 Guiding Our Eye and Mind 265 Fundamentals of Film Sound 267 Perceptual Properties 267 Recording, Altering, and Combining Sounds 270 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Editing Dialogue: To Overlap or Not to Overlap? 273 Musical Motifs in Breakfast at Tiffany’s 278 A CLOSER LOOK: Orchestrating Romance in Jules and Jim 280 Dimensions of Film Sound 281 Rhythm 281 Fidelity 284 Space 285 A CLOSER LOOK: Offscreen Sound and Optical Point of View: The Money Exchange in Jackie Brown 287 Sound Perspective 294 Time 296
  • 75. Conversation Piece 300 SUMMARY 302 CHAPTER 8 Summary: Style and Film Form 303 The Concept of Style 303 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Style and the Filmmaker 304 Decision Making: Techniques Working Together 305 Watching and Listening: Style and the Viewer 306 Analyzing Style 306 1. What Is the Film’s Overall Form? 307 2. What Are the Main Techniques Being Used? 307 3. What Patterns Are Formed by the Techniques? 307 4. What Functions Do the Techniques and Patterns Fulfill? 309 A CLOSER LOOK: Stylistic Synthesis in Shadow of a Doubt 310 Style in Citizen Kane 312 Mystery and the Penetration of Space 312 Style and Narration: Restriction and Objectivity 314 Style and Narration: Omniscience 316 Narrative Parallels: Settings 316 Parallels: Other Techniques 317 A Convincing Newsreel 319 Plot Time through Editing 319 A CLOSER LOOK: Gravity: Film Style in the Digital Age 322 SUMMARY 324 PA R T F O U R • Types of Films
  • 76. CHAPTER 9 Film Genres 326 Understanding Genre 327 Defining a Genre 328 Analyzing a Genre 329 Genre History 331 A CLOSER LOOK: Creative Decisions in a Contemporary Genre: The Crime Thriller as Subgenre 332 The Social Functions of Genres 335 Four Genres 337 The Western 337 The Horror Film 339 The Musical 342 The Sports Films 346 SUMMARY 349 CONTENTS xv bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 15 17/09/15 10:57 am CHAPTER 10 Documentary, Experimental, and Animated Films 350 Documentary 350 What Is a Documentary? 350 The Boundaries between Documentary and Fiction 352 Genres of Documentary 353 Form in Documentary Films 354 Categorical Form: Introduction 355
  • 77. CREATIVE DECISIONS: Engaging Viewers Using Categorical Form 356 An Example of Categorical Form: Gap-Toothed Women 357 Rhetorical Form: Introduction 362 An Example of Rhetorical Form: The River 364 Experimental Film 369 A Range of Technical Choices 370 Types of Form in Experimental Films 371 Abstract Form: Introduction 371 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Designing Form in an Abstract Film 371 An Example of Abstract Form: Ballet Mécanique 373 Associational Form: Introduction 378 An Example of Associational Form: Koyaanisqatsi 379 The Animated Film 387 Types of Traditional Animation 387 Types of Computer Animation 389 An Example of Traditional Animation: Duck Amuck 392 An Example of Experimental Animation: Dimensions of Dialogue 394 SUMMARY 398 PA R T F I V E • Critical Analysis of Films CHAPTER 11 Film Criticism: Sample Analyses 400 The Classical Narrative Cinema 401
  • 78. His Girl Friday 401 North by Northwest 404 Do The Right Thing 408 Moonrise Kingdom 413 Narrative Alternatives to Classical Filmmaking 418 Breathless (À bout de souffle) 418 Tokyo Story (Tokyo Monogatari) 423 Chungking Express (Chung Hing sam lam) 428 Documentary Form and Style 432 Man with a Movie Camera (Chelovek s kinoapparatom) 432 The Thin Blue Line 436 Form, Style, and Ideology 441 Meet Me in St. Louis 441 Raging Bull 446 PA R T S I X • Film Art and Film History CHAPTER 12 Historical Changes in Film Art: Conventions and Choices, Tradition and Trends 452 CREATIVE DECISIONS: Film Form and Style across History 453 Traditions and Movements in Film History 455
  • 79. Early Cinema (1893–1903) 456 Photography and Cinema 457 Edison vs. Lumière 457 Early Form and Style 458 Méliès, Magic, and Fictional Narrative 459 The Development of the Classical Hollywood Cinema (1908–1927) 460 Hollywood and the Studio System of Production 460 Classical Form and Style in Place 462 German Expressionism (1919–1926) 463 French Impressionism and Surrealism (1918–1930) 466 Impressionism 467 Surrealism 468 Soviet Montage (1924–1930) 470 Artists and the State 470 NEP Cinema 471 The Priority of Editing 472 The Movement Ends 472 The Classical Hollywood Cinema after the Coming of Sound (1926–1950) 474 Converting to Sound 474 Problems and
  • 80. Solution s 474 Studios, Genres, and Spectacle 475 Deep Focus and Narrative Innovations 476 Italian Neorealism (1942–1951) 477 Leaving the Studio 478 A New Model of Storytelling 478 The Movement’s End and Its Legacy 479 xvi CONTENTS bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 16 17/09/15 10:57 am The French New Wave (1959–1964) 479 Critics Become Moviemakers 480 A New Wave Style 480 Neorealism Recast 481 Into the Mainstream and Beyond 481
  • 81. The New Hollywood and Independent Filmmaking, 1970s–1980s 482 Blockbusters and Indie Pictures 483 The Rise of the Movie Brats 483 Other Paths 484 The 1980s and After 485 Hollywood and Independents, To Be Continued 487 Hong Kong Cinema, 1980s–1990s 488 A Local Tradition Goes Global 488 The New Generation: Two Schools 489 Story and Style 489 Legacy Overseas 491 FILM ADAPTATIONS WRITING A CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF A FILM ADDITIONAL RESOURCES FOR FILM ART Glossary G-1 Credits C-1 Index I-1 CONTENTS xvii
  • 82. bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 17 17/09/15 10:57 am bor34952_fm_i-xviii.indd 18 17/09/15 10:57 am P A R T 1 Film is a young medium. Painting, literature, dance, and theater have existed for thousands of years, but cinema was invented only a little more than a century ago. Yet in its comparatively short span, the newcomer has established itself as an energetic and powerful art. It’s this art that we explore in this book. The chapters that follow show how creative people have used moving pictures to give us experiences that we value. We examine the principles and techniques that give film its power to tell stories, express emotions, and convey ideas. But this art has some unusual features we should note from the
  • 83. start. More than most arts, film depends on complex technology. Without machines, movies wouldn’t move. In addi- tion, film art usually requires collabora- tion among many participants, people who follow well-proven work routines. Films are not only created but pro- duced. Just as important, they are firmly tied to their social and economic context. Films are distributed and exhibited for audiences, and money matters at every step. Chapter 1 surveys all these aspects of the filmmaking process. We examine the technology, the work practices, and the business side of cinema. All these components shape and sustain film as an art. Film Art and Filmmaking bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 1 16/09/15 4:17 PM
  • 84. C H A P T E R 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business Motion pictures are so much a part of our lives that it’s hard to imagine a world without them. We enjoy them in theaters, at home, in offices, in cars and buses, and on airplanes. We carry films with us in our laptops, tablets, and cellphones. Press a button, and a machine conjures up movies for your pleasure. Films communicate information and ideas, and they show us places and ways of life we might not otherwise know. Important as these benefits are, though, some- thing more is at stake. Films offer us ways of seeing and feeling that we find deeply gratifying. They take us through experiences. The experiences are often driven by stories centering on characters we come to care about, but a film might also develop an idea or explore visual qualities or sound textures. Such things don’t happen by accident. Films are designed to
  • 85. create experiences for viewers. To gain an understanding of film as an art, we should ask why a film is designed the way it is. When a scene frightens or excites us, when an ending makes us laugh or cry, we can ask how the filmmakers have achieved those effects. It helps to imagine that we’re filmmakers, too. Throughout this book, we’ll be asking you to put yourself in the filmmaker’s shoes. This shouldn’t be a great stretch. You’ve taken still photos with a camera or a mobile phone. Very likely you’ve made some videos, perhaps just to record a moment in your life—a party, a wedding, your cat creeping into a paper bag. And central to filmmaking is the act of choice. You may not have realized it at the moment, but every time you framed a shot, shifted your position, told people not to blink, or tried to keep up with a dog chasing a Frisbee, you were making choices.
  • 86. You might take the next step and make a more ambitious, more controlled film. You might compile clips into a YouTube video, or document your friend’s musical performance. Again, at every stage you make design decisions, based on how you think this image or that sound will affect your viewers’ experience. What if you start your music video with a black screen that gradually brightens as the music fades in? That will have a different effect than starting it with a sudden cut to a bright screen and a blast of music. At each instant, the filmmaker can’t avoid making creative decisions about how viewers will respond. Every moviemaker is also a movie viewer, and the choices are considered from the standpoint of the end user. Filmmakers constantly ask them- selves: If I do this, as opposed to that, how will viewer s react? The menu of filmmaking choices has developed over time. Late in the 19th century, moving pictures emerged as a public amusement. They
  • 87. succeeded because they spoke to the imaginative needs of a broad-based audience. All the traditions bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 2 16/09/15 4:17 PM Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? 3 that emerged—telling fictional stories, recording actual events, animating objects or drawings, experimenting with pure form—aimed to give viewers experiences they couldn’t get from other media. Men and women discovered that they could use cinema to shape those experiences in various ways. Suppose we center the actors so they command the frame space? Suppose we cut up a scene into shots taken from several angles? Suppose we move the camera to follow the actors? Learning from one another, testing and refining new choices, filmmakers developed skills that became the basis of the art form we have today.
  • 88. Thinking like a filmmaker is all very well, you might say, i f you want a career in the business. What if you just want to enjoy movies? We think that you can appreciate films more fully if you’re aware of how creative choices shape your experience. You’ve probably looked at some making-of bonuses on DVD versions of films you love, and some of those supplements have increased your enjoyment. We enhance our appreciation of The Social Network or Inception when we know something of the filmmakers’ behind-the-scenes discussion of character motivation and specific line readings. We can always get more out of the films we see, and thinking about the filmmakers’ choices helps us to understand why we respond as we do. This is why we start our survey of film art by looking at the process of film production. Here we can see, in very tangible ways, the sorts of options available to
  • 89. people working in this medium. In every chapter that follows, we invoke what film artists have said about the ways they’ve chosen to solve creative problems. Throughout this book, we focus on the two basic areas of choice and control in the art of film: form and style. Form is the overall patterning of a film, the ways its parts work together to create specific effects (Chapters 2 and 3). Style involves the film’s use of cinematic techniques. Those techniques fall into four categories: mise-en-scene, or the arrangement of people, places, and objects to be filmed (Chapter 4); cinematography, the use of cameras and other machines to record images and sounds (Chapter 5); editing, the piecing together of individual shots (Chapter 6); and sound, the voices, effects, and music that blend on a film’s audio track (Chapter 7). After examining the various techniques, Chapter 8 integrates them in an overview of film style.
  • 90. In later chapters, we discuss how form and style differ among genres and other types of films (Chapters 9–10). We consider how we can analyze films critically (Chapter 11) and how film form and style have changed across history, offering filmmakers different sets of creative choices (Chapter 12). In all, we’ll see how through choice and control, film artists create movies that entertain us, inform us, and engage our imaginations. Art vs. Entertainment? Art vs. Business? The term “art” might put some readers off. If cinema originated as a mass medium, should we even use the word? Are Hollywood directors “artists”? Some people would say that the blockbusters playing at the multiplex are merely “entertain- ment,” but films for a narrower public—perhaps independent films, or foreign- language fare, or experimental works—are true art. Usually the art/entertainment split rests on a value judgment: Art is serious
  • 91. and worthy; entertainment is superficial. Yet things aren’t that simple. Many of the artistic resources of cinema were discovered by filmmakers working for the general public. During the 1910s and 1920s, for instance, many filmmakers who simply aimed to be entertaining pioneered new possibilities for film editing. As for the matter of value, it’s clear that popular traditions can foster art of high quality. Shakespeare and Dickens wrote for broad audiences. Much of the greatest 20th-century music, including jazz and the blues, was rooted in popular traditions. Cinema is an art because it offers filmmakers ways to design experiences bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 3 16/09/15 4:17 PM 4 CHAPTER 1 Film as Art: Creativity, Technology, and Business
  • 92. for viewers, and those experiences can be valuable regardless of their pedigree. Films for audiences both small and large belong to that very inclusive art we call film or cinema. Sometimes, too, people consider film art to be opposed to film as a business. This split is related to the issue of entertainment, since entertainment generally is sold to a mass audience. In most modern societies, however, no art floats free from economic ties. Novels good, bad, and indifferent are published because publishers and authors expect to sell them. Painters hope that collectors and museums will acquire their work. True, some artworks are funded through sub- sidy or private donations, but that process, too, involves the artists in financial transactions. Films are no different. Some movies are made in the hope that consumers will pay to see them. Others are funded by patronage (an
  • 93. investor or organization wants to see the film made) or public money. (France, for instance, generously subsidizes film projects.) Crowdfunding sites such as Kickstarter offer another alternative. You might make short videos for YouTube or Vimeo at little cost, but if you hope to make a feature-length digital movie, you face the problem of paying for it. If you can’t profit from your film, you may still hope that the project will lead to a job. The crucial point is that considerations of business don’t necessarily make the artist less creative or the project less worthwhile. Money can corrupt any activity, but it doesn’t have to. In Renaissance Italy, painters were commissioned by the Catholic Church to illustrate events from the Bible. Michelangelo and Leonardo da Vinci worked for hire, but we revere their artistry. In this book we won’t assume that film art precludes entertainment. We won’t
  • 94. take the opposite position either, claiming that only Hollywood mass-market mov- ies are worth our attention. Similarly, we don’t think that film art rises above com- mercial demands, but we also won’t assume that money rules everything. Any art form offers a vast range of creative possibilities. As an art, film offers experiences that viewers find worthwhile—diverting, provocative, puzzling, or rapturous. But how do films do that? To answer that ques- tion, let’s go back a step and ask: Where do movies come from? They come from three places. They come from the imagination and hard work of the filmmakers who create them. They come from a complex set of machines that capture and transform images and sounds. And they come from companies or individuals who pay for the filmmakers and the technology. This chapter examines the artistic, technological, and business sides of how films come into being.
  • 95. Creative Decisions in Filmmaking In Day for Night, French filmmaker François Truffaut plays a director making a movie called Meet Pamela. Crew members bring set designs, wigs, cars, and prop pistols to him, and we hear his voice telling us his thoughts: “What is a director? A director is someone who is asked questions about everything.” Making a film can be seen as a long process of decision making, not just by the director but by all the specialists who work on the production team. Screenwriters, producers, directors, performers, and technicians are constantly solving problems and making choices. A great many of those decisions affect what we see and hear on the screen. There are business choices about the budget, marketing, distribution, and payments. Connected to those choices are the artistic ones. What lighting will enhance the atmosphere of a love scene? Given the kind of story being told, would it be better to let the audience know what the central character is thinking or to keep
  • 96. her enigmatic? When a scene opens, what is the most economical way of letting the audience identify the time and place? We can see how decisions shape the process by looking in more detail at a single production. CONNECT TO THE BLOG www.davidbordwell.net/blog We examine an unusual problem and a director’s unusual solution in “Problems, problems, Wyler’s workaround.” bor34952_ch01_001-048.indd 4 16/09/15 4:17 PM Creative Decisions in Filmmaking 5 CREATIVE DECISIONS To See into the Night in Collateral Michael Mann’s Collateral, released in 2004, is a visually striking psychological
  • 97. thriller set in Los Angeles in a single night. The mysterious Vincent (Tom Cruise) hires a cab driver, Max (Jamie Foxx), to drive him to several appointments. When Max learns that Vincent is a hired killer, he struggles to break their bargain and escape. But Vincent forces him to carry on as a getaway driver. In the course of the evening, the two men spar verbally and move toward a climactic chase and confrontation. Mann and his crew made thousands of decisions during the making of Collateral. Here we look at five important choices: one that influenced the film’s form and one each for our four categories of mise-en-scene, cinematography, edit- ing, and sound. Several of these decisions involved new technologies that became standard production tools. Scriptwriter Stuart Beattie originally set Collateral in New York City. In the screenplay, Max was a loser, hiding from the world in his cab and getting little
  • 98. out of life. Vincent was to goad him about his failures until Max had finally had enough and stood up to him. Once Mann came on board as director, he altered the plot in several ways. The setting became Los Angeles. Max became less a loser and more a laid-back, intelligent man content to observe the world from behind a steering wheel, endlessly delaying his plans to start his own limousine service. This more appealing Max becomes our point-of-view figure for most of the film. For example, we don’t see the first murder but stay with Max in the cab until the shocking moment when a body hurtles down onto his cab roof. The story largely consists of Max’s conflict with Vincent, so Mann’s decision to change Max’s traits altered their confrontations as well. In the finished film, moments of reluctant mutual respect and even hints of friendship complicate the men’s relationship. Such decisions as these reshaped the film’s overall narrative form. The switch to Los Angeles profoundly affected the film’s style.